PHD Thesis G A Chang

SEISMIC ENERGYBASEDDAMAGE ANALYSIS OF
BRIDGE COLUMNS
by
Gilberto Axel Chang
Advisor
Dr. JohnB. Mander
A dissertationsubmittedto the
Faculty of the GraduateSchool of the
StateUniversitYof New York
in partial fulfillment of the requirementsfor the degreeof
Doctor of PhilosoPhY
July 1993
SUNY.BUFFALO
c R A D U A T ES C H O O LM U L T T - p U F p o s E
R E P O R T( F O R MM . )
Inrlrucdonr:
Number1 for ALLdegreestudentsplur oneof thefollowing:
Crcmplete
Number2lor Ph.D.,
Ed.D.,
or Master's
withThesis.
Number3 for Master's
withComprehensive
Examination.
Number4 for Master'swithpaperor project
1. Dapartmcnlal
rcquiremant!
Grlberto
This is to certitythat
Axel
Cha
096-7 4-37 34
(nameot studen0
{socials6curityf,)
has completedall requirements

establishedby the Departmente1
civil
Engrineering
for the degree o( M,*. ) ftrn.f;+)C.l*l+lvt*rcLl
(PAD.
o,asJ-{eaa)
)-{+aM+_{M-exM.l.}pJ
8- r-35
Dr . l4rchael P. Gaus
(&aracfi
or Oirectorof GraduateStudies{tVDe)
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Signature
/ Date
dircertailon
Julv 29, 1993
Thisis to certifythaton
(date)
(nsmeot 3tudentl
successtullydefended $is) {fer}{thesie) (dissertatign) enriiled

sErsrurc ENERGy,l-rro
DAI.{AGE
o*oJJ.
oF BRTDGEcoLUr"lNS
which has been examined in content and form and deemed acceptrablein partial fulfiltment
ol the
requirementsforthedegreeof
(u n)
D e p a r t m e n to 1
Civil
)(ph.D.){fv+#6{ftffiM*f1jbySre
Engineering
MaiorProfessor
EnsllJt?
Member
Committee
b-r-j
(-'
type
Member
Committee
Dr.
Andrei
M.
Reinhorn
lc
\;,J-'.
tYP
CommitieeMember
typo
Member(OutsideDepartment)
Committee
!r9natut
Dr. Mrchael P. Gaus

-lrt4uwor
Director ol GrsduaroStudis (typ)
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Signeturo/Oaie
Abstract
This study is concernedwith the computationalmodeling of energy absorption

(fatigue) capacit),of reinforcedconcretebridge columnsby using a cyclic dynamic Fiber
Element computationalmodel. The results are used with a smooth hysteretic rule to
generateseismicenergy demand. By comparingthe ratio of energy demandto capacity,
inferencesof column damageabilityor fatiguerosistanceare made"
The completeanalysismethodologyfor bridge columnsis developedstartingfrom
basic principles. The hystereticbehaviorof steelreinforcementis dealt with in detailed:
stability, degradationand consistencyof cyclic behavior is explained. An energy based
universally applicablelow cycle fatigue model for steelis proposed. A hystereticmodel
for confined and unconfined concretesubjectedto both tension or compressioncyclic
loading is developed,which is also capableof simulatinggradualcrack closure. A Cyclic
Inelastic Stnrt-Tie (CIST) model is developed,in which the comprehensiveconcrete
model proved to be suitable. The CIST model is capable of assessinginelastic shear
deformations with high accuracy,within the context of a Fiber Element (FE) program. A
parabolic fiber element with parabolic stressfunction element for uniaxial flexure is
developed, as well as a rectangular fiber element with a quadratic interpolation function
suitablefor biaxial flexure.
A smoothrule-basedmacro model for the simulationof the hystereticbehavior of
reinforcedconcreteelementsis developed.The model is capableof accuratelysimulating
cyclic behavior when compared with actual experimental data, through use of an
automated system identification procedure which proved to be very effective in finding
the model parametersto best approximatemember behavior. The macro model was
oalibratedto simulatethe behaviorof a full size bridge pier and then implementedinto a
SDOF non-lineardynamic analysisprogramto generateinelasticresponsespecffa.
In addition to the usual ductility-basedinelasticspecffa,severaladditional energy
spectra are also generatedwhich include: viscous damping, hysteretic energy, cyclic
(fatigue) demand. Thesespectraare used as part of a rational methodologyin which the
cyclic demand on bridge columns is compared with the capacity predicted by
Fiber-Elementanalvsis.
Acknowledgments
to my advisorDr. JohnB. Mander,whosebrilliant

My profoundgratitudeis expressed
ideasand helpful commentsmadepossiblethe completionof this work. His competent
thought.
on my academic
a greatimpression
guidancehasstamped
The financialsupportof my home institutionUniversidadTecnol6gicade Panam6is
deeply appreciated. Specialthanks to Ing" H6ctor Montemayorfor his profound
commitmentand encouragement,to Ing. Luis Mufrozfor his sincerefriendshipand to
Ing. JorgeLuis Rodriguezfor his spiritualfellowship.
I am also thankful to LASPAU for its financialsupportand speciallyto Ms. Sonia
Wallenbergfor herpersonalinterest.
I wish to thank my friends at the Civil EngineeringDepartmentfor their friendship,
speciallyRoy Lobo"
My appreciationgoes to my family for their patienceand support,speciallyto my
parents-in-law
whoseloveandcarowerealwaysfelt.
This researchwas conductedat the departmentof Civil Engineeringat the State
of Dr. JohnB. Mander. Drs.
Universityof New York at Buffalounderthe supervision
Andrei M., Reinhornand Ian G. Buckle also servedon the committee,and Dr" Peter
Gergelyasoutsidereader.
at the StateUniversityof New
The NationalCenterfor EarthquakeEngineeringResearch
York at Buffalo providedfinancialsupportfor the work containedin Sections5 and 6,
is gratefullyacknowledged.
this assistance
To my belovedMarfa,for your love.
Tableof Gontents
1. Introduction
1.1 Background....
1.2 Integration
of Previous
Research
Work
1.3 SeismicEvaluation
Methodologies
1.4 Scopeof PresentInvestigation
..
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-5
2. Hysteretic
andDamage
Modeling
of Reinforced
Steel
Bars
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Monotonic
Stress-Strain
Curve
2.2.1The ElasticBranch
2.2.2TheYieldPlateau
2.2.3StrainHardened
Branch. .
2.3 The Menegotto-Pinto
Equation
2.3.1Computation
of Parameters
Q, f"nandR ...
2.3.2Menegotto-Pinto
Equation
Limiting
Case
2.4 CyclicProperties
of Reinforcing
Steel
2.4.1Envelope
(RulesI and2)
Branches
2.4.2Reversal
(Rules3 and4)
Branches
2.4.3Returning
(Rules5 and6) . . .
Branches
2.4.4FirstTransition
Branches
(Rules7 and8)
2.4.5SecondTransition
(Rules9 and 10)
Branches
2.4.6Strength
Degradation
2.5 Stress-Strain
ModelVerification
2.6 DamageModeling
2.7 DamageModellmplementation
andVerification
2 . 8S t r a i nR a t eE f f e c t s
2.9 Conclusions
2-1
2-1
2-1
2-2
2-2
2-2
24
2-7
2-10
2-10
2-12
2-15
2-23
2-24
2-26
2-26
2-36
. 241
...... 2-ST
. 2-Sg
3. ModelingStress-Strain
CyclicBehaviorof Concrete
3.1 lntroduction....
3.2 Reviewof PreviousWorkin Stress-Strain
Relations
for
Concrete
iii
3-1
3-2
3-2
Equation
Stress-Strain
Compression
3"2.1Monotonic
. " " " 3-12
of Elasticity
3.2.2 InitialModulus
3'14
Concrete
3.2.3 Strainat PeakStressfor Unconfined
Branchof the Monotonic. . . 3-16
of the Descending
3.2.4 Characteristic
Concrete
Curvefor Unconfined
Stress-strain
Curvefor Unconfined . . . 3-17
CompleteStress-Strain
3.3 Recommended
Concrete
.....3-22
3.4 ConfinemenC
t oof n c r e t e
..... 3-23
3 . 4 . 1C o n f i n e m eM
no
t dels
.. "... 3-29
Mechanism
3.4.2Confinement
.....3-29
3 . 4 . 2 .C
1 onfinemenC
t oifr c u l a r S e c t i o n s
. 3-30
of Rectangular
Sections
3.4.2.2Confinement
...3-32
3 . 4 . 3C o n f i n e m e n t E f f e c t o n S t r e. .n.g t h
...... 3-34
3 . 4 . 4C o n f i n e m e n t E f f e cDt ounc t i l i t y
. . . 3-35
Branch
Effecton the Descending
3.4.5 Confinement
....3-35
3.5 ConcreteinTension
...... 3-37
3.6 D y n a m iEc f f e c tosn C o n c r e tBee h a v i o.r. . .
. 3-39
Behavior
3 . 7 ModelingHysteretic
. . 3-39
Model
of a Hysteretic
3.7.1 BasicComponents
. . . 3-40
Within
3.7.2 A GeneralApproachto AssessingDegradation
Model
Hysteretic
PartialLoopingin a Rule-Based
.....341
ae
l versal
3 . 7 . 2 . 1F i r s t P a r t iR
3.7.2.2PartialReloading
",. 342
. 345
froma PartialReloading
3.7.2.3PartialUnloading
. 3-46
Modeling
Curvefor Mathematical
3.7.3 A SmoothTransition
. 3-49
Concrete. . . .
of Confinedand Unconfined
3.8 CyclicProperties
... 3-49
Envelope
Curve(Rules1 and5)
3.8.1Compression
.. 3-51
Curve(Rules2 and6)
3,8.2 TensionEnvelope
.. 3-52
andReloading
Curves
Unloading
3.8.3 Pre-Cracking
. 3-58
Curves
andReloading
Unloading
3.8.4 Post-Cracking
.. 3-59
Curves ...
Transition
3.8.5Pre-Cracking
...... 31
i nrga n s i t i oCnu r v e
3 . 8 . 6P o s t - C r a c k T
.. ". ". 34
3.9 ModelVerification
....34
3.10DamageAnalysis..
iv
3 . 1 1C o n c l u s i o n s
.....36
4. Damage
Modeling
of Reinforced
Concrete
Golumns
usingFiber-Element
Analysis
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Moment-Curvature
Analysis
for Uniaxial
Bending
Analysis
for BiaxialBending
4.4 Force-Displacement
Analysis. . .
4.4.1ElasticFlexural
Deformation
4"4.2PlasticFlexural
Deformation
4.4.3ElasticShearDeformation
....
4.4.4Inelastic
ShearDeformation
4.4.4.1Proposed
CyclicInelastic
(CIST)Modelfor
Strut-Tie
ShearDeformations
..
4.4.4.2CrackInclination
Angle
4.5 Validation
of Fiber-Element
Model
..
4.6 Conclusions
......
4-1
4-1
4-9
4-16
4-16
4-17
4-18
4-20
4-21
4-30
4-92
4-3S
5. SmoothAsymmetric
Degrading
Hysteretic
Modelwith
Parameterldentification
5.1 Introduction
5.2 A SmoothCurveto Fit TwoTangents
5.2.1The Menegotto-Pinto
Equation
5.2.2Computation
of Parameters
Q, f"nandR
5.3 Description
of SmoothHysteretic
Model
5.3.1Monotonic
Envelope
Curves
5.3.2ReverseCurves
5.3.3Transition
Curves
5.3.4ModelSummary
5.4 Parameter
ldentification
5.4.1Optimization
Method
5.4.2Scaling
5.4.3Constraining
the Parameters
...
5.4.4Initial
Estimate
5.4.5Orderof Parameter
ldentification
5-1
5-2
5-2
54
5-7
5-7
5-9
5-12
5-16
5-18
5-19
5-20
5-21
5-22
5-22
of SmoothModeland SystemldentificationMethod
5.5Verification
5.6Conclusions
5-23
5-24
EnergyDEMAND
of Hysteretic
6. Assessment
6.1 lntroduction
of a SDOFSystem
6.2 ElasticResponse
of a SDOFSystem
Response
6.3 Inelastic
6.4 InelasticResponseSpectra
Ductility
Spectra
6.4.1Displacement
6.4.2EnergyBasedSpectra
andResults
6.5 lmplementation
Example
6.6An lllustrative
6.7Conclusions
6-1
6-1
6-4
6-7
6-7
6-8
. . . 6-11
. 6-14
. 6-15
Conclusions
andRecommendations
7. Summary,
7 . 1S u m m a r .y.
..
7"2SomeSpecific
Conclusions
FutureResearch
....
7.3 Recommendationsfor
AppendixA. References
VI
7-1
7-2
" 74
Listof Symbols
= sffessblock depth
A",
: ateaof the confinedcore concretemeasuredto the centerlineof the perimeter

hoop
Aror,
: areaof bound concreteunder compression
A"
: effectively confinedareafor rectangularsection
As
: grosssectionarea
Aq
: sheararea
Au
: total areaof hoop steel
Au
: areaof the shearreinforcement
A,
: areaof longitudinalsteel
Arn
: hoop crosssectionalarea
A,,
: total longitudinalsteelarea
Ar,
: total areaof transversereinforcementparallel to the x axis
lsr
: total areaof transversereinforcementparallel to the y axis
: breadth of the section
: fatigue strengthexponent
b,
: concretecore dimensionin the x direction
: distancefrom where e-
: damping coefficient
: fatigue ductility exponent
: total damageaccumulated
: column diameter
dt
: bar diameterof steel
d"
: concretecore dimensionin the y direction
Di
: damagefor one cycle of a given amplitudeAe
d,
: diameter of circular or spiral hoops
is measuredto the neutral axis
v11
f,ep
: energyabsorbedin a elastic-perfectlyplasticloop
Ey
: final slope
E1,
: hystereticenergyabsorbed
E1
: absolutekinetic energy
Eo
: tangentmodulusof elasticityat the initial point for a softenedcurve
: averagestrain
E2
: viscousdampingenergy
8,,
: tangentmodulus at the returning point
E,
: sffain energy
E,
: elasticmodulusof elasticityfor steel
,E.""
: secantmodulus
Et
: tangent Modulus
Et
: total energy at a given time
8,"
: tangentialYoung'sModulus of concrete
: compressiveforce in concretestrut
"
Ft
: tensileforcesin concretetie
F,
: force on steelhoop
ft
: strain under the confining fluid pressure
: form factor
f,
: stressamplitude
f,
: concretestress
f!,
: confined concretestrength
f!
: unconfined concretestrength
fo
= damping force
fro
: unbalancedforce
ft
: final stressfor a softenedcurve
f,
: inertia force
fl
: confining sffess
fu
: confining sffessin the x direction
vlll
-f,,
: confining stressin the y directron
fn.n
: new sffessat the unloadingstrain
f"
: stressat initial point for softenedcurve
fr"
: sffessat the returning Point
f,,
: steel stress
ft
: force in the spring
frn
: sffessin the hoop
f,,
: ultimate (maximum) stress
rt
: concretetension strength
f,,
: unloadingstress
f,
: steel yield stress
fyn
= yield sffessof transversereinforcement
fy,
: yield strengthof the ffansversehoop steel
: total section depth
: time increment
h"
: effective height of the structure
: height of the strip j
: strength enhancementratio
K,"
: elasticshearstiffrress
K,"
= shearstiffinessoutsidethe hinged region
: stiffrtess
k"
: confinement effectivenesscoefficient
k"
: effective stifftess at time stepn
: member length to the point of conffaflexure center of the column
Lp
: equivalentplastichinge length
Lo"
: length of plastic curvature
Lo,
: length of
leld penetration
Lr,
: cracked length
Lo,
: yielded zone length

lx
: moment aboutthe centroid
Mj
: moment at first yielding
Mô
: maximum moment
Mr,
: cracking moment
= total mass
N"
: effective or equivalentnumberof equi-amplitudecycles
Ny
: number of cyclesto failure
P,
: appliedaxial load
: post yielding sloperatio
: radius of curvafureparameter
: symmetry parameter
R",
: critical value of R
Rmo
: critical value of R for the M-P equation
R,,
- force reduction factor
: centerto centerhoop spacing
s/
: clear longitudinalspacingbetweenspiralsin which arching action of the

concretedevelops
,So
: spectralacceleration
S7
: spectraldisplacement
Su
= pseudovelocity
: period of the structure
: time
To
: period that separates"long" and "medium" period behavior
tr
: displacementof the systemrespectto the ground (deformation)
= shearforce
V,
: shearstrengthof concrete
V,
: shearstrengthofsteel
: specificweight
W,n
: modulus of toughnessof the hoop steel
xs
: systemdisplacement
: grounddisplacement
Xp
: plasticdisplacement
t
i-s
: systemvelocity
: grounddisplacement
: systemacceleration
is
= groundacceleration
vsp
: non-dimensional
spallingstrain
Xv
: leld displacement
X,
y(x)
: maximuminelasticdisplacement
response
: non-dimensional
stressfunction
z(x)
= non-dimensional
tangentmodulusfunction
: fraction of shearforce which is addedto the axial load
: sheardistortion
: strain at any fiber
eo
: strain at the centroid
: total deformation
L,
: elastic flexure deformation
Lp
: plastic flexure deformation
Lr"
: elasticsheardeformation
[sp
: inelastic sheardeformation
Ao
: strain amplitude
Ay
= yield displacement
2eo
: total strain range amplirude
et,
: strain at peak sffessfor confinedconcrete
et"
: unconfined concretestrain at peak stress
eca
: ultimate compressionstrain
E1
: strain at final point for a softenedcurve
.r
xi
Etr^
: location of the tensionenvelopebranch
eo
= strain at initial point for softenedcurve
Ei^
: location of the compressionenvelopebranch
ep
: plastic strainamplitude
Ept
Er,
: strainat the returningpoint to the envelopecurve
es
= steelstrain
tsfr
: strain hardening strain
sro
: standarddeviationof the shain history response
E,u
: strain at ultimate sffess
Eun
: unloading strain from an envelopecurve
etf
: fatigue ductility coefficient
ey
Eo"
= averagelongitudinal strain on the concretestruts
ev
: sfain on the transversehoops
Q,
: magnitude of plastic curvature
0u
: ultimate curvafure
Qy
: leld curvature
: ductility
Plasticstrain
leld strain
LLef
: effective or equivalentequi-amplitudecycle ductility
: damping ratio
9""
: volumeffic ratio of the longitudinalsteelin the confinedcore
p,
= ratio of hoop reinforcementto volume of concretecore measuredto outsideof

the hoops
P,n
= volumetric ratio of transversehoops
P'
: Ar'/sd"
py
= Arrlsb"
6tf
: fatigue strengthcoefficient
: angleof inclination of cracksrespectto the longitudinalaxis

xll
0p
: plasticrotation
@4
: dampedfrequency
Cr)'1
= naturalangularfrequency
xlll
Listof Figures
Section1
F i g .1 - 1S u m m a r y oRf e s e a r cShi g n i f i c a n c et hoifs S t u diyn t h e C o n t e xotf a
MethooologY
SeismicEvaluation
......1-4
Section2
......." 2-3
uation
i nqt o
F i g . 2 - 1 T hM
e e n e g o t t o - PE
......... 2-4
andEndingProperties
theSameStarting
CurvesHaving
Fig.2-2Different
2-1'l
Envelope
Curves
Fig.2-3TensionandCompression
. . . . 2-15
on the Equation
of theReversal
Fig.2-4Effectof the StrainAmplitude
Parameters
2-16
FromYieldPlateau
Fig.2-5 Reversal
2-16
Branch
Unloading
of the Reversal
Fig.2-6 Definition
andR
2-17
of Looponthe InitialModulus
Fig.2-7 Effectof the StrainAmplitude
parameter
Bars(fy= Sgksi)(Loading). . .
for Reinforcing
andR
2-18
of Loopon the lnitialModulus
Fig.2-8 Effectof the StrainAmplitude
parameter
Bars(fy = 53 ksi)(Unloading)
for Reinforcing
2-19
of Loopon the InitialModulusandR
Fig.2-9 Effectof theStrainAmplitude
parameter
Bars(fy= 123ksi)(Loading)
for HighStrength
2-20
of Loopon the InitialModulusandR
Fig.2-10Effectof theStrainAmplitude
parameterfor
Bars(fy= 123ksi)(Unloading)
HighStrength
SteelBars . . . . 2-21
Loopof Reinforcing
to a Loading
Fig.2-11Fittingof M-PEquation
=
(fY 53 ksi) ..
Steel
2-21
to an Unloading
Loopof Reinforcing
=
(fy
53
ksi)
Bars
Loopof HighStrength
Steel
2-22
to a Loading
Bars(fY= 123ksi)
Loopof HighStrength
2-22
to an Unloading
SteelBars(tY= 'tZgksi) . .
2-23
of PartialReversals
Fig.2-15Sequence
2-25
Fig.2-16Flowof Rulesat EveryReversalandTargetStrain
2-27
andHighStrength
SteelBars
of Reinforcing
Fig.2-17Degradation
2-27
Experimental
Results....
Modelwith
of Degrading
Fig.2-18Comparison
2-28
on Steel
Simulation
andFracturePrediction
Fig.2-19StressDegradation
Bars
Specimen
6 ........
Experiment
by KentandPark(1973),
Fig.2-20Stress-Strain
Specimen
I ........
Experiment
9 ........
Specimen
Experiment
Fig.2-22Stress-strain
15 .......
Park(1973),
Specimen
ExperimentbyKentand
by KentandPark(1973),Specimen11
Experiment
by KentandPark(1973),Specimen17 . . .. . . .
Experiment
XiV
2-29
2-29
2-30
2-30
2-31
2'31
Experiment
by Ma,BerteroandPopov(1976),
1
Specimen
by Ma,BerteroandPopov(1976),
Experiment
S p e c i m e4n . . . .
(1991),SpecimenP2
by Panthaki
Experiment
(1991),Specimen
Experiment
by Panthaki
P3
(1991),Specimen
Experiment
by Panthaki
P'!6
(1991),Specimen
Experiment
by Panthaki
P19
(1991),Specimen
by Panthaki
Experiment
Rl
(1991),Specimen
Experiment
by Panthaki
R4
(1991),Specimen
Experiment
by Panthaki
R5 . . .
of Equivalent
StrainAmplitude
Fig.2-35Determination
Bar,Specimen
P18(Panthaki,
1991)
Fig.2-36HighStrength
Bar,Specimen
P10 .
Bar,Specimen
P13 .
Bar,Specimen
P12 .
Bar,Specimen
P4
Bar,Specimen
P7
Fig.2-4'lHighStrength
Bar,Specimen
P14 .
Bar,Specimen
P9
Bar,Specimens
P11,P2 andP3
Fig.2-45Reinforcing
Bar,Specimen
Rl
Fig.2-46Reinforcing
Bar,Specimen
R9
Fig.2-47Reinforcing
Bar,Specimen
R5
R11,R7 andR10
Fig.2-48Reinforcing
Bar,Specimens
P20,Low-High
Bar,Specimen
StepTest
P21,High-Low
Bar,Specimen
StepTest
Fig.2-51Incipient
FailurePrediction
2-32
2-32
2-33
2-33
2-34
2-34
2-35
2-35
2-36
2-40
2-42
2-43
2-44
2-45
2-46
2-47
2-48
2-49
2-50
2-51
2-52
2-53
2-54
2-55
2-56
2-57
Section3
of the Stress-Strain
Fig.3-1 Characteristics
Relationfor Concrete
. . . . 3-2
Fig.3-2Comparison
of Different
Stress-Strain
Equations
for Concrete
.. . ... 3-6
(
1
9
6
0
)
F i g .3 - 3E q u a t i oSnu g g e s t ebdyY o u n g
... ".,... 3-6
(
1
9
6
4
)
F i g .3 - 4E q u a t i oSnu g g e s t ebdy S a e n z
......... 3-7
(1973)
Fig.3-5Equation
by Popovics
...... ^ 3-7
Proposed
(1964)
Fig.3-6Equation
Suggested
by Saenz
3-10
(1968)
Fig.3-7Equation
Suggested
by Sargin
3-10
(1988)
Fig.3-8Equation
by Tsai
Proposed
3-11
Fig.3-9Comparison
of Different
Equations
for theSecantModulusof
3-20
Concrete
Fig.3-10Comparison
of DifferentEquations
for the Strainat PeakStress
3-20
Theoretical
Stress-Strain
Curvesfor Unconfined
Fig.3-11Proposed
Concrete
Fig.3-12Theoretical
Stress-Strain
CurvesSuggested
by CollinsandMitchell....
Parameters
for Unconfined
Concrete
Fig.3-13Tsai'sEquation
Stress-Strain
Curvesfor Confined
Concrete
FiE.3-14SomeProposed
Mechanism
for Circular
andRectangular
Cross
Fig.3-15Confinement
Sections
Strength
Ratio .
Fig.3-16Confined
Concrete
of Different
Modelsfor TriaxialConfinement
Fig.3-17Comparison
.....
Fig.3-18Characteristic
of the FallingBranchfor Confined
Concrete
Fig.3-19Definition
of FallingBranchfor Confined
Concrete
Fig.3-20Relationship
Between
Curvesin a Rule-Based
Model
Pointin a Complete
Fig.3-21TargetPointandReloading
Reversal
Fig.3-22Reloading
froma PartialUnloading
Fig.3-23Unloading
Fig.3-24A SmoothTransition
Curve
Fig.3-25TensionandCompression
Envelope
Curves
Fig.3-26CyclicCompression
Characteristics
of Concrete
Branch
Fig.3-27Complete
Unloading
Fig.3-28Complete
LoadingBranch
Fig.3-29LoadingandUnloading
CurvesafterCracking. . . .
Curvesfor TensionandCompression
Fig.3-30PartialUnloading
Fig.3-31Transition
Curves(BeforeCracking)
Fig.3-32Transition
Curves(AfterCracking). .
Fig.3-33Relationship
Amongthe ModelRules .
Fig.3-34Unconfined
CyclicCompression
Testby Sinha,GerstleandTulin
(1e64)
Fig.3-35Unconfined
CyclicCompression
Testby KarsanandJirsa(1969)
Fig.3-36Unconfined
CyclicCompression
Testby Okamoto(1976)
Fig.3-37Unconfined
CyclicCompression
Testby Okamoto(1976)
(1979)
Fig.3-38Unconfined
CyclicCompression
Testby Tanigawa
Fig.3-39CyclicTensionTestby Yankelevsky
(1987)
andReinhardt
Fig.3-40Confined
Concrete
CyclicTestby Manderet al. (1984).
Fig.3-41Confined
Concrete
CyclicTestby Manderet al. (1984)
Fig.3-42Comparison
of the Proposed
TensionBranchEquation
withother
Analytical
Equations
3-21
3-21
3-22
3-28
3-31
3-33
3-33
3-38
3-38
3-40
3-43
3-43
3-44
3-48
3-50
3-54
3-55
3-56
3-58
3-60
3-62
3-62
3-63
3-68
3-68
3-69
3-69
3-70
3-70
3-71
3-71
3-72
Chapter4
Fig.4-1 Definition
of GlobalandLocalCoordinates
Fig.4-2Definition
of Variables
on a FiberElement
Fig.4-3 Definition
for BiaxialBending
of Variables
XVI
. . . . 4-5
. . . . 4-7
4-10
Fig.4-4 ElementNodeNumbering.
on a Column
Fig.4-5 FlexuralDeformation
on a Column
Fig.4-6ShearDeformation
Modelfor ShearDeformations
.....
Strut-Tie
Fig.4-7Equivalent
andStrainDeformation
in the CyclicIneiastic
Strut-Tie
Fig.4-8 Equilibrium
ShearModel
of AverageLongitudinal
Strainon ShearConcrete
Strut
Fig.4-9 Definition
of theAnalytical
Stress-Strain
Relationship
withthe
Fig.4-10Comparison
Behavior
of PlainConcrete
fromAycardiet al. (1992)for
Experimental
Specimens
2 and4
FiberElementModelwithExperimental
Fig.4-11Comparison
of Propossed
4, P = 0.10fc Ag . . "
ResultsfromAycardiet al. (1992)Specimen
FiberElementModelwithExperimental
of Proposed
Fig.4-12Comparison
2, P = 0.30fc Ag . " .
ResultsfromAycardiet al. (1992)Specimen
FiberElement
Analysis
withExperimental
of Proposed
Fig.4-13Comparison
fromManderet al. (1984)ColumnA
andAnalyticalResults
of LowCycleFatigueFracture
of Longitudinal
Barsfor
Fig.4-14Prediction
C o l u mAn . . . .
of Proposed
FiberElement
Analysis
withExperimental
Fig.4-15Comparison
fromManderet al. (1984)ColumnC . . . .
andAnalyticalResults
FiberElementAnalysis
withExperimental
Fig.4-16Comparison
of Proposed
andAnalyticalResultsfromManderet al. (1984)ColumnD
Fig.4-17Analytical
Simulation
of a FullSizeShearCriticalBridgePier
Testedby Manderet al. (1993)
4-13
4-'16
4-22
4-22
4-23
4-24
4-33
4-37
4-38
4-39
4-40
4-41
4-42
4-43
Chapter5
........5-3
Fig.5-1
TheMenegotto-PintoEquation
Fig.5-2Computation
of Parameters
forthe M-PEquation
., . . 5-4
Fig.5-3Monotonic
Envelope
Curves
... . 5-8
Fig.5-4ReverseLoadingCurve
5-10
Curve
Fig.5-5ReverseUnloading
5-13
Fig.5-6Transition
Curves
5-14
Fig.5-7LogicalBranching
Diagram
5-17
Fig.5-8Comparison
of MacroModelSimulations
Generated
Through(a)
5-28
Simulation
Experimental
Data,(c) FiberElementExperiment
Fig.5-9MacroModelSimulation
of a FullSizeBridgePierBasedon Actual
5-29
Experimental
Data
Fig.5-10Simulation
of a FullSizeBridgePierBased
of the CyclicBehavior
5-30
on a FiberElementSimulated
Experiment
of a 113ScaleColumnBasedon
5-31
Experimental
Data
of a 113ScaleColumnBasedon Fiber
5-32
ModelSimulated
Experiment
XVII
of a BridgeHollowColumnBasedon Fiber . . . . 5-33

ExPeriment
ElementSimulated
Chapter6
...
Evaluation
Methodology
. . ....... 6-2
ThreeLevelSeismic
Fig.6-1Proposed
System
. "... ^ 6-6
Single-Degree-Of-Freedom
Fig.6-2Equivalent
Factor
. ... . . . 6-6
Fig.6-3aForceCorrection
Integration
. . . .. " 6-6
Fig.6-3bStepBy-Step
Parameter
6-10
Fig.6-4Symmetry
6-12
Fig.6-5 InputGroundMotionsUsedfor SpectralAnalysis
andLowCycleFatigueDemandSpectrafor El
6-16
Fig.6-6 Energy,Ductility
ViscousDamping
RatioandPGA = 0.348g
Centro(1940)N-S,with5olo
6-18
Fig.6-7 Energy,DuclilityandLowCycleFatigueDemandSpectrafor
) , i t h5 %V i s c o uDs a m p i nR
g a t i oa n dP G A = 1 . 1 7g . . . . .
P a c o i m(a1 9 7 1 w
andLowCycleFatigueDemandSpectrafor San
6-20
(1986),
with5olo
Viscous
Damping
RatioandPGA =0.695g ....
Salvador
andLowCycleFatigueDemandSpectrafor Taft
6-22
(1952)N21E,with5%ViscousDamping
andLowCycleFatigueDemandSpectrafor
Fig.6-10Energy,Ductility
6-24
MexicoCity(1985),with5%ViscousDamping
6-26
o i s c o u s D a m pR
i nagt i o a n P
d GA= 1.09 ......
S i n u s o i dIanlp u t , w i t5ho lV
andLowCycleFatigueDemandSpectrafor El
6-28
RatioandPGA = 0.348g.
Centro(1940)N-S,with5% ViscousDamping
(Elasto-Perfectly
PlasticModel)
6-30
(1971),
Viscous
Damping
Pacoima
with5olo
(Elasto-Perfectly
PlasticModel)
andLowCycleFatigueDemandSpectrafor San
6-32
RatioandPGA =0.695g.
Salvador(1986),
with5%ViscousDamping
(Elasto-Perfectly
PlasticModel)
andLowCycleFatigueDemandSpectrafor Taft
6-34
(1952)N21E,with5olo
ViscousDamping
(Elasto-Perfectly
PlasticModel)
6-36
with5olo
ViscousDampingRatioandPGA = 0.171g.
MexicoCity(1985),
(Elasto-Perfectly
PlasticModel)
6-38
lnput,with5%ViscousDamping
RatioandPGA = 1.0g"
Sinusoidal
(Elasto-Perfectly
PlasticModel)
Section7
Significance
of thisStudyin theContext
of a
Fig.7-1Summary
of Research
Methodology
SeismicEvaluation
XVIII
...... 7-6
Section1
Introduction
1.1 Background
In order to designor analyzethe behaviorof bridge substructures
(piles and
columnsof piers)thatmay be eitherreinforced,or fully or partiallyprestressed
concrete,
it is essentialthat analyticalmodels be developedthat accuratelyreflect the true
non-lineardynamic cyclic loading behaviorof those members. Current analytical
modelingtechniquesof structuralelementuse eithera macromodelingapproach(e.g.
DRAIN, KanaanandPowell,1973;AllahabadiandPowell,1988)or micro finite element
approach(e.g.ANSYS,Kohnke,1983). It is considered
that a coarsemacroapproachin
which lumpedplasticitywithin elementsis usedto predictresponse
behavior,in many
instances,
is too crudewhenlookingat detailedbehaviorof joints andplastichinges. On
the otherhand,sophisticated
finiteelementmodelsmayrequirea meshrepresentation
that
is too fine, thus prohibitingthe analysisof large or evenmoderatesize bridges. It is
consideredthat the most appropriatecompromiseis to use a combinationof the two.
Fiber elementscanbe usedfor this purpose.Fiber elementscan be incorporated
into a
non-linear time-history structural analysis computer program using two different
approaches:
directfiber modeling,or indirectfiber modeling.The first hasrecentlybeen
incorporated
into the latestversionof DRAIN-2DX,but is in a relativelycrudeform and
still may require somefurther refinement,but the approachshowsgreat promise. The
secondapproachis the subjectof this studyfor the purposeof usewith programssuchas
IDARC (Parket al., 1987)(or DRAIN-2DX). A fiber modelrepresentation
caneapture
detailsof featuressuchas the critical concreteand steelstrainsas part of the analysis
t-1
processthrough the direct integrationof stress-strain

response.Most existing time-history
computerprogramsfocus on determiningtheinelasticdemandscausedby a given seismic
excitation. As part of a fiber elementanalysisof componentsthe inelastic capacity of
members can also be determinedas part of a preprocessing/ post-processing analysis.
Further, as part of a post-processinganalysis,the damagesustainedby componentsand
subassemblagescan be determined as the ratio of demand versus capacity. This
dissertationfocuses on this damageabilityconcept as part of the modeling for bridge
substructures.
Research
Work
1.2 Integration
of Previous
Considerablework has beenundertakenby Mander, Priestleyand Park (198a) in
developingmoment'curvatureand force-deformationmodels basedon a fiber approach,
relationsfor reinforcedconcretemembers(Mander et al.,
directly integratingstress-strain
1988a, 1988b). Dynamic reversed cyclic loading of members is accounted for and
inelastic buckling of longitudinal reinforcement,transversehoop fracture, and concrete
crushing modes of failure are determinedfrom energy considerations. Good agreement
has been demonstratedwhen tested against a variety of physical model experimental
results. This fundamentalwork was followed by Zahn et al. (1990) who developed
energy-baseddesignchartsfor bridge pier with ductile detailing.
The need for sophisticated tools to analyze sffuctures subjected to earthquake
loadings has produceda great deal of research. Much of this researchis the coordinated
effort of many researchersthat share a common purpose, to gain insight into this very
complex problem. The complexity of the problem underlies both the randomnessof
earthquakemotions and the nonlinearhystereticbehavior of structural components. At
the end, the goal is to develop rational methods of design, that will consider both the
demand that the ground motion will impose on the structure and the capacity of the
sffucture to meet thoserequirements.
The demand on a sffucture can be of two types: displacementductility demand and
energy demand. The former dictates bearing set width requirementsand secondaryP-A
| -^/.
load effects, while the latter leads to failure of the constituent materials. steel and
concrete,through low cycle fatigue. It will subsequentlybe shown that the two are also
interrelated. Much of the researcheffort had been concentratedon the ductility demand,
although energy demandresearchis gaining popularity among researchers. The capacity
of structuralelementsis, of course,a fundamentalproblem.
A computer program to simulate the cyclic behavior of reinforced concrete is
presentedin this study. Every major aspectof its developmentis presented. Advanced
models for concreteand steel are proposed,with improvementsover previous models.
Mathematicalmodels for the descriptionof damagein steelelementsare incorporated. A
uniaxial moment-curvatureand force-deformationmicro model is presentedas well as a
biaxial moment-curvaturefiber elementmodel. A general pulpose macro model with
system identification for uniaxial moment-curvature or force deformation was
implemented.
These programscan be inte$ated as part of an analysismethodology outlined in
F i g "1 - 1 .
1.3 SeismicEvaluation
Methodologies
Herein a threelevel seismicevaluationmethodologyis proposed. The first is
basedon well-knownconcepts
of ductilityanduseslimit analysistechniques
from which
capacity/demand
(C/D) ratiosare calculatedfor structuralstrengthand ductility. This is
calledfirst-orderapproachas it doesnot concernitself with cyclic loadingeffectsand is
similar to the procedures
given in ATC 6-2. The secondis new approachadvanced
herein,is basedon fatigueor damageconceptsand is concernedwith comparingenergy
absorptioncapacitieswith seismicenergydemands. This is called a second-order
approach,as it is morerefinedtaking into accountthe earthquakedurationand would be
usedwhen the resultsfrom a first-orderanalysisare in doubt. A third and more refined
analysislevel concerna multi-degreeof freedomsystemanalysis,in which rationally
implemented
hysteretic
performance
is used.
l- 3
SEISNtrCEVALUATION METHODOLOGY
Steptr.
StrengthDemand,C(d)
Step2"
StrengthCapacityC(c) (Limit Analysis)
C(ct
=
Step
3. r* =
ffi
t
Step4.I
Fa
;v
:''l
atr
!<
vE
lIf r,, > 1.5 STOPI
DuctilityDemandp(d)
Step5.1 DuctilityCapacityp(c) perATC 6-2

Step6.I rt = g?
[If ru 2 1.5 STOP]
$la1
ts
!ar
-a
p! .=
al
!,
>,
.- E= E
b<
13 q,)
LbD
o!
Step4.2 RotationalDemand
Sections5 & 5
de[)
0p(A, N(A =f (R$,EQ,HYst.mo
Capacity0o(c),N(c)
Step5.2 Rotational
Sections2 - 4
M/r)
Step
6.2 ,r =ffi
[If r^'21.5 STOP]
EF
6tt
>F
OA
MemberSpecificHysteretic
Step7. Generate
Section 5
Models(FromSteps4.2 and5.2)
=a
=?
222
FF
bi
:;o
vct
aE
;A
Step8. PerformTime HistoryAnalysis

(IDARC or DRAIN-2DX)
Step9. ExamineCriticalMembersPerformance.
to predictdetailed
UseFiber-Element
behaviorbasedon membertime-history.
Fig. 1-1 Summaryof ResearchSignificanceof this Study in the

Contextof a SeismicEvaluationMethodology.
l-4
Section4
1.4 Scopeof PresentInvestigation

Firstly. this investigationdeals with the modeling of the hysteretic and fracture
characteristicsof reinforcing steel. The low cycle fatigue behavior of steel is modeled
based on experimental data. The importance of this modeling is that it allows the
prediction of the fatigue life of longitudinal bars in the context of a reinforced concrete
member subjectedto cyclic loading. Thus, this modeling will allow to predict the failure
of a member due to low cycle fatigue, which is predominanton well detailed beamsand
columns with low levels of axial load. Numerous examplesare presentedto show the
capacity of the model to simulateboth the sffess-straincyclic behavior and the fatigue
fracture.
Secondly, this investigationregards with the modeling of the behavior of both
confined and unconfined concretesubjectedto cyclic compressionand tension (Section
2). This is the first time any model have attemptedto model cyclic behavior of concrete
in both tension and compression. The need for such model is more obvious when
considering shear deformationswhere the tension capacity of reinforced steel plays an
important role, as in the Modified CompressionField Theory (Collins and Mitchell.
1992),and the SoftenedTruss Model (Hsu, 1993).
Section 4 deals with the Fiber Elements modeling of the moment-curvature
of deformations. A cyclic strut-tie
behavior of a concretesectionand with the assessment
model is developedto assesssheardeformations. This cyclic sffut-tie model for shear
deformation,which makesgood use of the comprehensiveconstitutivemodels developed
in sections2 and3, allows to simulatethe behaviorof sheardominatedmembers.
Section5 presentsa smoothmacro model that can be incorporatedinto non-linear
dynamic analysis programs to accuratelyrepresentthe hysteretic behavior of concrete
elements. The advantageof this model, over previousmodels,lies upon the capability of
the model to representrealistically the hysteretic behavior of concrete elements. A
parameter identification procedure is also presented,which is use for the automatic
identification of the model parametersto representa provided hystereticbehavior. This
l-5
automationmakes the use of a more comprehensivemacro model more appealingthan

unrealisticsimpler macro models.
Section 6 presentsthe developmentof spectralcharts for both, elasto-perfectly
plastic structuresand typical bridge pier sffuctures. The hysteretic behavior of bridge
piers is simulatedby the macro model developedin section 5, which was calibratedto
simulatethe behavior of an actual full size bridge pier testedcyclically. The model was
also calibratedto simulatethe hystereticbehavior of an analytically produced srmulated
experiment using actual material and section properties into the fiber model column
analysisprogram developedin section4.
The development of reliable inelastic spectra is an important aspect when
assessingthe energy and ductility demandson ductile structures. A methodology for the
is given in this section.
inelasticdamageassessment
considerationof energy-based
This approachof simulating stnrcturalbehavior by means of a Fiber Elements
model analysis and then calibrate a macro model to representthe actual behavior is
presentedin this investigationas the most rational way of simulating the behavior of a
reinforcedconcretestrucnlre,without the costly implementationa more refined procedure
as Finite Elements.
for further researchare presented
Finally, someconclusionsand recommendations
in the last section. This investigationhas shed some light into the need for some well
designedexperimentsto look into the behaviorof somespecificvariables.
l-6
Section2
Bars
of SteelReinforcing
Hysteretic
and DamageModeling
2.1 lntroduction
The hystereticbehavior of the reinforcing and prestressingsteel bars influences
the hystereticbehaviorof a sffucturalconcretemember. Fractureof a reinforcing bar may
also be defined as failure of the memberitself. It is very importantto thus model both the
hystereticand the fatigue propertiesof the reinforcing bars accurately. Tests performed
by Kent and Park (1973), Ma et al. (1976) and Panthaki(1991) were used to calibratethe
stress-strainmodel advancedherein. The degradingcharacteristicof steels with leid
stressesranging from 50 ksi to 120 ksi were studied, and damage relationshipswere
incorporatedinto the model. The Menegotto-Pintoequation(1973) usedby Mander et al"
(1984) is usedherein to representthe loadingand unloadingstress-sfrain
relations.
Curve
2.2 Monotonic
Stress-Strain
Numeroustestshave shown that the monotonic stress-straincurve for reinforcing
steel can be describedby three well defined branches. The correspondingrelations for
stress(f,) andtangentmodulus( E,) afterManderet. al. (1984)are given below:
2.2.1 The ElasticBranch0 ( e, ( eu

f, = E,E,
PT
(2-r)
(2-2)
DS
2-l
f"
wher'e:er=fi
in which, e_u: yield strain,fr:yield
stress,E, : ElasticModulusof Elasticity.
2.2.2 The YieldPlateaury ( r-r( r,1

f' =fy
(2-3)
Et=0
(2-4)
in which, r1 : sffain hardeningstrain.
2.2.3 StrainHardenedBranchrs 2 r,n
f,=f*+(fy-f,,)
l##l'
( e":--*-\lf* -f,l('-;,)
r = Lsh
r stgn[",
-,
Lt
-",
)l 1," _1ry
(2-s)
{2-6}
where:rp = -E,r13
J"
fru-f,
in which, ,r, i, the stressat ultimatestressand f,u :ultimate (maximum)stress.These

relationscanbe represented
by a singleequationasgivenin Eq. (2-45)
2.3 TheMenegotto-Pinto
Equation
(1973) (M-P hereafter)is useful for describinga curve
The Menegotto-Pinto
connectingtwo tangentswith a variableradiusof curvatureat the intersectionpoint of
thosetwo tangents,
asshownin Fig.2-1. TheM-P equation
is expressed
as:
I-Q
- e")1Q+
f, =f, + Eo(e,
The tangentmodulusat anypointis givenby:
., .,
(2-7)
t, =*=
dtr
E*, _ QEO
E*.
(2-8)
r*lr,9'-t:|-^
I Jr n- J" I
with a secantmodulus connectingthe origin coordinates(eo, fo) and the coordinatesof

the point underconsideration(e,,/)
definedas:
{ _ {l o
(2-e)
/s
h 1
lSC-a
cs
Lo
in which , : steel strain, f, : steel stress,eo = sffain at initial point, /, : sffessat

initial point, E o : tangentmodulusof elasticityat initial point, Q, R and fs11arc equation
parametersto control the shapeof the curve.
It should be noted that as it is presented,Eq. (2-7) hasthe following properties:
(1) a slope Eo at the starting coordinate (eo, fo), (2) it approachesthe slope QEo as
5 I oo. For computational tractability R needs to be limited to about 25. This
essentiallyrepresentsa bilinear curve given by a singleequation.
To use this equation it is necessaryto develop an algorithm to compute the
parametersQ,f* andR. A procedureto computetheseparametersis presentedin the next
section.
R
F
J
)
I
0 .8
':f _ f ':
t.-l
JCN
0.6
J O
0.4
E o @ ,- e o )
Equation
Fig. 2-1 TheMenegotto-Pinto
2-3
of Parameterc
2"3.1 Computation
Q, f"^ andR
Let the denominatorin the M-P equationbe I suchthat,
-
,Oal
l- ,-e,l"l^
A=ll-/-lpn='----':t
t
L
I l,n-l"l )
(2-10)
The derivativeof I is therefore:

dA _A(l-A-R)
t' -to
de'
(2-11)
Eq. (2-7) can be expressedin terms of ,,4as:
f, =fo+ Eo(e,-d(e+
\ , ' r ) ry)
(2-12)
and then the derivativeof f, respectto e, gives a tangentmoduluswhich is:
E,=#=s"(e*+)-'"#(+#)
(2-13)
Fig.2-2 Different CurvesHavingthe SameStarting and Ending Properties
AA
z-+
By substitutingEq. (2-11)into (2-13)andrearranging.
L =o
-'-.?
E" '
trR+l
(2-t4)
By evaluatingthis equation&t 0, = Ey, andsolving for Q,
tf - o^û'
Q=
(2-1s)
| -A-8+r)
Solvingfor Q in Eq. (2-12),
Q=
Er.. - n A-l
tr
"o-
(2-r6)
t-A-,
Eq. (2-15)wasobtainedfrom an equationrelatedto the final slope({), thusthis

equationguaranteesthat at the target point the slope conditionis met Elef) = E.f.
Eq. (2-16) was derivedfrom the ordinateequationso, by satisfyingthis equation,the
to equate
ordinateconditionis met f,(e) =fJ. To satisfyboth conditions,it is necessary
bothEqs.(2-15) and(2-16).
1_nR+r
Et' E*#- r - d
aR)
_ a (' l ---
+Ei
t-a
' - n
0
(2-r7)
w h e r ea : A -'.
is asfollows:
The solutionprocedure
fr-f"
(1) E.". =;--'f -o

(2) R*o =
t#
is given in the next

, the derivationof this expressron
2.3.2. It is not possibleto reachthe point (ef,ff) with the slopeE7 with a
subsection
value of R < R6o. Evaluationof the M-P equationfor the caseof R = R,,;o is only
so a valueof R slightlygreaterthenRn;o
possibleby takingthe limit of the expression,
asit is shownin Eq. (2'7)'
hasto be used,in orderto applytheexpression
(3) If R,"io= 0, it meansthat the threepointsare aligned,thus take Q:
f"n =fr. The valueof R neednot to be modified.
2-5
I and
(4) If R < R-o thentakeR : R*n + 0.01

(5) Solvefor the valueof a in the following expression:
a R) +E
o
" a (I !- ,a-
E'r - E , , " 4
t-a
(2-18)
is used:
To find thevalueof a thefollowingprocedure
(a) Define afunctionf(a) as:
f(a)=r.,-t,,#*t,ff
(2-1e)
@) Evaluate
/(1-e) andf(e),wheree is a smallvalue( =0.01) .
(c) If f (I-e) * f (e) > 0, no solutionis found,so decrease
the vaiue
ofe andrepeatstep(b).
(d) If f (l-e)*f (e) < 0 thena solutionis found in this interval"
procedurecan then be usedto find the
The quadraticallyconvergingNewton-Raphson
solution.
(e) Takeasaninitial estimate:
R-o
(2-20)
ao=_f
(f) If
/(a")"/(l
-e) < 0 then replace ao by

J,r.
untii the
inequality is false to ensureproper convergence.If this condition is not met the algorithm
will find a solution outsidethe meaninefulranee.
(g) With o" u,lninitial-estimate the following recursiveexpression
should be applied until convergenceis met. It is important to note that the functionf (a)
has a singularityat d= l, so the valueof Aa shouldbe the smallerof 0.5(1 - a") and
0.00
i.
Qi+l = ai-
2f(a) A,a
f (a,+ A,a)-f (ai - La)
(2-2r)
(8) After the value of a hasbeendefinedthen,

I
P.;
(l -4")"
u^ -- --v-
(9) The valuesof fo andQ arethen calculatedas:
2-6
(2-22)
J"n= fo + f@ - e")
(2-23)
Er.. - u
tr
Q=ft
Q-21)
Equation
LimitingCase
2.3.2 Menegotto-Pinto
In step 2 of the procedureoutlined above, a factor Rô was introduced. The
derivation of that factor and the relation of the Menegotto-Pintoequation to a power
equationis the subjectof this subsection.
The Menegotto-Pintoequationcan be expressedby:
(2-2s)
If the curve is to passthrough (xr,yr), it can be rewritten as:

- f o -8;r=. .
1 lf
- Atl-Q
a+;
Eox1-xo
Q'26)
and its derivativeas:
!!=n*0-Q)
Y'
Eo
(2-27)
AR+l
where:
I
(
Y-v
,q=lr+lr"---=-lR)F
\
,vch
lol
(2-28)
./
rf"
e = A-t
(2-29)
thenby solvingfor Q in Eqs.(2-26)and2-27),thefollowingexpression

is obtained:
-cR)
-aR*t
|
n
r
- a(l
Er-E*"ft+E"-ft/=o
,'' 1
(2-30)
By solving for a in this equation,the parameters

!"1, dndQ aregiven by:
/\
J
lch=lo*Eo(x1-xo)l
(2-31)
, I
l ' ( t- o ^ ) 8 ,
and.
? - o^*'
(2-32)
Q= "o | AR+l
Eq. (2-30) cannotbe evaluatedas it is written for Q:1,
a limit.
but it presents
The limit value of the fraction in the secondterm is:
l i r n I l o- * * ' = R + I
(2-33)
a(l - aR)
,.
h
=.t(
lllil ---:l-A
a-+l
(2-34)
a--+l-
while the other limit is:
So the limit for the equationwhen a -+ I is:

E y - E , " " ( R +l ) + E , R = 0
(2-3s)
Solving for R, the following equationfor the critical value of R can be derived:
^"r=ffi
(2-36)
This value, as can be shown numerically,representsthe minimum value that R is

to have, so that a solution to meet the conditionsof both slope and ordinate value at the
ending point. What is of interestnow, is to know what the limit for the original equation
would be. Both y"o andQ tend to infinity as a tendsto one. Eq. (2-25) can be expressed
in terms of a as:
! = lo + Eo(x xo)fm+Q(l m)l
where,
2-8
(2-37)
(2-38)
[,, Ix-xol^t-o^'li
L'- | xrx"| ,^ I
Whena + l,
(2-3e)
lim m =
a-)1-
The limit of QQ - m), is a complicatedexpression:
E,
Er
J7
)yort-m)=jjl.#
l-
x-xo l^t -o^lF
ry4"1
['.
as:
So,Eq. (2-37)canbe expressed
Lo
-t-l
R+l
tK
l_T-r,
l"
lx1-xol
(2-40)
"- )
(2-4r)
The final form of thelimitingcaseof theMenegotto-Pinto

equationas:
! = ! o + E o(x x ) + A(x x ")lx x olR
(2-42.)
with,
,-E-f-E*"
I \
Ln" - Lo
F
(2-43)
and,
,-En"-Eo
"-,
tR
(2-44)
lxt- xol
Eq. Q-aD is dealt with in more detail in section3.6.3. It is worth noting here that
this equationrepresentsthe most "relaxed" of all the curves given by the M-P equation,
but at the sametime, the M-P equationcannotbe evaluatedfor this case,as it is a limit
expression.
2-9
Steel
2"4 CyclicProperties
of Reinforcing
In this sectiona universally applicablecyclic stress-stralnmociel is advancedfor
ordinary reinforcing and high strengthpresffessingbars. The model is composedof ten
different rules, five for the tension side and five for the compressionsrde. Each of the
rules is describedseparatelyin the following sections.
(Rules1 and2)
Branches
2.4.1 Envelope
The envelopebranchesare defined by the monotonic sffess-strainrelation
which is relocated and scaled to simulate strength degradation. The shape of the
monotonic branch is kept intact, except that at the points of reversal a scale factor is
calculated. This combinedmodel ensuresdegradationwithin local cyclic, a phenomenon
not been modeledbefore. The model was calibratedusing experimentalresults given by
Panthaki (1991).
The sffess-sffainrelation for the tension envelope curve can be
expressedas a single expressionby:

Rule I (Tension Envelope Branch)
r=;ff
-|ffi l-]
.=P rr;-r;tl,
*
,. .]
Q-asa)
L'-(. .l
-T
'
where:
(2-4sb)
trr=tr-j,
(2-45c)
o.=t:,ffi
(2-4sd)
in which t^ = locationof the tensionenvelopebranch. Eq. (2-a5)is shownplottedin

Fig. 2-3. Also shownin this figure is the compression
envelopebranchdefinedin an
form asfollows:
analogous
2-t0
EnvelopeBranch)
Rule 2 (Compression
-|ffi l']
^=;ffr 1-.s'9 i'r' -r'-'l'
J
(2-46a\
L'-(.t ]
E,
t r --
uI
sign(e,,-ess)+ I
sign(e,,- e;)E,n
['.[?)"]"
f; -f'
f;" -f;
p-- t
p-
(2-46b)
where:
" = tt -tlt
Fyn- -- "'h
(2-46d)
g; - etl,
_f;
-f;
in which Ei^ : location of the compressionenvelopebranch.
Fig. 2-3 Tensionand CompressionEnvelopeCurves
2-1r
(2-46e)
2.4.2 ReversalBranches(Rules3 and 4)

When a reversaltakesplace on an envelopebranch a reversalcun'e connectsthis
point of reversalwith a target point on the oppositeenvelope. The curve that connects
thesetwo points will be referredto as a reversalbranch. In general,reversalbranchesare
completely defined by the extremum points: maximum excursion into the tenslon
envelope branch*o , and maximum excursioninto the compressionenvelope branch
*n, (Fig. 2-6). If a reversaltakesplace from within the yield plateauon the tension
with f; =fi,
envelopecurve at a coordinate(e;, l;),
then e'" ., is defined as:
(2-47)
max = e; -e]o^
The target strainon the compressiveenvelopecurve is calculatedas:
(2-48)
En=Ei^*t.ln
t-io = e; +pr(e-rh-er)
where,
f"e;^= ei-E
and
(2-s0)
t'no -J
'' - eIo-ei
with,
(2-4e)
(2-s1)
n--
While the target slopeis given by:

-L ru-
(2-s2)
'
l)
**P'lr;- E,)
and the target sftessif the leld stresson the compressiveenvelopebranch (Fig.2-5). In
the case when the reversal takes place from the strain hardenedcurve of the tension
envelopebranch,then Eqs. (2-49) through(2-52) are modified as follows. The straine6o
is taken as the actualmaximum excursionwithin the compressiveenvelopebranchbut,
(2-s3)
lr-"lt lr;l
envelope
branchis calculated
as:
for thecompression
The shiftedoriginabscissa
Ei^ = i k;,, + euQ - k;e")
(2-s4)
with:
f+
eI=eI^+e!n-?
(2-ss)
LS
-I*
et=eX^*rmax
E,
2-12
(2-s6)
in which k;", is a factor to locatethe compressionenvelopebranchbetweenthe ej andei

as shownin Fie. 2-5. andwas foundto be:
/\
le-*i
Freu= exp I --;
(2-s7)
&il- )
[ 5000
usingEq. Q-aQ. Similarly,

Finallythe targetstressandslopef[ andE; arecalculated
for theloading reversalbranch,theshiftedtensionoriginstrainis grvenby:
ei^ = e;(l - kl,,) + ebkle"
(2-s8)
with:
r-
t..
Ei=Ei^*E-rn-
Er:
/
Ei=Ei^f-io-
m'^
,,
(2-se)
(2-60)
where:
(,,\
I
le-i' |
|
Nreu=expl------t I
(2-6r)
[ 5000eil- )
Then the target strainon the tensionenvelopebranchis given by:
(2-62)
eL=et^*t.r*
branchis
In a similarway,the targetstressf,i andslopeEI on the tensionenvelope
calculatedusingEq. Q- 5).
Experimentsperformed by Panthaki (1991) have shown that the initial Young's
modulus at the point of reversal from the tension envelopebranch (unloading) can be
expressedas:
E = (1 -3 Leo)E,
"
(2-63)
EI = (l -A,)E,
(2-64)
envelope
branch(loading),the initial Young's
While, for a reversalfrom the compression
moduluscanbe sivenby:
The M-P parameterR was also found to be a functionof the vield sness.that can be
as:
expressed
R-=rc(-Efil , )\t"
(1- l0Ae,)
2-13
(2-6s)
for the unloadins branch.and
R. = 20(*) ", , - 2oAe,)
(2-661
where Leo : sffain amplitude for the cycle and E, : initiai Youn-e'smodulus for the
reversalbranch,as shown in Fig. 2-4. Analyticalcalibrationof thesevariablesare shown
by Panthaki(1991), and Figs.2-ll to 2-i4 show
in Figs. 2-7 to 2-10 from experiments
someof the actualexperimentalloops that rvereusedto fit the M-P equation.
The unloadingand unloadingbranchare defineas:

Rule 3 (Unloading ReversalBranch)
Eol=Etrm*tln*
fot =f*
Eot = Ei
En =Elo
(2-67)
r
_fJ b3 -J a
En=EL
R- are functionsof the
equationparameter
The initial slopeE; andthe Menegotto-Pinto
strainamplitudeAeo of theloop,Eqs.(2-63)and(2-65),whichis definedas:
c.- _Ea3
Aeo =:--
(2-68)
Rule 4 (LoadingReversalBranch)
a+=Ein*tô
fo+ =fr o
Eoq = El
EM=EL
(2-6e)
fiq =fi
Etc = EL
whereEI andR+ are calculatedusing Eqs. (2-64) and(2-66), respectively,by havrng.
Leo=lryl
2-t4
d2-10)
2Leo-------2
Fig.2-4 Effect of the Strain Amplitude of the Reversal

on the EquationParameters
(Rules5 and6)
Branches
2.4.3 Returning
Whenpartialunloadingon the reversalunloadingbranch(rule 3) takesplace,the
branch
reloadingbranchwill be calledloadingreturningbranch(rule 5). An analogous
will exist when a reversaltakesplace on the loading reversalbranch (rule 4), and
unloadingis donethroughtheunloadingreturningbranch(rule 6), asshownin Fig. 2-15.
At the occurrenceof a reversalon rule 3, rule 5 will start and the target strain as is
calculated
as:
ns= EI^*r o+ Lele
(2-7r)
with,
A e ! " = a- t3a 5 - L
t . 2E ,
f.:
0 < A e ;< #
(2-72t)
(2-72b)
JLs
The target stress f65 and slope E65 are calculatedby using Eq. Q-afl. The initial
Young's modulus Eas= EI andparameterRs = R+ are computedsimilarly by defining:
Leo=ry
2-r5
(2-73)
f"A
,,a'
.o
f
),
G,n'Jt
aj'a
\t;
( E;. f; )
te;,fr- )
Fig. 2-5 ReversalFrom Yield Plateau

max ---------)
T
I
f
/ max
fô
II
J
Fig. 2-6 Definitionof the ReversalUnloadingBranch
./.-to
12
+
Eo
E;
NR
0.6
0.4
v.z
1A
R'
1.6
1.4
1.2
I
NR
NA
0.4
v.1
Fig.2-7 Effect of the Strain Amplitude of Loop on the Initial Modulus

and R Parameterfor ReinforcingBars (fu: 53 ksi) (Loading)
2-17
1 . 2r
l
E;1
F
o^
a"c
c^
5
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1.5
u.3
2.5
3.5
eo (%)
(a)
1.8
1.6
o
o
1.4
1.2
1
0 8f
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
nq
1.5
2.5
35
e, (oA)
(b)
Fig. 2-8 Effect of the Strain Amplitudeof Loop on the Initial Modulus
and R Parameterfor ReinforcingBars ({ :53 ksi) (Unloading)
2-18
1.2
+
Eo
E"
0.8
0.4
u.z
0
0.5
14
t.c
?E
4.5
e" (%)
(a)
R 2 .s
z
0.5
n
AA
1.5
z.?
o)
4.5
e" (%)
Fig. 2-9 Effect of the Strain Amplitude of Loop on the Initial Modulus
and R Parameterfor High StrengthBars ({ = 123ksi) (Loading)
2-t9
t.z
LO
La
0.8
2.5
16
3.5
4.5
a
(a)
(%)
2.5
R
l4
2.5
1.5
(b)
?q
4.5
eo (%)
Fig. 2-10 Effect of the Strain Amplitudeof Loop on t-heInitial Modulus

and R Parameterfor High StrengthBars (1, :123 ksi) (Unloading)
2-24
Fig.2-f l Fitting of M-P Equation to a Loading Loop of

Reinforcing SteelBars ( {,:53 ksi)
8oi
60*
l
Experiment
CurveFitting
20*
-0.015
-0.01
-0.005
0.005
0.0'1
Fig.2-12 Fitting of M-P Equationto an UnloadingLoop of

ReinforcingSteelBars({: 53 ksi)
2-21
1 5 0-
Experiment
CurveFitting
-0.02
-n nn6
n nltr
fr
Y
-htt
u.uz
-100-
-150'
Fig. 2-13 Fitting of M-P Equationto a LoadingLoop of

High StrengthSteelBars({: 123ksi)
14n .l
Experiment
100 -l-
CurveFitting
/
/:
/,
-U.UZ
-0.015
-0.01
-0.005
0.005
nnl
-/nnl(
-50 -
Fig. 2-14 Fitting of M-P Equationto an UnloadingLoop of

High StrengthSteelBars ({ = 123ksi)
.,,,.,
L'LL
0.02
In a similar way, a partial loading from the loading reversalbranch(rule 4), which defines
ruie 6. is calculatedas:
Eua=Ei^tt',,
+Le,e
(2-74)
with,
(2-75a)
Ler"=a4-Ea6
*
{-
0 > Ae,.>:+
(2-7sb)
3Ls
(Rules7 and8)
Branches
2.4.4 FirstTransition
The curve followed after a reversal from an envelopebranch curve has been
namedreversalbranch, the one followed by a reversalfrom a reversalbranch is calledthe
returning branch" The curve then followed after a reversal from a returning branch is
called the/irst transition branch and a reversalfrom this will lead to a secondtransition
branch. Thesefive typesof curvesare illustratedin Fig. 2-15. It shouldbe noted that the
reversaland the returning branchesform a closedloop and the first and secondtransition
branchescycle inside this loop.
{
1 , 2 Envelope
Branches
3 , 4 Reversal
Branches
Branches
5 , 6 Returning
7 , 8 FirstTransition
Branches
Branches
9 , 1 0 SecondTransition
of PartialReversals
Fig. 2-15 Sequence
2-23
The targetsffainof rule 5 easis given in Eq. (2-71),this equationis differentfrom

the starting sffain of rule 3 .ot,but if rule 5 would have reachedthe end the a reversal
from this point would have been the startingpoint for rule 3 agaln. It meansthat in the
case of a reversal from rule 5 (incomplete loading), a redefined rule 3 needs to be
calculated. The starting strain for this redefinedrule ought to be between the previous
startingsffain and the targetstrainof rule 5. By using a linear proportion,
cc a* i _
: . .Y-bE5a | - E a 5
ebs - %
r- . e o l -t; b; 45; - o 7
(2-76)
It can be noted that if the reversalhappenswhen rule 5 has just started Eat = Ea5,then
from Eq. (2-76) Elt =Eoz, what meansthat an "insinuation"of reversaloccurredat rule 3,
so the path followed shouldbe on the unchangedrule 3. While if the reversaloccurredat
the end of rule 5 when Eai=Ebs, that meansit is alreadyon the envelopebranch and a
reversalat this point shouldlead to rule 3, so ej, = tbs . Both extremecasesare satisfied
by Eq. (2-76). Once the modified startingstrainfor rule 3 ej, has beenobtained,the rule
is completelydefinedas describedin section2.4.2.
The curve following a reversalfrom rule 5 is the first unloading transition curve
(rule 7, Fig. 2-15),which targetpoint is definedas:
ebt = Ea5
(2-77)
is definedat a reversalpoint,
Because
everyrule,exceptrule 1 and2 (envelope
branches),
the initial coordinate
is alwaysthecoordinate
of thereversalpoint. The targetstress/67
and Young'smodulusEn dracalculatedon the modifiedrule 3 at a strain tru. The
procedureto calculaterule 8, is exactlyanalogous.At a reversalfrom rule 6, a loading
transitioncurve will connectthe point of reversalwith the modified reversalloading
branch(rule4). Wherethemodifiedstartingstrainfor themodifiedrule 4 is givenby:
e:o=e*m+e"o##
(2-78)
(Rules9 and10)
Branches
2.4.5SecondTransition
An incomplete ffansition from the returning branch to the reversal branch, a
reversalon the first transitionbranch,is done through the secondtransition curve. The
first transition curve (rule 7 or 8) aims the reversalbranch (rule 3 or 4). while the second
/.-./.+
transition branch (rule 9 or l0) aims the rerurnlng branch irule 5 or 6). The relation
among all the rules is shown diagramaticallyin Fig. 2-16. Note that a rule can changeto
anotherrule either becausea reversaltook placeor becauseit reachedits targetpoint.
The target point for the secondtransitionbranch is calculatedin a way similar to
that for first transitionbranch. A reversalat rule 7 will aim the loading returning branch
(rule 5), thus the target sffain for rule 9 is:
Ebe= Eai
Q-79)
The target sffess fns and slope E6e are defined by the rule 5, as rule 9 is a transition
branch to connecrthe point of reversalwith the first loading transition branch (rule 5).
Rule 10 is defined in the sameway, when a reversaltakesplace on rule 8. In this case,
the targetsffain bro= a8.
ff
/:\
^2
*
\zl
o0
66
pp
rG)
.^+
(9
o@
66
1
rowardrension
ReversalChangein Rule
It
/
/
a"
Towardcompression
Or/
rargetchangein Rule
"ned
Fig. 2-16 Flow of Rulesat Every Reversaland Target Strain
2-25
Degradation
2.4.6 Strength
Degradation
is takeninto accountby meansof a scalefactor. This scalefactoris
is directlyassociated
with plastic
updatedeverytime a reversaltakesplace. Degradation
provedto be applicableto bothnormal
relationship
deformation.The followingproposed
andhigh strengthsteelbars.
o,=(X),=r-*,(*)'''
Its.seol"
(2-81)
where:
{
E'oL=s E a - ?
ta
(2-82)
= str
,Lfessdr op,
in wh i c hm i : f a c t or th a td e p e n d so n th e cur r entscalefactor
o:total
strainamplitude,/o = stressamplitude,e, : plasticstrainamplitude,as shownin Fig.
througha scalefactorensures
2-17. The implementation
of degradation
that degradation
is considered
all thetime. Carehasbeentakento ensurethatthe modelbehavessmoothly
underall kind of situations.Througha diagramlike the one shownin Fig. 2-i6 it is
shownthat everypossiblesituationis considered.The modelas definedbeforedoesnot
thisis doneby definingthestressas:
considerstrengthdegradation,
f, = st f,o
(2-83)
Ji = J;-1fri
(2-84)
with:
nli = 7 + exp [-20.0 (i -si)]
(2-8s)
where si is the scalefactor that is modified at every reversal,m; is a factor that amplifies
degradationon the firsts reversals. It has beenobservedexperimentally(Panthaki, l99l)
that loop degradationtends to diminish with cycling, as shown in Fig. 2-19. As the
materialreachesincipient failure, degradationaccelerates
dramaticallyup to failure.
2.5 Stress-Strain
ModelVerification
Experimentaldatafrom Kent and Park, 1973;Ma,BerteroandPopov,1976;
and
Panthaki,1991,were usedto test the model. Reasonable
agreementwas achieved.
Resultsareshownin Fies.2-20to 2-34.
2-26
10
L f , n ,,
/o
-'\
Jo
I
7
o
,{
4
?
c.
o ReinforcingBars
c High StrengthThreadbars
0.005
0.01
0.025
0.015
0.03
0.035
0.045
0.04
en
r
Eig. 2-17Degradationof Reinforcingand High StrengthSteelBars
6
,E
o
o
o
.C
F
\-l
\|
Bars
o Reinforcing
Threadbars
o HighStrength
v
0.94
0.96
Lf
-*
Experimental
Jo
Fig. 2-18 Comparisonof DegradingModel with ExperimentalResults

2-27
(ksi) 80 Stress
1.2
o
\4
Eo
b
E
0.8
n
' ' -A
(t
o
(l)
io
0.4
.N
(!
0.2
0
od
12
N u m b e ro f c y c l e s( i )
Fig. 2-f9 Stress-Degradation

Simulationand Fracture Prediction
on SteelBars
2-28
14
{ {tsiy 40 -tJUT
Experiment
zv-
Analysis
1n+
i/
/
n
0.00i o.og2 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 o.fui
0.008 0.009 0.01

s
-zv -5U
./
,/'
t/
,
40i
-50 -
Experimentby Kent and Park (1973),Specimen6

Fig. 2-20 Stress-strain
{ (ksi)
50
40
30
Experiment
Analysis
20
I
i
,l
10
i 0 .0 0s
Fig.2-21 Stress-strainExperimentby Kent and Park (1973),SpecimenI

2-29
4 (ttl)
6050:
40t
30I
Experiment
Analysis
,oi
10+
-10
t
-20r
0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0, 2
0.014 0.016
,/,
V.
-30frl
es
-401
-50-
Fig.2'22 stress-strainExperimentby Kent and Park (1973),Specimen9
50
{ (ksi) &
30
Experiment
Analysis
n
10
0
-10
0.004 0.m6
0.008
0.01
0.012 0.014 0.016

t"
-20
Fig.2-23 stress-StrainExperimentby Kent and Park (1973),Specimen15
z-Jv
50
{ {tsiy 4 0
,.!
30
Experiment
Analysis
20
10
0
-10
o.oo5 i ioot
-20
It
0.015
0.02
0.025
s
It
-30
-40
Fig.2-24 Stress-StrainExperimentby Kent and Park (1973),Specimen11
60
50
/ ttsi)
40
30
20
1i
1 0-r
0
I
I
,l
Experiment
Analysis
- 1 0T
-20
-30
Fig.2-25 Stress-strainExperimentby Kent and Park (1973),Specimen17
2-31
d (ksi)
-
Experiment
Analysis
0
-20
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
0.03 0.035
ytu
40 T
0
004s
-80
Big.2-26 Stress-StrainExperimentby Ma, Berteroand Popov(1976),SpecimenI
100
{ (ksi) 80
60.
'10
Experimenl
Analysis
20
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
0.07
0.08
s
Fig.2-27 Stress-StrainExperimentby Ma, Berteroand Popov(1976),Specimen4
{ {ts;).,uo
Experiment
Analysis
/4.
-/.6o -0.004-0.002
oooz2{o.ooo oooa0 . 0 1
s
Experimentby Panthaki(1991),SpecimenP2
Fig.2-28 Stress-strain
150
T
{ ltsi;
100
T
50 T
l,
-o.oy.z
-o.oo4
0
0.0020.0040.0060.008, d
,2/
0 . 0 1 20 . 0 1 40 . 0 1 60 . 0 1 8
,/ , _50I
t'
./
Experiment
Analysis
Fig. 2-29 Stress-StrainExperimentby Panthaki(1991),SpecimenP3
z-33
00
a
z
{ rtsit
1
,l
0c
i
5) Ul
-0.005
-S0t
),
,,
i 0 . 0 0 5 0 . 0 1 0 . 0 1 5 0 . 0 2 0 . 0 2 5 0 . 0 3 0 . 0 3 5,9,.94 0 . 0 4 5 0 0 5
5
- 100
Experiment
A na l y si s
4 tnr
Experimentby Panthaki(1991),SpecimenP16
Fig. 2-30 Stress-Strain
.. zvv
,r, ( ksl)
l Cn
100-
Experiment
A na l y s i s
-0.01
P19
Fig. 2-31 Stress-StrainExperimentby Panthaki(1991),Specimen
2-34
{ ttsi;
l
40i
2 0I
I
Expertment I
I
A n a-li v\ s r s
0.04
Fig.2-32 Stress-strainExperimentby Panthaki(1991)'SpecimenRl
nn
{ (ksi)
Experiment
Analysis
OU T
40
zv
-zv T
o.o1
0.015
s
40
Fig. 2-33 Stress-StrainExperimentby Panthaki(1991)'SpecimenR4
2-3s
Experiment
Analysis
r/t'
-0.025 -0
-0.015 -0.0'1 -0.005
0.005 0.01
0.015/ 0.02
)
0 c25
at'/'
Fig.2-34 Stress-strainExperimentby Panthaki(199f), SpecimenR5
2.6 Damage Modeling

The failure of a reinforcedconcretememberis intrinsicallylinked to the fracture
of either the longitudinal reinforcing bars (Mander et al., 1992) or ffansverse
(Manderet al., 1984,1988a,b). Thus,the predictionof steelfractureis an
reinforcement
importantaspectin themodelingof memberbehavior,particularlyincipientfailure"
The strain-life relation to estimatethe life of a material is given by the
as:
(1955)equationexpressed
Manson-Coffin
=*rrNr)u
+*zwr)'
(2-86)
*'here Ae = total strainamplitude,oj. = fatiguestrengthcoefficient,b : fatiguestrength

exponent,E : Young'smodulus,N.f= numberof cyclesto failure,ej. = fatigueductility
coefficientand c : fatigueductilityexponent.
2-36
The first term of the nght hand side of Eq. (2-86) is known as the high cycle
fatigue component while the secondterm is the low cycle fatigue component of the
strain-life relation. In the case of earthquakeloading the members of a reinforced
concretestructurecan be subjectedto inelasticdeformationsin which the steelreinforcing
is subjectedto large plastic reversals. In this casethe bar failure is predominantlydue to
low cycle fatigue,for which Eq. (2-86)canbe simplifiedto (Koh and Stephens,1991):
=e'rtzwr)'
(2-87)
which can be also be written as.
n,.--Lfê )
eI
(2-88)
"1- 2\zr',
)
in the literatureto describethe

A numberof differenttheorieshasbeensuggested
rule (Palmgren"1924:
accumulationof partial fatiguedamage. The Palmgren-Miner
Miner, 1945)is the simplestand still the most commonlyused of all the cumulative
as:
of damagethatcanbe expressed
a linearaccumulation
damagemodels,it assumes
O,=fr
I
where Di :
damage for one cycle of a given amplitude Ae.
(2-8e)
The total damage
accumulatedis given by:
(2-e0)
D =2Di
the
in an earthquake,
Underrandomcycling,similarto whatmay be encountered
problemof cyclecountingand amplitudeidentificationbecomescumbersome.The rain
flow cycle countingmethodis one of the mostpopularmethodsusedfor this purpose.
for long strainhistories
cumbersome
becomescomputationally
The methodnevertheless
as it requireskeepingtrack of the whole sffainhistoryfor the problem. Otherknown
cyclecountingmethodsincludetherangepair counting,thepeakcounting, levelcrossing
countingand range countingmethods(Dowling, 1972). Once the cycleshave been
identifiedthena equivalentconstantstrainamplirudecancomputedas:
tf&l'
Dvariabre
snc o n s l a n t
. _t_
)i
-4\2
I
/rr.
nl^cl
"\)
\
1a
\-7
J
/e
-r !
(2-er)
thus,
T
. _tl-'
/ae) -- lln12s\ '/t A e ) ' l

\\ )-
/e
//I
i=l \'
(2-e2)
|
I
Mander et al. (1992) have shown that for reinforcing bars and high srrengththreadbarsc
as -0.5. Thus Eq. (2-92)becomes,
approximated
canbe conservatively
-
^-I
(c) =lri (c)'l'

)tJ
\2 ),
(2-e3)
Lre\2
It can readily be shownthat if all the points are usedratherthanjust the peaks,
Le,
F
= --;- =
VJ 9Sru
Eae
(2-e4)
where srzr is the standarddeviation of the strain history response. The following
procedureshould be used to computethe standarddeviation. At every new sffain point.
the averagestrain for the whole sffain history is calculatedby:
I ed l e l
c ---:c-
-e'
i|n,+e;-1)le; I
Jd l e l
(2-es)
T ler- e,-rI
Thus the varianceof the strainhistory is calculatedby:
l,I I'i-'i-,I
, = l ( e - E ) 2 a l=e l
t3m
n
Ialrl
I l t '- e - r I
i-
-1
(2-e6)
And the standarddeviation is computedas the squareroot of the variance. Fig. 2-35
shows two examples of the results using the procedure outlined. Note that for the
constantamplitudecycle, the standarddeviationconvergeson the first completecycle to a
constantvalue. In the straindomainthe shapeof the wave is a tnangle and thus.
srD=
+(+) =oszz(f)
lJ
t'
{2-e7)
An alternativeway of computingthe standarddeviationis considenngthat the time

movement.In thiscase,if thetime stepsareconsidered
historywill resemblea sinusoidal
of the
to be equally spaced,the standarddeviationcan be consideredindependently
z-38
magnitudeof the strain changes,and it can be computedrn a simple way, just by keeoing
the summationof strains. Thus. in the time domainthe standarddeviation is defined bv:
, - f(e- e)2dt
cesrD
Iat
(2-98)
as:
canbe expressed
As discrete
datais to beused,Eq.
c 2 :-! $
csr,
i
(2-e8)
, r --( J - $ " ) t
(2-ee)
ln o"=r',
)
3',
If all the points are usedand not only the peaks,then:
^ _(ne) _ a^
.or-\2
(2-100)
)"-uL.sTD
this equationand Eq. (2-94)shouldnot be takenas

The apparentconffadictionbetrveen
deviationcomputedin Eq. (2-94)is in the stress-sffain
domainandis
such. The standard
in the magnirudeof the shainchanges,
while whenEq. (2-99) is usedin the
dependent
thatthe strain-timehistoryshaperesembles
strain-timedomainwhereit is assumed
some
form of harmonicloading. Sinusoidal
wavesarethe time shapeusedin experiments
and
strainhistoriesat its naturalfrequency.
moststructures
will tendto showsinusoidal
modelis proposed
An energybasedcumulativedamage
as:
O,=ffi
(2-r01)
with,
LWi-
(2-102)
)f t,* fi-)@i-si-r)
and
(2-103)
14,(Eo)= A(eo)B
The experimentaldata obtainedby Panthaki(1991) was reanalyzedand basedon

theseanalysesthe following proposedvalueswere obtained:
A
ReinforcingBars
1.22(ksi)
L06
High StrengthPrestressing
Bars
1.09(ksi)
-r.4
areproposed:
afterwhichthefollowingempiricalequations
l=
E"
'^r'
'13705-(er)"'"
B = _5 .7(ey)0.2s
2-39
(2-104)
(2-10s)
STRAIN
IT
I
0.8 +
0.6
04 + i
I
0.2+1,
0
l2
-v.z
-0.4*
i
-u.o 1
--l
l
-l
(a) ConstantAmplitude Cycles
10
strainHistory
i/s3n
Standard
Deviation
2i
/,
0
,^,
59
II
-4
\i
tr/
t\,/
-o
(b) VariableAmplitude Cycles
Fig. 2-35 Determinationof EquivalentStrain Amplitude
2-40
andVerification
2.7 DamageModellmplementation
In Fig. 2-51 a comparisonof the proposeddamagemodel with experimentai
datacanbe
in the experimental
resultsfrom Panthaki(1991)is presented.The scattering
result. An additionalfactoris usedto
modeledin termsof thedeviationfrom the average
behavior.
simulatetheeffectof incipientfailureuponthe stress-strain
Ir
l---rr, =o.sl
1
L (r*t',^;""
(2-106)
This factor is used to simulatea normal distributionfor which the parameterR was found
to be approximately3.27. This was obtainedby minimizing the variancebetweenboth
functionsbetweenu:0
andu = 3.
The parameteru is a function of the damageindex D i and the standarddeviation
o. andis definedas:
u = ^r (l
Di-D^\
(2-106)
where,for tensionstress,
o^=t+i
(2-107)
D^=tr*t
(2-108)
stress,
andfor compression
while,for a singlebar,
6 =0.2
(2-10e)
andfor multiplebars,
(2-110)
o=0.4
To the knowledgeof the author,this is the first time that a model has tried to
simulatethis phenomenon.The incorporationof steelfracturesimulationis a very
importantfactorif the predictionof failureis desired.Fig. 2-51 showshow the model
compareswith experimentaldata, while Figs. 2-36 through 2-50 show individual
at differentstrainamplitudetests.
comparisons
2-41
(a) Experiment
2@
150
100
'6
50
o
U'
o
0
-6n
-100
-150
li
-200'
4.05
rii
{.04
4.03
4.02
4.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0 02
0.03
0.04
nn6
Strain
Simulation
2ffi
150|
100
qn
6
v
o
o
o
0
-50
-100
-0.05 -0.04 4.03
4.02
4 01
0.01
Strain
P18(Panthaki,1991)
Fig. 2-36 High StrengthBar, Specimen
2-42
(a) Experiment
150
100
---:-:=---
--'t---''
=o 5 0
5
/a l,I
oi
o
-i)u
-100
-150
-zuv
-0.05 -0.M
{.03
4.02
-0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Strain
(b)Simulation
zffi
150
,6
100
I
-cûii
o
o
o
0i
-s0 i
r'/'
-.'
'i
"'/
./
i---------1
i
100I
ai
150i
j
4.05
{.04
{.03
4.02
4.01
0.01
0.42
0.03
Straln
Pl0
Fig.2-37 High StrengthBar, Specimen
z-+J
0.04
0.05
(a)Experiment
100
'6
50
.y
nL
o)
a
-6n I
tt
i
i
-lnn
i
,lqn L
-200'
-u.05
-0.04 {.03
4.02
-0.01
0.01
0 02
0.03
Strain
(b)Simulation
zta)
'150
100
'6
v.
3U
o
o
o
-50
-100
-150
-200
-0.05 4.04
4.03
4.02
4.01
0.01
0.02
Strain
Fig. 2-38 High StrengthBar, SpecimenP13
2-44
0M
0.05
(a) Experiment
,6
50
lz
o
o
o
a
0
50
-100
-'150
-200
-0.05
-0.02 -0.01
0.01
Strain
(b)Simulation
2ffi
150
100
50
o
.Y
o
0
a
E
a -so
-100
-150
-200
-0.05 4.04
4.03
-0.02 -0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
Strain
2-45
0.04
0.05
(a) Experiment
200
150
1nn i
,6
lz
tt
o
o)
0
-50
-100
,150I
-200
-U.UC
-0.04 -0.03 4.02
-0.01
0.01
0.02
Strain
(b)Simulation
200
150
100
50
6
ta
o
o
o)
i
a -sn I
-'100
-150
-200
-0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01
0
Strain
2-46
0.03
0M
005
2ffi
150
100
,6
50
5
o(\
o
-50
-100
,t tn
-200
{.05
4.04
4.03
-0.02 -0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Strain
(b)Simulation
o
o
o
0l
@ -5ol
-100i
-150
-0.05 4.04
-0.03 4.02
-0.01
0.01
Strain
Big.2-41 High StrengthBar, SpecimenP7
2-47
(a)Expenment
240
150
100
'6
50
J
t,
o
o
a
-50
100
150
i
-200'
-0.05
-0 04
-0 03
-0.02 -0.01
0.01
0.02
U.UJ
0.02
0.03
005
Strarn
(b)Simulatlon
200
150
100
CU
6
6U
vt
-50
-100
-150
-200
-0.05 -0.04 4.03
4.02
-0.01
0.01
Strain
Fig.2-42 High StrengthBar, SpecimenP14
2-48
0M
0 05
(a) Experiment
-200
-0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Strain
(b)Simulation
2ffi
150
100
50
6
.Y
utv
o
6 -so
-100
-150
-200
-0.05 -0.M
{.03
4.02
-0.01
0.01
Strain
Fig.2-43 High StrengthBar, SpecimenP9
2-49
1.2
6
o
o
0.8
Compression
(Model)
]-rension
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
sion (Model)
i
(E
v,
o
q)
0.4
c)
.N
6
E
o
v.z
0
120
80
140
N u m b e ro f c y c l e s( i )
iF,-
6
o
o
q)
(!
a
0.8
Compression
Tension (Model)
Compression (Model)
0.6
(l)
o
c)
.N
(I'
c
o
o.4
v.z
0
60
80
140
Number
of cycles(i)
1.2
o
o
0.8
o
o
u.o
= 1olo
(c)SpecimenP2,
strainamplitude
tt
o
o
o)
o
0.4
o
.N
ct
E
z
""
Tension
Compression
Tension (Model)
C o m p r e s s i o n( M o d e l )
0
40
60
80
Numberof cycles(i)
100
Fig.2-44 High StrengthBars,Specimens

Pll,PZ and P3
2-50
140
(a) Experiment
100r-_--
80I
AN
40
'6
lz
o
o
q)
-44
-ou
-80
-100
-0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.03
Strain
(b)Simulation
100
80
OU
40
'6
.Y
zv
6V
o
o
-40
-60
-80
{nn
-U.UJ
-0.02
0.01
Strain
Fig. 2-45 ReinforcingBar, SpecimenRl
2-5r
(a) Experiment
80
60
40
20
:o
o
o
o)
a -zu
-40
-ou
-80
-100
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0.01
0.02
Strain
(b)Simulation
100
80
60
40
6zv
.Y
a0
o
o
6 -20
-40
_An
-80
-100
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0.01
0.02
Strain
Fig.2-46 ReinforcingBar, SpecimenR9
2-52
003
(a) Experiment
100
80
OU
40
G20
3
u
o
I -zo
-40
-ou
-80
-100
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0.02
0.03
v.vz
0.03
Strain
(b)Simulation
100
80
60
40
;20
;IAo
o)
E -20
_40
-ou
-80
-100
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0.01
Strain
Big.2-47 ReinforcingBar, SpecimenR5
2-53
(a) SpecimenR11,strainamplitude= 1.75o/o

1.4
E
o
o)
(!
0.8
o
@
(I)
u.o
.3ooopq".oio-iupo
Compressron(Model)
0.4
E
0.2
(I'
E
0
z
o
iE
(E
o
o
c)
30
Strain
(b) SpecimenR7, strainamplitude= 1.5o/o
1.4
1.2
E
(D
Tension
Compression
-Tension
(Model)
'."""" Compressron(Moder
,l
o
U'
o
o
o
o
Tensron
Compression
(Modet)
r-Tensron
]
1.2
0.8
0.6
4.4
.N
(!
v.z
1.4
= 1.25o/o
(c)SpecimenR7,strainamplitute
J
^n
(E
Lz
o
Oa
>l
o
(t'
Tension
"
Compression
"
-Tension
(Model)
; i $ece6'q_-e.
N
v . vA
Compression (Model)
at
E o.o
io) 0 . 4
:
V.Z
=n
ov
2n
Strain
Fig. 2-48 ReinforcingBars,Specimens

Rll, R7 and R10
2-54
(a) Experimental
200
150
1 0 0i
6nl
6
l<
oi
tt
o
c)
a
-50
-100
-150
-0.03
-v.vz
-0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
Strain
(b)Simulation
r4n
100
=u)5 0
5
otl
I
o
-50
-1nn
-150
-200
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
Strain
Fig.2-49 High StrengthBar, SpecimenP20,Low-High StepTest
2-55
(a) Experimental
aa.=
6
.Y
o
u,
o
a
-zvv
-0 01
-U.UJ
0.01
0.02
0.03
Strain
(b)Simulation
200
4En
100
6
50
.Y
o
u,
c)
U)
0
-50
-1nn
-150
-0.03
-v.vz
-0.01
0.01
0.02
Strain
Fig. 2-50 High StrengthBar, Specimen

P2l, High-LowStepTest
2 -56
o
a
^4
E
8s
f
Bars
Reinforcing
Prestressing
Bars
Model
Damage
F
J
o_
5a
<z
z
t
F
a
1
10
TO FAILURE
OF CYCLES
NUMBER
Fig. 2-51 Incipient Failure Prediction
2.8 StrainRateEffects
It has been shown experimentally(Mander et al., 1984; Soroushianand Choi,
Ig87) that the rate of strain influences the stress-strainbehavior of steel" Soroushranand
Choi found that it affects the yield strength, the ultimate strength, the strain at the
beginning of strain-hardeningand ultimate strain. Their study showed that the effect of
sffain rate is different on different types of steel. The dynamic effect on the yield
sffength,as given by Soroushianand Choi, was found to be:
d
-0.920x 10-6fi)log,oldl(2-111
1=0.46-0.451 x 10-6
f,)+(0.0927
f,
where fl : dynamicyield strength,fr = quasi-staticyield strengthande = sffainrate in

-l
sec',
as a dynamicmagnificatio
expressed
Manderet al. founda simplerrelationship
factorgivenby:
2-57
*''
D,=0.e66[t
|
" -"-\'* l+
|5ooo
I )i
(2-rr2)
where D" : dynamicmagnificationfactor.
2.9 Conclusions
The following conclusions
canbe draur from this section:
(1)
A universally applicablemodel is presentedu'hich can simulate the hvsteretic
behaviorof all types of steel. This is particularlf importantas steelsoi higher snength
are being usedtoday.
(2) A method for assesstng
degradation\r'asrmplemented. Previousmodels failed in
simulated this phenomenon. This characteristicof the hysteretic behavior of steel is
important as it also influences the degrading characteristicsof a reinforced concrete
member. Steel fractureleadsto a suddenloss in strengthand energy absorptioncapacity.
Thereforereliablemodeling of steelbehavioris of paramountimportance.
(3) A stepby stepenergy-baseddamageassessment
methodologyis presented. This is a
simple alternativeto the rain flow counting method to assessdamagefor random cycle
behavior.
(4)
Numerous comparisonswith experimentalresults show that both the hysteretic
characteristicsand prediction of fracture can be appropriatelysimulated by the models

advancedherein.
2-58
Section3
CyclicBehavior
of Concrete
Modeling
the Stress-Strain
3"1Introduction
In the context of a computerprogram for the srmulationof the cyclic behavior of
concretemembers,the implementationof all the hystereticproperties of confined and
unconfined concretebecomesan important part. Many investigatorshave devoted their
time to define experimentallyand analyticallythe behaviorof concrete.
In this section an advancedrule-basedmodel, to simulatethe hystereticbehavior
of confined and unconfined concrete in both cyclic compression and tension, is
developed. Tension cyclic modeling is important when calculating deformationsdue to
shearas in the Modified CompressionField Theory (Collins and Mitchell, 1991). The
basic elementsof a rule-basedmodel are identified, which can be applied to any general
purposemodel. Fundamentalideasaboutthe natureof degradationwithin partial looping
is also dealt with; most models deal with degradationin terms of completecycles without
consideringthe event of incompletecycles(as this is the normal type of experimentaldata
available).
A reinforced concretestructuresubjectedto working loads might show cracking in
someelements. Experimentaltests(Yankelevskyand Reinhardt,1987b)have shown that
concretein tension shows a cyclic behaviorsimilar to that in compression. Thus, it was
considerednecessaryto describe analytically the hysteretic behavior of concrete with
excursionsin both compressionand tension.
relation for concreteare: (1)
The desirablecharacteristicsof a generalstress-strain
the slope at the origin ir E" , (2) it should show a peak at the point (ef" ,-f!") , (3) it
3-l
should describeboth the ascendingand the descendingparts of the concretebehavior and

(4) it should have control over the descending(softening)branch. Conffol over the slope
of the descendingbranch is important.becauseits shapeis dependenton factors such as
the degreeof confinementand the srrenglhof the concrete. Experimentshave shown that
for unconfined concrete,both the ascendingand descendingparts of the curve become
steeper(Saenz,1964). Testshave also sho*n that the slope of the descendingbranch
curve for confined concretecan become\.er)'flat (Somes,1970; Iyengar et al., 1970
Burdette,l97l;Kent and Park. l97l: Sconet ai.. 1982:Ahmadand Shah,1982:Mander
etal..1988b).
ASCENDING
BRANCH
STRESS
STRAIN
Fig. 3-f Characteristics

of the Stress-Strain
Relationfor Concrete
3.2 Reviewof PreviousWorkin Stress-Strain

Relationsfor Concrete
3.2.1Monotonic
Compression
Stress-Strain
Equation
Historically, it hasbeen commonly acceptedthat the envelopecun'e for the cycirc
compressivebehaviorof confinedand unconfinedconcreteis the monotonlc compresslve
curve" To develop a suitable hysteretic model it is necessaryto have a monotonic
stress-sfraincurve to describethe envelopecurve.
J-L
The properties of the monotonic sffess-sffaincurve of concrete has been the

subject of numerous papers. One of the first to proposeda formula to representthe
sffess-strainrelationshipin concretewas Bach (Smith and Young, 1955;Popovics, I970).
He presenteda simple power function in the form:
!=kx^
(3-1)
where,
l"
v=n
,=4
e'",
: confrnedconcretesffength(peak
in which tc : concretesffain, f : concretesffess,f!,
: constantdeterminedby
ordinate), EL, : the correspondingstrain (peak abscissa),k
curve fitting, //, : power with a value lessthan one'
The values of m recommendedby Smith and Young (1955) where from 0.45 to
0"70, the higher values been for higher valuesof compressivestrength. This equationis
not appropriateto describethe monotonicbehaviorof concretebecause:(l) it implies an
infinite tangent at the origin, (2) it does not have a peak ?t E" = er." and, (3) it does not
have a descendingbranch,to describethe behaviorafter the peak stresshas been reached'
This equationis shownin Fig. 3-2.
young (1960) analyzedthreeequations,all of which have descendingparts at least
in the neighborhoodafter the Peak,
-3)-r+ n]
| = x[(n - 2)x2 (2n
(3-2)
v=xg" ''
(* \
(3-3)
ll-Yl
'r,= sin| *.r I

\/' /
"
where,
(3-4)
EreL,
, = -fL
I andy weredefinedin Eq. (3-l). Eqs.

in whichE" is the initialmodulusof elasticity,
(3-3)and(3-4)havea fixedvalueof n, thatis n : e = 2.718andn: 1t12,respectively'
Eq. (3-2), on the otherhand,canbe adjustedby letting nhave differentvalues;this is
shownin Fig. 3-3. BecauseEq. (3-2) is a cubicpolynomialit showsa local minimum
for valuesof n greaterthanabout2.4. Warner,1969;
thatmakesthe equationurrsuitable
3-3
and Al-Noury and Chen, 1982,usedthis equationfor the ascendingbranch,but they used
a parabolafor the descendingbranch.
Desayi and Krishnan(1964) proposedan equatronrn the form:
Y-
Lr
;pxz
(3-s)
This equationhasa fixed valueof n : 2. The shapeof thrs equatlonafter the peak
has the correct tendency, and some generalizationsof this equation \\'ere oroposeci
afterward.
Kabaila (1964), discussingon the equationby Desayi and Krishnan. proposeda
quartic polynomial relationshipin the form:
9 + 0.7763x3+ 0.0027
xa
| = 2 .0x - 1 .1 8xz
(3-6)
This equationalso showsa fixed valueof ft = 2, and it has a minimum near.r= 3.

so the equationcould only be usedfor valuesof .r lessthan this value. The peak of thrs
equationis not at x : 1, but ratherat x:
1.1333.This type of equationcould well fit an
experimentbut could not be usedas a generalequation.

Saenz(1964), also discussingon the equationproposedby Desayi and Krishnan,
presentsseveralother equations:
y=x(2-x)
(3-4
This equation had been adoptedby the EuropeanConcreteCommittee and was

used by many investigators to represent the ascending branch of the monotonic
stress-straincurve. This parabolais a particular caseof the cubic equation, Eq. (3-2),
when the value of n is takenas 2.
Saenzalso presentsanothertwo equationswhich generalizethe equationproposed
by Desayiand Krishnan,Eq.(3-5),
Y=iffix+x,
This equationhas conffol of the initial tangentparametern,by takingn:2,
(3-s)
it is
reducedto Eq. (3-5). The behaviorof this equationis presentedin Fig. 3-4.
The secondequationproposedby Saenzgoes a step ahead,by allowing control
over both the ascendingand the descendingbranch. Control over the descendingbranch
3-4
is achievedby defining a point on the descendingbranch. The equationproposed,in the

nomenclatureusedhere,is expressedas:
v=
nx
I + ( R+ n - 2 ) x - ( 2 R - I ) x z + R x 3
(3-e)
where:*=ffi-*;
fl
Rt='#
Jf
Rr=
Er
*
(et, fr ) : a point on the descendingbranchofthe curve.

This equationis presentedin a very convenientform, becauseits parametershave
physical meaning. The value of R is defined by a point on the descendingbranch of the
curve. The behavior of this equationis presentedin Fig. 3-6. When the value of ft is
taken as zero, Eq. (3-9) reducesto Eq. (3-8), and if in additionthe value of n is setto two,
it then reducesto the Desayi-Krishnanequation,Eq. (3-5).
Tulin and Gerstle (1964), also commenting on the Desayi-Krishnan equation
proposedthe equation:
,.'=
3t
"
2+x'
This equationis a particularcaseof Eq. (3-8) for a valueof n : 1.5 .
They also suggesteda more generalexpressionas:
(a+1)x
-/ - a + x
(3-10)
(3-il)
a andr mustbe selectedfor bestfit. They did not

They statedthat the constants
presentany commentsinto how this fitting couldbe done,but it canbe relativelyeasily
rsto havea peakatr:1, thenr shouldbe takenas r=a+l
be shownthatif thisequation
andit canbe writtenin the followingform.
fr
t, r -- r - l + x '
where
r-
ttn-1
3-5
(3-12)
-\
0.8
f
n
I
l:
0.6
_
Bach(3-1)
---- Young(3-3)
Young(3-4)
(3-5)
Desayi& Krishnan
---,Kabaila(3-6)
- - - EuropeanCommittee
---- Tulin& Gerstle
(3-10)
. . . - . - -M i z aa n dH s u( 3 - 1 3 a )
0.4
0 .2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
e.
Y-
arc
Fig. 3-2 Comparisonof DifferentStress-Strain

Equationsfor Concrete
1.2
y:
xf(n-2)x' -(.2n-3)x+nl
1
0.8
l ,
0.6
----------
0.4
0.2
0
vi
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
n= 1.1
n='1.5
n=l
n=3
n=4
1.2
1.4
Fig. 3-3 EquationSuggested

by Young (1960)
3-6
1.6
1.8
1
0.9
0.8
n = 1.1
--- n = 1.5
n=2
- --n=3
- - - n=4
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
NT
1 - tn - 2).r *.t2
0.2
0.1
0
1.5
0.5
2.5
by Saenz(1964)
Fig.3-4 EquationSuggested
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4
_n=2
---n=3
-..-..-"n=4
0.3
rx
0.5
0.2
0.1
t--------=
n=1.1
n= 1.5
'
f = -
r-l*
n
n-l
...Desayi& Krishnan
(3-5)
x'
0
0.5
1.5
x
Fig. 3-5 EquationProposedby Popovics(1973)
3-7
This equationknown as Popovics'(1973)(Manderet al.. 1988a1Carreiraand Chu.

1985 and 1986a;Tsai, 1988)has proven to be very useful rn describrngthe monotonic
compressivesffess-strain
curvefor concrete.This equationrs shoun in Fig. 3-5.
Mirza and Hsu (1969) used a relationship in the form:
/-\
/. | ,=, s i n|\ 4* r / l + 0 . 2 x ( x -l ) ( e ' - ' - 1 )
. re [ 0 .1 ]
y = 0 . 2 2 6 + 2 . 1 5 7 x - 1 . 9 1 x 2 + 0 . 5-906. 0x 6
34 x a
x e ( 1 ,3 . . 1 1
(3-13a)
( 3- l3b)
This is a very complexrelationand it doesnot possess

controlover the rnirial slope.
Sargin (taken from Ghosh, 1970)proposeda very generalformulatron. expressed
in the notationusedhere:
tLt+ (D - l)x2
(3-11)
ftln-/)x+Dr
where, D : factor controlling the slopeof the descendingbranch.

This equationis anothergeneralization
of that by Saenz,Eq. (3-8). By takingD as
one,Eq. (3-14) reducesto Eq. (3-8). This equation,as Eq. (3-9), alsohascontrolover the
descendingbranch. This equation,nevertheless,can give negativesvalues of stress,as
can be seenif Fig" 3-7.
Fafitis and Shah(1985) proposedand equationof the form:
!=l-(l-x)'
x e [ 0 ,1 ]
(3-15a)
y = g'-a(x-l)t'ts
x> I
(3-1sb)
In this equationthe value of a dependson the amount and spacingof transverse

reinforcement.
A modification to the Popovics' relation, Eq. (3-12)" was suggestedby
Thorenfeldt.Tomaszewiczand Jensen(Collinsand Mitchell , 1991) rn the form:
(3-16)
In this equationfr takesa value of I for valuesof .r less than I and valuesgrearer
than I for valuesof x greaterthan l. This meansthat b1'adjustin_e
the value of fr the
descendingbranch can be made steeper. This approachcan be used for unconfined
concretewhere for high valuesof concretethe descendingbranchbecomesvery steep,but
3-8
could not be used for the caseof confinedconcretewhere the descendingbranch needsto
be flattened.This equationpresentsa slope discontinurtyat the peak value and the value
of fr is not continuous.
form of the Popovics'equation,
a generalized
Tsai (1988)recommended
l ,
_v-
.l
NT
/\
(3-r7)
r\Tt
l+lni l-r-r-ll
\
r-l
where, r : factor to control the descendingbranchof the stress-stralnrelation. By taking
Eq. (3-12),and by takingr : 2 it is reducedto
Eq. (3-17)reducesto Popovrcs',
n = -\
r- |
ts shownrn Fig.3-8.
Saenz',Eq. (3-8). The behavrorof this equatron
The continuousequationsreviewedcanbe classifiedin the following way:

(a) Equationsto representonly the ascendingbranch:
( 1) Bach
Eq.(3-1)
(2)Mina andHsu
Eq.(3-l3a)
(3) FafitisandShah
Eq.(3-15a)
the ascending
branch
(b) Equationsto represent
branchandthe descending
withouthavingcontrolon theinitial slope:
(l) Young
Eq.(3-3)
(2) Young
Eq.(3-a)
(3) Desayiand Krishnan
Eq.(3-s)
(4) Kabaila
Eq.(3-6)
(5) Saenz
Eq.(3-7)
(6) Tulin and Gerstle
Eq.(3-10)
(c) Equationsto represent

the ascending
branchandthe descending
branch
havingcontrolon the initial slope:
(1) Young
Eq.(3-2)
(2) Saenz
Eq.(3-8)
(3) Popovics
Eq.(3-12)
3-9
tlt*jt.
.t
0.9
0.8
n= 2
0.7
0.6
y
-R=-1
0.5
---
0"4
a-- --
-t-
R = -0.333
R=0
t---_
I
I
Saenz(3-8)
R=3
R=5
0.3
0.2
0.1
'u :
I r 1 R* n - ? t . r - ( 2 R - l ) - r 2 +R x 3
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Fig.3-6 Equrtion Suggested

by Saenz(1964)
1
0.9
0.8
--.-i--------
0.7
-p=l
- - - -D=2
,,-,D=4
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
v:
Saenz(3-8)
nx+(D - l)x
l+ (n-2)x +Dx2
(xf - I )2- [ + ( n- 2lx rl(1-.v,.

.l t
J-
,j o-ry)
0
1.5
x
Fig.3-7 EquationSuggested
by Sargin(1968)
3-10
Tsai'sEquation
t-
* x'
r-l
't + ( n - l = ) r
\- r-l)-
n(l -x')
dt'
dx
['.(,-fr)..*)'
L i n tl * ( n - * ) t
r-1l
;-i
\
*4=l+(nr-l
l)x+x ln.r
Limxln;=0
-r --J l)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
,r=0.5
,-r=1
- I
-s
,--- r = 3
r=5
---------l
Saenz(3-8)
'""
- Popovics(;D)
\ - --l' - Y
nx
. #)
r * (n --t-.)r
, -r,
\
0
1.5
x
Fig. 3-8 EquationProposedby Tsai (1988)
3 - lI
branch(initial slope)
(d) Equationsthat havecontrolon both the ascendin-q
and the descendinsbranch:
(1) Saenz
Eq.(3-e)
(2) Sargin
Eq.(3-la)
(3)Tsai
Eq.(3-17)
It shouldbe notedthat it is only Tsai'sequationthat gives reasonableconfrol for

all possibilities,whereas,as seenin Fig. 3-6, in Saenz'sequation )' > I under certaln
circumstances,and in Sargin'sequationy < 0.
The equationsof the last type are the most flexible and general,and by' companng
their behavior it was concludedthat Tsai's equationis the most suitableto representthe
behaviorofboth confinedand unconfinedconcrete.
y=
nx
t/
,tvta
l+ln
\
..
r-l)
--7
lr+-
(3-17)
r-l
Furthermore,Mander'soriginal concretemodel (1988a) uses Popovics' equation

which is really a specialcaseof Tsai'sequation. By adoptingTsai's equationand setting
n = -!=, all of the standarddata calibratedfor Mander'sconfined concretemodei can
r- |
continue to be utilized. However, the advantageof using this new relationshipgives the
addedflexibility of controlling the slope of the falling branch curve. This is particularly
necessaryfor high strengthconcrete,and also when high strength transverseconfining
reinfbrcement is used. The model of Mander et al. (1988a) in its present form has
difficulty coping with thesetwo phenomena.
of Elasticity
3.2.2InitialModulus
Severalformulae for the modulus of elasticityhave been proposedin the
is
literature.Pauw(1960)reportedseveralof theseformulae.Thefirst of theseequations
thefollowing:
E" = 1,000f!
3-r2
r3-lt)
This equationwas in the ACI building code before 1963. Although this equation
has been used extensivelybecauseof its simplicrty to representthe modulus of elasticity
the value of E for high strengthconcrete"
of normal strengthconcrete,it overestimates
"
An equationreportedby Pauw which was proposedby the ACI-ASCE Committee
323 to estimatethe value of E^ for normal strengthconcreteis:
+ 500f! psi
OOO
E, = l,rOO,
(3-1e)
MPa
500f!
E"=12,400+
Another equationpresentedby Pauw which was proposedby Jensenin 1943, and

its applicableonly to normal strengthconcreteis:
6.000.000
L'r =
PSt
,o*
'-
l,
t"=U$
fl
,-T
,,14
(3-20)
Mpa
The following linear relationshipwas developedby Lyse (Pauw, 1960),

which is similar to Eq.(3-19).
0
E , = 1 ,8 0 0 ,0 0+a60f!
psi
(3-21)
MPa
E, = 12,400+ 460f!
An equationproposedby Pauw(1960)that was adoptedinto the ACI building
to bothnormalandlightweightconcrete.
codesince1963,is applicable
(3-22)
E , = 3 3 w tJsf
in which f '.is in psi andw in Pcf.
For normal weight concrete,the ACI code assumesa weight of 145 pcf and
thefollowingequation:
proposes
E, = 57000
JT
psi
(3,23)
E, = 4,70A,1f! MPa
anothertwo formulae:
Pauwalsopresented
0.44
E, = l3.g2wr.7eJ:t
3-13
(3-24)
t)'3t)
E, = l58.lv't'5tJ:t
(3-2s)
in which .f '"is inpsi andw in pcf.

This last equationwas obtainedu'henexcludingthe datafor concreteshavinga
strengthlessthat 2000psi. And accordingto the authorit is believedto be
compressive
by theACI code.Notethesmallerexponent.
morereliablethantheoneadopted
thefollourngformulafor themodulusof elasticity:
Saenz(1964)suggested
tr-
Lt
to:l_f!
pst
| +0.0061f
tr-
LC-
ssoo
Jr
(3-26)
MPa
I +0.072,ft!
Carrasquilloet al. (1981) recommendedthe following expressionfor normal

weight concrete:
E"=40000/fl* 1000000 psi

MPa
E, =3300,[f + 6900
(3-27)
In more recentyears,Klink (1985) has shown that the initial elasticmodulus is

greaterthan that calculatedwith Pauw'sequation,Eq. (3-22). In addition, he showedthat
the elasticmodulus varies acrossthe section,being the smallervalues for the points near
the sidesof the specimen.The equationKlink proposesis:
E, = 14.6wr'ts
,lf
(3-28)
in which f! is in psi andw in pcf. This equationgivesvaluesof E, that are about50

theotherformulae,for normalweightconcrete.
percenthigherthanthosecalculated
Concrete
3.2.3 Strainat PeakStressfor Unconfined
The strain e/. conespondingto the maximum stressf!
for unconfined concrete
hasbeen found to be a function of the maximum sffess,althoughsomeauthorshave taken

it as a constantvalue,normally0.002(Parkand Paulay,1975).
Saenz(1964)proposeda functionrn the form:
('):5l0-5
et =(31.5-f!')':5)1t
psi
Q-2e)
e L= ( 1 4 . 3- 2 9 . 4 f ! o : 5 ) f t ' ) 1 5l 0 - j
3-r4
J{Pa
Popovics(1970)reviewedsomeotherexpressions:
psi
el = 0.000546+2.56x10-'"f1
(3-30)
(Ros)
-tf!'r'tPa
e l = 0 . 0 0 0 5 4 6 + 3x. l7} 1
fl
pl
J"
PSI
""=6@
(3-31)
(Brandtzaeg)
et -
r'fl
,
" ' - 4 , 6 9+
0260f!
MPe
eL=3"7xI0-'Jf
psi
(3-32)
(Jager)
e t " = 4 " 5 x 1 0 a , [ J ! MPa
-f!
., e'"=lwooo+3W
PSt
(3-33)
(HungananCode)
'" =
ft
rnr'itw#
MPa
Carreiraand Chu (1985) proposedan expressionbasedon regressionanalysis:

e t "= ( 1 6 8+ 4 . 8 8x l 0 - 3 / ) x l 0 - s p s i
(3-34)
et,= (168+ 0.708/) x t0-'
MPa
the following expression:

Sulayfaniand Lamirault( 1987)suggested
et"= 2.5 x lo41:t 0'246 psi
(3-3s)
el = 8.5x l0-e7ro'z+aMPa
It has been found that the observedstrain at peak sffessdependsin factors such as
humidity, rate of loading and age [Hughes and Gregory (1972); Dilger, Koch an<i
Kowalczyk (198a); Soroushian,Choi and Alhamad (1986); Mander et al" (1984);
Bischoff and Perry (1991)1.
3-15
of the Descending
3.2.4 Characteristic
Branchof the Monotonic
Concrete
Stress-Strain
Curvefor Unconfined
Popovics'equation,
Eq.(3-12), has been used extensivelyin representing
the
completestress-strainrelationshipfor unconfinedand confined concrete. The descending
branchof this equationis very sensitiveto the value of n (initial stiffrressratio), so if a
good estimationof the descendingbranchis neededis it necessaryto choosethis value
carefully,but by doing so the initial slopeis not maintained.Anotherway of overcoming
this problemhasbeento usea pieceuisecontinuous
curve[Eqs.(3-13)and (3-1a)].
Kent and Park (1971) proposeda descendinglinear relationshippassingthrough
the point (e,fr) with:
e'=
3 + 0 . 0 0 2f !
PSi
7! - L6r
(3-36a)
,r=o o2rlo:o:'il
Jl - o.Y
MPa
fr= o.sf!
(3-36b)
Sulayfaniand Lamirault (1987) suggesteda-pointon the descendingcurve as:
ey= (t 68_ #)el
psi
(3-37a)
e1=(.a-$leL
Mpa
fr= o.ssf!
(3-37b)
Muguruma et al. (1991) suggesteda linear relation for the descendingbranch that
passesthrough the point (er,fr):
er=0.004
(3-38a)
fr= 0
(3-38b)
Sakaiet al. (1991)proposeda lineardescending

branchthat passesthrough:
er=0.005
.ft= 3.3fto'83 psi
fr= l.4f t o'et MPa
3-16
(3-39a)
(3-3eb)
Collinsand Mitchell(1991)useda complete equation to model the descending

branch.
{- -
Jc
rx
r- I +xk'
(3-40a)
where:
r=.8+fi, psi
(3-40b)
MPq
,= s*$
and,
psi
k=0.67,
#
+4
k = 0.67
b/.
(3-40c)
MPa
In the previous equation the value of fr is taken as I for the ascendingbranch and
is calculatedusing Eq. (3-40c) for the descendingbranch. By using this procedurethe
continuity of the tangentelasticmodulusis lost, as shown in Fig. 3-12.
Some other models have been presentedby Wang et al. (1978), Popovics (1970)
andTsai (1988).
Concrete
Curvefor Unconfined
Stress-Strain
Complete
3.3 Recommended
From the datareportedby Klink (1985),the following expressionfor normal
concretecanbe derived:
vy=)g.JJ fr o'o+as
(3-41)
for the modulusof elasticity

By combiningEqs.(3-25)and(3-41)an expression
suitablefor both normalandhigh strengthconcreteis obtained.The proposedequation
is:
3/8
= 162,000
Eo.+s
f!
3/8
psi
Q-42)
=7,200f!
MPa
Eo.cs
This relationshipis plottedin Fig. 3-9 and is comparedwith thosementioned
previously,
Eqs.(3-18)to (3-28).
3-r7
In the previous equation,the modulusof elasticityhas been named E o.csbecause

it is defined as the secantmodulus from the origin up to a sffessof 45o/oof the concrete
strength" Mander et al. ( 1984)recommendan initial modulus of elasticity E, = 1,.l Eo.+s.
In this study the initial elasticmoduluswas found to be between l0o/oand 187o,with an
averageof l5%o,greaterthan the secantmodulus. So the recommendedinitial modulus of
elasticityis given as:
E" = 185,000f! 3/8
psi
(3-43)
E" =8,200f! 3/8
MPa
Basedon the datareportedby Sulayfaniand Lamirault(i987) the following a

simplerequationis proposed:
,L=ffi psi
(3-44)
e,"=tl!2 6
L[pa
which will also fit the data for high strength concrete presented by Muguruma et al.
(1991). Thus, this equationmay be used to representthe strain at peak stressfor both
normal and high strengthconcrete. Eq. (3-aa) is plotted in Fig. 3-10 and comparedwith
thosementionedpreviously,(Eqs.3-29 to 3-35).
A simple explicit equation for the parameterr was adopted. The sffess-strain
curvesobtainedcomparedwell with thosesuggestedby Collins and Mitchell (1991). The
proposedformula, for the descendingbranch,is given directly in terms of the parameterr
of the Tsai'sequation,Eq. (3-17),as:
,=ffi_r.npsi
(3-4s)
,={-r.,
MPa
In this sectiona complete,o.rr-rriut-ncurvefor unconfinedconcreteis proposed.

sffess-sffain
curve for unconfined
The equationto describethe monotoniccompressive
concreteis basedon Tsai'sequation:
nx
y=
/\
-t + ( n - + ' l r +
\- r-l)-3 -l 8
(3-a6a)
r"- 'l
to controlthe shapeof the curve.

where x = + andy =* , ,and r areparameters
l;
e(
The equationparametern is definedby the initial modulusof elastrcity,the
strain. The initial modulusof elasticityandpeak
concretesnengthandthe conesponding
sffainastheyweredefinedpreviouslyaregivenby:
E" = 185,0001ue psi
E, =8,2007 ue
Mpa
and,
F . l .-
fl tt4
t''
- -.
rD"S I
4.000
s1=t
-t6
MPa
Thus the parametern is defined as:
,=t+=*=ffi psi
(3-46b)
MPa
n = 4 3/8
yr
The parameterr as it was definedpreviouslyin this sectionis given by:

fl
r = ::; _ 1.9 psi

/)u
r=
fl
lU-
(3-46c)
t.9 MPa
by Eqs. (3-46) is shown graphicallyin Fig. 3-11'

The relation represented
relationsgiven by Collins and Mitchell (1991)are presentedin
Analyticalstress-sffain
factor is used. The single
Fig. 3-12. In the equationusedby them a noncontinuous
of beingadaptablefor both confinedandunconfined
equationusedherehasthe advantage
brancheitherupwardor downward,usingthe
concrete,asit allowsto shift the descending
parameters
n andr whichareplottedin Fig. 3-13.
3-r9
fr't MPal
10000
40
zv
12000
T
50
60
70
nn
80
ACI 1956
-'- -
Cornm.323
ACI-A,SCE
----
Jeftsen
70
Lyse
8ooo
*<
ta
60m
ACr 1963
-'-'-
Saenz
- " -'
Carrasquilbet al.
----
Klink
Pn@
50
-."
_l)
40
JU
20
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12040
f,' (Psi)
Fig. 3-9 Comparisonof DifferentEquationsfor the SecantModulus
of Concrete
0.3
Cr)
0.2
Fig. 3-10 Comparisonof DifferentEquationsfor the Strain at PeakStress

)-zv
12
.10
fr' {lrsi) a
4
2
0
0.003
0.004
0.005
Ec
Fig.3-11 ProposedTheoreticalStress-StreinCurvesfor UnconfinedConcrete
12
10
I
' fc ' ( l $ i \
6
4
2
0
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
Ec
Fig. 3-12 TheoreticalStress-StrainCurvessuggested

by Collins and Mitchell
3-2r
4000
8000
6000
10000
f" ' ( Psi1

Fig. 3-13 Tsai'sEquationParametersfor UnconfinedConcrete
3.4 Confinement of Concrete

and is an acceptedfact, that transverse
It hasbeenshownby manyinvestigators
reinforcement
improvesboth the strengthandthe ductility of concrete.Severalmodels
havebeenput forwardto describethis effecton the propertiesof confinedconcrete,and
by reinforcingsteelhasbeenexplainedsuccessfully
themechanics
of passiveconfinement
with rectilinearhoops,andby Mander
by SheikhandUzumeri(1980)for squaresections
sections
with hoopsandties,andcircular
et al. (1988a)for all casesincludingrectangular
sectionswith eitherspiralsor hoops.
The first attemptsto describethe effect of confinementon the strengthand
ductility of concretewereempirical. Severalauthorsproposedconfinementmodelsfor
rectangularand circularhoops. It was recognizedthat circularhoopsprovidedbetter
thanrectangular
hoops. Generally,confinement
modelscanbe classifiedas
confinement
hoop confinementmodelsand materialconfinementmodels. The hoop confinement
mechanism
within the context
modelsarenormallydirectedto describethe confinement
modelstry to explainthe effect of
of a crosssection,while the materialconfinement
on theultimatestrengthof concrete.
biaxialor triaxialstateof stresses
3-ZZ
Models
3.4.1 Confinement
One of the first attempts to define the effect of confinement on the ultimate
srrengthof concretewas madeby fuchart et al. (1928). They usedactive hydrostaticfluid
pressureto confine concreteand proposedthe following relationships
f!"=f!+krft
(3-46)
=et"(t."#)
eL,
(3-4x)
Herc, ft"" and et", are the confined concrete strength and corresponding strain
under the confining fluid pressuref,, and f"
ande'" are the unconfined concrete strength
and correspondingstrain. Factor t, was found to be 4.1 while k, : 5 kr. Becauseof its
simplicity, this equationhas been widely applied, and was the basis of the confinement
requirementsfor concretecolumnsin ACI-318 (Park and Paulay,1975).
Balmer (1949) found the value of fr, to vary between4.5 and 7.0. He also usedan
active hydrostaticfluid pressure on standardsize cylinders, which led him to suggestthe
following expression:
/
r/ 10'73
f!"=fll r+l.r7s+
|
J, )
tr-asl
Chan (1955) proposeda trilinear curvo dependenton the volumetric ratio of the tie
steel to concrete core to simulate the passive confinemenl of transvercerectilinear ties.
He considered that this was the only variable affecting the strength and ductility of
concrete confined, this was the first attompt to evaluate the effect of the passive
confinement of ffansversereinforcement upon the behavior of concrete under eccentric
6 x 6xlllin. and 6 x3|x 52in.
compression.He usedspecimens
Blume. Newmark and Corning (1961) proposedan expressionfor the strength
enhancement due to rectangular hoops" Their equation used the result obtained by
Richart et al. (1928), Eqs. (3-46) and(3-47), wherethe confining sffesswas consideredto
be given by:
f,=os(ry)
3-23
(3-4e)
where the term a is the longer side of the rectangularconcreteareaenclosedby the hoop
and f,u is the stressin the hoop. While s is the hoop spacingand A,ris the hoop cross
sectional area. The reduced efficiency of the rectangularhoop in confining the core
concrete was taken into account by introducing the preceding 0.5 factor. as shown by
Iyengar et al. this is not a conservativeassumption.
Roy and Sozen(1964) proposeda model in which the strengthof concretewas
not influenced by the degreeof confinement. Their bilinear relation only considerodan
effect of passiveconfinementon the descendingbranch of the stress-sffainrelationship.
This model was based on data obtained from /esfs on prisms (5 x 5 x 25 in). They
considereda strain at peak stressof 0.002, and the ascendingbranch was taken linear.
The obvious simplificationswere to be refinedby someauthorsafterward.
Soliman and Yu (1967) suggesteda piecewisecontinuouscurve composedof a
parabola for the ascendingbranch, a horizontal plateau and a descendingcurve. Their
equations were based on experimental data obtained for rectangular binders. They
studied the effect of size, type and spacing of binders, shapeof the cross-sectionand
cover, then proposedan empiricalmodel basedon thesevariables.
(3-s0a)
f!,=f!(l +0.05q,')
with:
- 0 . 4- 5 )
o
Y "= ( r . 4 4 " o "
["'Agror,
/*!t;tl]
(3-s0b)
)Arns+0.00288s
in which A"or, = area of bound concreteunder compression,Agror,: atea of concrete

under compressioll,J/ = longitudinalspacingof transversereinforcement,Dr : breadthof
bound concretecross-sectiot,dr = effective depth of bound concretecross-sectionand
B = b t or 0.7dr, whicheverit the greater.
Iyengar. Desayi and Reddy (1970) developed some empirical expressionsf,or
circular and squarespiral confinement,as well as for stimrp confinement.
The confinement pressure for circular spiral hoops proposed by Iyengar et al"
was:
r,='#(i-i)
3-24
(3-s1)
where s'is the least lateral dimension" It was assumedthat a hoop spacinggreaterthan
the least lateral dimensionproducesno ductility or strengthenhancement.Thrs approach
was also usedby Solimanand Yu.
For stirrups the confining pressurewas found to be:
fr=o.r+2A'!f,o(*-#)
(3-s2)
where d was defined in Eq. (3-49). Note the precedingfactor reflecting the less efficient
confinementof rectilinear ties. Their experimentsshowedless efficiency for rectilinear
ties than that assumedby Blume et al.
They also useda linear relation of the form proposedby Richart et al., Eqs. (3-46)
and(3-47), where they found a value of k, : 4.6. The coefficient krfor spiral hoopswas
found tobe kr:
10 kp and for rectilinearties kr= 8.8 k, .
Sargin (1971) proposedthree equationsto predict the ultimate strength and one
equation to represent the corresponding strain. A continuous curve was proposed to
represent stress-strainrelationship, Eq. (3-14), where the parametersn and D were
prisms.
calibratedempirically from testsresultson squarecross-sectional
Kent and Park (1971) presenteda piecewisecontinuousmodel composedof an
ascending parabola (similar to that proposed by Soliman and Yu), then a linear
descendingbranch with a slope that dependson the amount of confinementand finally a
sustainedstressof 0.2f'".
Their model did not reflectedany sffengthenhancementdue to
the confinementsteel. This model was later modified by Park, Priestleyand Gill (1982)
to include the effect of confinementupon the strengthof concrete.
This model assumeda peak strain of 0.002 for unconfined concrete. In terms of
the Richart et al. linear relationshipEqs. (3-46), Park et al. proposedthe coefficientsto be
kr: lh.: 1, and the equivalentconfining pressuregiven by:
fi= p,fyn
(3-53)
to volume of concretecore measuredto

where p" is the ratio of hoop reinforcement
outsideof thehoops.
LeslieandPark(1974) proposed
a modelfor the confinement
of circularcolumns
of two parabolas.The descending
branch
in which the ascending
branchwascomposed
3-25
was composedof an inclinedline with a slope-Z , it was assumedthat concretecan

sustaina stressof 0.2f! indefinitely,with:
r'r3
t 5 . 5 0 0 (f ! )
t=
fL ttu,)
( f! _\"'
z _ ro.7
'.f!"\p,"6,)
o"
(3-s4)
MPa
"" -
Vallenas.Bertero and Popov (1977) proposeda model similar to that by Kent and
Park (197I) but the ascendingbranch reflects the effect of confinement. Instead of the
parabola proposedby Kent and Park, they proposedan expressionin which the initiai
slope can be specified. The coordinateof the peak proposedby Vallenas et al. is given
by:
=o.oo2+
+oooos
e!""
( | - 0.734
#)r,
=o (t-oz+sfiXo"*
fi#
# r ooer
(3-5aa)
#
(3-s4b)
reinforcementto the
where p" is the ratio of the total volumeof confiningtransverse
zoneof the beam
volumeof confinedconcrete,both only for the confinedcompressive
areaof the longitudinalbarsto the total
crosssection;p is the ratio of the cross-sectional
zone,ft" is the averagedimensionof the
concretearea,both in the confinedcompressive
h" = (h"r + h"z) I 2; wheteh", andh", are
e zone,definedby the expression
compressiv
to outsideof the hoops;s is the hoop
zone,measured
of the compressive
the dimensions
reinforcement
andD is the nominal
spacing,d" is the nominaldiameterof the transverse
diameterof thereinforcingbars.
(1981) used an expressionbasedon Richart's
Priestley.Park and Potangaroa
equation(1928),which is similar to that by Blume et al. The confiningpressurefor
to bebasedon a uniformlydistributedtubeof steel:
spirallycon/inedconcreteis assumed
^
l. Jt -
2 A,o f,n
----:-
(3-ss)
d, sn
Sheikhand Uzumeri(1982)proposeda rationalmodelwherethe geometryof a

squaresectionandthe rectilinearreinforcementdistributionis directly takeninto account.
3-26
They then used experimentaldata to fit a proposed confining coefficient. The final
equation suggestedby them for square cross-sectionsis written as:
#X'- *f] lpJr+=,0+#[('-
(3-s6)
of tie of squarecore,l, :
where,Po",=0.85f!@2-A,),8 = centerto centerdistance
steel,/ : stressin the
areaof longitudinalsteel,ps = volumetricratio of transverse
of confinedconcrete.C : centerto center
lateralsteelat the time of maximumresistance
distancebetweenlongitudinalbars,J : centerto centerhoopspacing,n: numberof bars
on perimeterof core"
Ahmad and Shah (1982b) presenteda model for the confinementof spiral
were
reinforcement.Their modelusesSargin'sequation,Eq. (3-13),andthe parameters
givenby:
results.Theyproposed
a confiningpressure
by fitting experimental
determined
r,=ff(t-1.25sd""
(3-57a)
,,=#
(3-s7b)
o,=ffiffo,
(3-s7c)
b=Wff,n
(3-s7d)
Shah.Fafitis and Arnold (1988) suggesteda model for spirally confined concrete
similar to that by Ahmad and Shah. In their model the envelopecurve is composedof
two different equations, one for the ascendingbranch and another for the descending
branch. The proposedconfined concretestrengthequationsis:
with,
.ff),
f.,=f!*[t.t,
(3-58a)
fyhf_L_ I )
r,r_- 2 A , n
d \s 1.25d)
(3-s8b)
This model assumesthat the effect of confinementdisappearswhen the spacingis

greater than about 0.25d, where d is the column diameter. It should be noted that the
experimental data on full size spirally confined columns reported by Mander et ai.
(1988b) show that this is an unrealisticimplication.
T
Kf"'
f"
0.5f"'
0.5f
"'
0.002
50. ec
Soliman
andYu (1967)
RoyandSozen(1964)
Chan(1955)
o *, rooro. Ero"
ec
-e
'c
Kf:
Kf:
0.8sK_f:
Kf"'
t2o" ec
LeslieandPark(1974)
KentandPark(1971)
Kentand Park
andModified
(Parket al.,1982)
Sargin(1971)
E"o t""
o.zxf
!
o.3Kf"
Eo
0.:x
Vallenas,
Bertero
andPopov(1977)
,y
r2 t"a5
Sheikhand
Uzumeri(1980)
Mander,Priestley
andPark(1988)
Curvesfor ConfinedConcrete
Fig. 3-14 SomeProposedStress-Strain
3-28
Mander et al. (1988a) proposedan analyticalmodel for confined concretewhich

used a plasticity based five parameterfailure model after William and Warnke (1975)
applied to a three dimensional(3D) hypoelasticconstitutivemodel proposedby Elwi and
Murray (1979). The equationusedby Popovics,Eq.(3-ll), was used to representthe
stress-strainrelationship. In this model the geometryof the sectionis taken into account
by defining an effectively confined concretecore. This approachis an advancedversion
of the one usedby Sheikhand Uzumeri (1982). The approachis applicableto any section
shape (both rectangularand circular) and reinforcing type (rectilinear hoops, ties, and
spirals or circular hoops). This model appearsto be the only one that incorporates
dynamic loading effects as well as cyclic loading. Details of the model are discussed
below"
Mechanism
3.4.2 Confinement
The lateral confining stressesare unevenly distributed along the depth of the
compressionzone (Soliman and Yu, T967). The confining pressurecomes from the
transversesteelthat is passivelyresistingthe lateralexpansionofthe concretesubjectedto
compression. This confining action on the concretemakes it both stronger and more
ductile. The most simple approachis to use empirical formulations that to relate the
confined strength and ductility to the unconfined properties of concrete. A more rational
approachis to use a constitutivemodel to describethe effect of a multiaxial stateof stress
upon the ultimate strengthof concrete. Many such models have been proposed in the
literature,(Mills andZimmerrnan,1970;Liu, Nilson and Slate, 1972;Kupfer and Gerstle,
1973;Chen, A.C.T and Chen W.F., 1975;Darwin and Pecknold, 1977; Cedolin, Crutzen
and Dei Poli,1977; Ottosen,1979;Kotsovosand Newman, 1979;Elwi and Murray, 1979;
Bazant and Kim, 1979; Chen and Ting, 1980; Ahmad and Shah, 1982; Chuan-zhi,
Zhen-haiand Xiu-qin, 1987).
of CircularSections
3.4.2.1Confinement
by Manderet al. (1988a)will be adoptedherein,asit appears
The modelproposed
modelthat is applicableto all sectionshapes.For circular
to be the only generalized
is givenby:
sectiontheeffectivelateralpressure
fr = lk" P,f,
3-29
(3-se)
with fr"is the confinementeffectivenesscoefficientdefinedby:

.4"
ne_T
(3-60)
17 ct
to yield by the time the maximumstressin the

The confiningbarsare assumed
concreteis reached, in which casefs : fro.
as:
The effectivelyconfinedareashownin Fig. 3-15canbe calculated
o"=+(r o5*)'
(3-6r)
where d : diameterof circular or spiral hoops, s' : clear longitudinal spacing

betweenspiralsin which arching action of the concretedevelops,the power t has a value
of 2 for circular hoopsand 1 for spirals(helix).
The concretecore areais calculatedas:
A,,=(l-OA+
(3-62)
p" is the volumeffic ratio of the ffansverseconfining steel to the confined core
given by:
(3-63)
Pr=H
p"" is the volumetricratio of the longitudinalsteelin the confined core given by:
(3-64)
'
P""=4
nd?
is givenby:
Thus,the final expression
/
J\k
a - P'J'\
d' )
.ll-0.5+ |
JL
l-p,.,
(3-6s)
Sections
of Rectangular
3.4.2.2Confinement
The effectivelyconfinedareaforrectangularsectionsis shownin Fig. 3-15 andis
givenby:
_o5+')
_o5S)(.,
d"
t,' =f(n,
- _i $)fr
d,/
6
b
,
)
\
."
e
(3-66)
J\
The concretecoreareais t*'"',t""

= brd" - Art
3-30
(3-67)
The lateral confinementpressurefor rectangularsectionscan have different values

in each direction. In this casea generalthree dimensionalstate of sffessis developed.
The lateralpressurefor eachdirection(x andy) is calculatedas:
fu = krP'fyn
(3-68)
fu = k"Pr[r,
(3-6e)
in which,
P r =Sbd "
Ar,: total areaof ffansversereinforcementparallel to the x axis.
P r =sbb "
reinforcement
parallelto they axis.
A,r: totalareaof ffansverse
I
d"
I
t-x-x
w'-2
Fig. 3-15 ConfinementMechanismfor Circular and Rectangular

CrossSections
3-31
3.4.3 ConfinementEffecton Strength

The ultimate strengthsurfaceproposedby Mander et al. (1988a).led to a plot
relating the confining pressurewith the confinedstrengthratio. The procedureto find this
value is rather complex and an iterative procedurehas to be used. The results of his
procedureswere presentedin a plot to obviate the lengthy calculationsinvolved. In this
section an approximateequation is proposed,that can be use to representthe failure
surfaceproposedby Mander et al.
The equationproposedis:
K=+f=r*,qx(ot-#)
(3-70a)
with:
,-
fl,*fl,
(3-70b)
2f!
tl
, =*
Jn
(3-70c)
flr>f/,
I = 6.8886- (0.6069+ 17.275r)e4'e8et

fi-
4.5
- 0.6306
- 0.I
r-:'ss3or;
]10.98a9
A'
- 5
(3-70d)
(3-70e)
The comparisonbetweenthe analyical resultsand the approximateequation

presented
aboveis shownin Fig.3-16.
This equationcanbeput in theform suggested
by Richartet al.(1929):
fL =fL+ k,_f,
(3-71)
By taking f, as the averageof f,, and fn, this can be rewritten as:
fl
f = tf+= I +frrx
{3-72a)
with,
,
k r = A 1 0 . 1 +0; . 9 )
\
I +Bi )
Q-72b)
For a symmetrictriaxial stateof stress, =fn =fn, the analyticalconfinement

coefficient
K givenby Manderet al. (1988a)is:
(3-73)
K = -1.254+ 2.254J 1j 7.%i - 2.0x
)-3 Z
2.4
n?
AnalyticaiExact
Proposed
Approximation
2.2
u.z
f^'
tr
' 1. 8
0.1 f
J
.;, )\"1,,
II
1.6
1.4
0.0
1.2
0.05
0.15
f,,
f;
Fig.3-16 ConfinedConcreteStrengthRatio
7.5
"
{7
'6
iE
"
Richartet al.
Balmer
H o b b sa n d P o m e r o y
S a a t c i o g l ua n d R a z v l
Manderet al.
6.5
o
o6
F
o
E
q)
b.b
CA
iEv
o
o
4.5
0.15
f,
't
T
Fig. 3-17 Comparisonof DifferentModelsfor Triaxial Confinement
3-33
By combining Eqs. (3-72a) and(3-73) the following equationis obtained:

/_\
2 . 2 s 4I 1t + t . g q t- | l - 2 . 0 x
fr=
(3-74)
Richartet al. (lg12g)foundthisvalue,o O.ln average:
(3-7s)
h=4.1
While Balmer (1949) found a more complexrelationshipthat can be expressedby:
t,=W
$-76)
Hobbs and Pomeroy (1974) suggestedthe following modification to the factor

given by Richart et. al., to improve the accuracyfor higher levels of confining pressure:
(3-78)
kr =3.7i4'ra
Recently Saatciogluand Razvi (.1992)have proposedthe following expressron
basedon the data from Richart er al. (1929\:
kr = 6.7j)a't7
(3-79')
In the previous expressionf is given in MPa. Assuming a concretestrengthof

approximately30 MPa, the following expressionis obtained:
k1=J.97-o'rt
(3-80)
Eqs.(3-74) through(3-80)are comparedin Fig. 3-17.
Effecton Ductility
3.4.4 Confinement
When the concreteis subjectedto high levels of compressivestressit expands
iaterally due to the Poissoneffect. In a concretecolumn, this expansionforces the lateral
hoops outward. The initial behavior of confined concreteshould not be different to the
unconfinedbehavior,becauseat low levels of axial load the stressesin the hoops are low,
and so the confining pressure. The maximum stress is affected by the amount of,
confining hoops and so it is with the strain at which this occurs. The shape of the
descendingbranch of the stress-sffainrelationshipis also affected. Richart et al" (1929)
suggestedan expressionin the form:
Er"=Ero(\+kzx)
3-34
(3-81e)
with,
(3-81b)
kz=5kt
This expression will
be adopted herein because it has been confirmed
experimentallyby Balmer (1949),Mander et al. (1988b) and Saatciogluet al. (1992). For
high strengthtransversesteelZahnet al. (1990) found the value of krto be between1.7
and 5 times k, a value of 3 was usedas an average.
Branch
Effecton the Descending
3.4.5 Confinement
Basedon a seriesof testsperformedpreviouslyby Manderet al. (1988b)at the
Universityof Canterbury,the following empiricalrelationshipfor confinedconcreteis
proposed:
(3-82a)
e 7 =3 e t,
fr=f!"-Lf,"
A,f""=Klf.fs*nr)
with,
Arcc
' .tAJ
\K,
".-
(3-82c)
K=#
and,
(3-82b)
(3-82d)
WhereLf" is the stressdrop for unconfinedconcretefor a straine"=3et", as shownin

Fig. 3-19. The confinedconcretestrength(fb is calculated
throughEq. (3-70a).
3.5 Concretein Tension

An accurateestimation of the concretestrengthand behavior is important as it is a
main factor in the assessmentof shear deformations and stressesby means of the
Modified CompressionField Theory (Vecchio and Collins, 1986; Vecchio, 1989; Collins
and Mitchell, 1991), or the SoftenedTruss Theory (Hsu, 1993). Cracking, which is
governedby the tensile characteristicsof concrete,is an important property of concrete.
that affect the overall behaviorofconcrete"
The strength of concrete in direct tension can be estimated through the equation
suggestedby the ACI Committee209 (ACI 209R-82):
J-J)
(3-83)
f,=gr$T
wherew is the specificweight,thatfor normalweightconcretecanbe takenas 145lblff ,

valuesfor the
the factorg, is approximatel/3. This equationgivesratherconservative
CarreiraandChu(1986a)recommend
to takethe g, between
tensionstrengthof concrete,
0.45and0.55,whichresultsin theequation:
f,=6lT
pst
(3-84)
f, = 0.5JT
MPa
Collins and Mitchell (1991) recommenda lower value, for softenedtnrss analysis:
f,=4JT
pst
f,=033,[[
MPa
(3-8s)
that the averageconcretestressbetweendiagonal

This formulationimplicitly assumes
cracksis two-thirdsof the maximumgivenby Eq. (3-84). The monotonictensilestress
suggested
by VecchioandCollins(1986)is givenby:
strainrelationship
le"l<et
f, = E"E,
(3-86)
-Ur
le"l> e,
t--Jc
in which
= concrete
tensionstrength
e,: strainat peaktensionstress

for bondcharacteristics
u,t,ez = factorsaccounting
of reinforcement
and
loadingrespectively"
sustained
or repeated
Hsu (1993)adopteda differentrelationshipfor the descending
branchsuggested
by Tamaiet al. (1988),
f' =f'(?)''
(3-87)
Barnard (1964) dealing with the brittle nature of concrete in tension wrote:
"Suddenrupture is not s property of a concretespecimenbut is rather a consequenceof
testingmachines,
the testingconditions"" With the use of stiff electrohydraulic-controlled
the complete shess-deformation
behaviorof concretecan be obtained. The shapeof the
3-36
monotonic tension stress-sffaincurve has been shown (Carreira and Chu, 1986a;
Yankelevsky and Reinhardt, 1987b) to have a descendingbranch similar to that of
monotonic compression.Carreiraand Chu proposedthe use of Popovics'equation,but as
shown before Tsai's equation is more general and flexible, so the monotonic tension
stress-sffaincurve will be representedby the equation:
f" =f,
where,
"
(3-88)
[.\-r
l-+ l n - ' . l r + ^
\- r-ll'-
r-1
= E'3' andr : parameter

= 3,
to controlthe shapeof the descending
yt' ,
L
branch.
It is worth noting that due to the fact that the observedtensile strength depends
strongly on the testingconditions,experimentaldataon direct tensile strengthtendsto be
more scatteredthan data for compressionstrength of plain concrete. Considerable data
scatteringfor the descendingbranch of concretein tensiongiven by Vecchio and Collins
(1986) makesthe choiceof any simpleequationjustifiable, thus Eq. (3-88) was suggested
to be consistentwith that of concretein compression.
3.6 DynamicEffectson ConcreteBehavior

Most dynamictestson concretefoundin literaturehavebeenperformedon plain
concretecylindersor smallreinforcedmodels.The dynamiceffecton full sizereinforced
concretememberswasstudiedby Manderet al. (1988a)leadingto the followingproposed
strengthmagnificationfactor:
' l"'
' r+lo.o3s(lh'l
l
^ -f!o-'
-;r - ---:--*-----:
uf
f!
| 0.0000i
^^^^^, lrt6
(3-8e)
,'-, |
lorlr,tt
rrl
where fla:
dynamicconcretesffength, f! = quasistaticconcretestrengthand e : strain
ratein sec-l.
5-3 |
1n
0.8
Lf,l f"'
Lf""1f|,
0.6
24 MPa
26 MPa
29 MPa
30 MPa
32 MPa
43 MPa
Curve Fitting
0.4
0.2
nn
1.6
1"4
1.0
1.8
RatioK
Strengfth
Confinement
I
Fig. 3-18 Characteristicof the Falling Branch for ConfinedConcrete
C o n ifn e d
Concrete
Fig. 3-f 9 Definitionof Falling Branch for ConfinedConcrete
3-38
Behavior
3.7 ModelingHysteretic
Some generalobservationsare describedin this sectionwith respectto the basic
of a rule basedhystereticmodel.
behaviorof concretewhich dictatethe characteristics
3.7.1 BasicComponents
of a Hysteretic
Model
. Threebasiccomponents
canbe identifiedin the hystereticbehaviorof any materialor
sffucturalelement.Theseareshowndiagramatically
in Fig. 3-20anddescribed
below^
(l) Envelope
curves:canbe fixedorrelocatable,
canalsobe of constant
amplitude
or scaleable. Thesecurvesare the "back bones"of the generalhystereticbehavior,
Degradation
Shiftingand scalingis usedto simulatedegradation^
canalsobe simulated,
not by shiftingthe entirecurve,but by shiftingthe returningpoint. This meansthat the
point of return to an envelopecurve is different to the point where the last reversal
occurredfrom.
(2) Connectinecurves:are the connectionbetweenthe envelopecurves. There
can be severalpoints of inflectionin thesecurves,as it is usedto representpinching
(crack closure),and other softeningor hardeningphenomenawithin the materiai or
structuralelement.Normallymorethanoneequationhasto be usedto represent
this kind
of curve.
(3) Transitioncurves:When a reversalfrom a connectingcurvestakesplacea
transitioncurvehasto be usedto makethe transitionto the connectingcurvethatgoesin
i
I
presenting
modelcanbecomesunstable,
unwantedshiftingunderlocal loopinglcommon I
I
on mostapplications).
I
The termspositiveandnegativeusedin the diagramdo not referto the signof the
I
ordinatebut to the directionof the abscissachange,in other words, the directionof
I
the oppositedirection. If the transitioncurveis takendirectlyto the envelopecurve,the
PEC: POSITIVE
ENVELOPE
CURVE
CURVE
NEC: NEGATIVE
ENVELOPE
PCC: POSITIVE
CONNECTING
CURVE
NCC: NEGATIVE
CONNECTING
CURVE
PTC: POSITIVE
TRANSITION
CURVE
TRANSITION
CURVE
NTC: NEGATIVE
R : REVERSAL
POSITIVE= POSITIVEDIRECTION
NEGATIVE= NEGATIVEDIRECTION
Fig. 3-20 RelationshipBetweenCurvesin a Rule-BasedModel
WithinPartial
3.7.2 A GeneralApproachto AssessingDegradation
Model
Hysteretic
Loopingin a Rule-Based
degradation.
hystereticmodelhasnormallytwo ways of assessing
A rule-based
The first methodusesa shifting of the origin of the envelopecurve or of the returning
point on it, the secondoneusesa scalingvariableto reducethe amplitudeof the envelope
normallyreiated
to assess
completeloop degradation,
curve. Most modelsarecalibrated
areperformed,but in somecasesthey lack the ability for
to the way in which experiments
local loop degradation.In this sectiona generalproceduredirectedto assess
assessing
is advanced.
localloopingdegradation
Let (x,r, fur) be an unloading point on the positive envelopecurve where a
reversalhas occurred. Also let (x,o,!,o) be the targetpoint on the negativeenvelope
3-40
curve, which is completely defined by the reversalpoint and the previous history of the
hystereticbehavior. Finally, let (x,,, !,") be a returning point on the positive envelope
curve, again this point should be completelydefined by the target point and the previous
history,as shownin Fig. 3-21"
3.7.2.1Firstpartialreversal
The unloading curve connectsthe unloadingpoint (x,,,lun) with the target point
(x6, !6), should the unloading would have been complete, the total displacement
underqonewould be:
I lArlo = xun- xn *xre - xn = xun+ xre -2xb
(3-e0)
In the caseof an incomplete

unloading,Fig. 3-22, thetotaldisplacement
is:
I lA.;rl| = xun - xrc | x7s1- xro = xun *xys1 -/Jro
(3-el)
A factor k, canbe defined as:
,a! =-
I lAxl'
X lAxln
Q-e2)
It can be clearly seenthat when this factor is zero the actual total displacementis
zero, which meansthat no degradationis neededbecausethere was no movement at all.
At the other exffeme, when the factor has a value of one, the degrading function should
take the reloading curve to the returning point. The actual mapping of the intermediate
casescan take any monotonic shape,a linear mapping being the logical choice, unlessit
can be calibrated with actual experimentaldata. This can result in having to solve a
non-linearsystemof equations,as the factor krthat definesthe returning point abscissais
a function of the modified returning point itself.
if the degrading function for a complete cycle has the form of a shifting
displacementon the positive envelopecurve, then an explicit solution can be given. Let
A"o b. this function, suchthat the returningpoint abscissacan be calculatedas:
xre=xun*Axo
3-41
(3-e3)
ThenEq. (3-90)becomes:
E l A r lo = 2 ( x u n - x n ) + A x a
(3-e4)
The transformed displacementincrement Ar, for an incomplete unloading is

defined suchthat the modified returningpoint can be calculatedby:
Xrel = Xun * A.I r
(3-es)
IlArl r = 2(x,,- x,o)* Arr

increments
will resultin:
of displacement
A linearproportionality
(3-e6)
Thus,Eq. (3-91)becomes:
Axt _
- Axo
(3-e7)
El.rl, Elxlo
By substitutingEqs. (3-94) and (3-95) into (3-97) and performing algebraic
manipulations,
=
Ax1
ffit-o
(3-98)
hasbeencalculatedthenthe modifiedreturning
Oncethe modifieddisplacement
point can be calculatedby usingEq. (3-95). As a generalcasethis point is definedby
solvingthe equationsthat definethe returningpoint uniquely,by applyinga mapping
functionin theway pointedout previously.
3.7.2.2 Partialreloading
In the case of a total reloading from an incomplete unloading, tho
reloading curve will reach the positive envelopecurve at the modified returning point
(x,"p !,"1). An unloadingfrom this point would aim at a new targetpoint (x,o1,/r"r) which
shouldbe a function of the returningpoint (x,,r, !,,r). If on the other hand an incomplete
reloading takesplace, the targetpoint (xro1,
-/ror)needsto be modified. This can be done
by defining a new unloadingpoint (xun, yun).
The displacementfor a total reloadingfrom the point of reloading (x,o,!,o) to the
returningpoint (xrr, , -/r"1)is:
Ilxl, = xrer-xro
3-42
(3-ee)
(x
\
(\ xr e 1 / vr e
1, )
untJ un,
PositiveEnvelopeCurve
Reloading
Curve
Unloading
Curve
NegativeEnvelopeCurve
(\ x
IA|J
vI A ,)
Fig.3-21 Target Point and ReloadingPoint in a CompleteReversal
(\ x
rel
v . ,)
t J rel
(xun,Y un)
Reloading
Curve
Unloading
Curve
(\ x v )
ro)r ro/
( x r o , f, o )
Fig.3-22 Reloadingfrom a Partial Unloading
3-43
PositiveEnvelope
Curve
(\ x
(xun2,! ur)
unrJ unt
I
(xrr1, !rr1 )
t\ xr.b ) rvr b. ,)
Reloading
Curve
Unloading
Curve
(x
\
t/)
rorr ro/.
(x61, !6)
(x 62, !p2)
Fig.3-23 Unloadingfrom a Partial Reloading
When an incomplete reloading occurs, and the unloading takes place frorn
(xro,!,t), then the total displacementfrom the reloadingpoint (r,o,y,o) is:
IlArl 3=xrb-xro
(3-100)
By linear proportionalityof the displacementincrements:
Fr, = St,
>lAxl
,- ZlMl.,
(3-1or)
By replacing
Eqs.(3-99)and(3-100)intoEq.(3-101):
ax2=##ur
(3-to2)
xun,thus:
incrementstill refersto theunloadingpoint abscissa
This displacement
Xun2=Xrr*LXz
3-44
(3-r03)
It should be noticed that if no displacementtakes place from the reloading point

xnb: x,o then the displacementincrementAx, is zero which is correct, meaning that the
target point is the original one.
At this point the previous unloading abscissais
substitutedby that calculatedin Eq. (3-103). The next step is then to look at a partiai
unloadingagain.
3.7.2.3PartialUnloading
The new unloading point (xunr,!u,2) calculatedin Eq. (3-i03) defines a target
point (x,o2,!,")
and returning point (x,r2,!,rz), just as the unloading from the positive
envelopecurve. The differenceis that now the startingpoint is not at the unloading point
(xuoz,lurz)but at the point of reversal(x,uy,).
Becausethe unloadingpoint hasbeenreplacedby the new unloadingpoint, the "2"
can be dropped from all the definitions. Thus, the displacementincrement to reach the
returningpoint is:
Ar9 = xre2 -xun2 = xre - xun
(3-104)
Eq. (3-90)hasto be modifiedto includethenewstartingpoint:

>lAXlo = Xrb- Xa2 tX7s2- Xb2 = xrb + xun-2xto * Lto
(3-10s)
In caseof an incompleteunloadingfrom (.x,ul,r) at the reloadingpoint (xro, !ro), a new

displacement
incrementhasto be defined.
Lx1- xrer -xun
(3-106)
The total displacementto reachthe modified returningpoint (x.,1,y,"r) is:

flArl | = xrb- xy6* x74-xro = xr6* xun-2xro*Axr
(3-107)
Finally by applying linear proportionality,

Ax1 =
x'blxu'
-)v
?'o ax
-----Lu0
X 7 6 ' f X y n - lXm
3-45
(3-x08)
This is the general form of Eq. (3-98). Any other parameter that depends on the
unloadingpoint can the be modified accordingly.
The applicationof the procedurejust describedcan be summarizedas follows:
(1) At the point of unloading(x,,) from the envelopecurve calculate:
(a) The targetpoint (.r,")
(b) The displacementincrementto reachthe returning point (A.r')
(2) Make x,b: xu,
(3) In case of a partial unloading (.r,o)use Eq. (3-108) to calculatethe rerurning point
(xr")
(a) In caseof a partial reloading(x,r) use Eq. (3-102) to calculatea new unloading
point (x,,) and calculate:
(a) The target point (x")
(b) The displacementincrementto reachthe returning point (Axo)
(5) Repeatfrom step(3).
The procedurewas developedin terms of abscissas,it could have been described

in terms of the ordinates,but in some casesthe hysteretic behavior observed is not
monotonicallyincreasingbut it canpresentpeakswhich can in turn representambiguities.
This would make the ordinatean unsuitablevariable to use. Another approachcould be
the use of energy (area under the curve) which is a more rational approach,but this
approach requires much more computation, for sometimesthe area has to be calculated
numericallv.
Modeling
Curvefor Mathematical
3.7.3 A SmoothTransition
modelinghasled someresearchers
Theneedfor a ffansitioncurvein mathematical
to proposevariousequations.Perhapsthe mostnotableof all is the Ramberg-Osgood
3-46
equation,Osgood(1935). A kind of inverseform of the R-O equationis the equation

proposed by Menegotto and Pinto (1973), which
has also been used extensively.
Although useful, theseequationsare not simple to use when applied to certain problems,
and normally require a degreeof iterationto computetheir control parameters.
A general equation that starts from an initial point (xo, y,) with an slope Eo and
ends up at a final point (.rr,.1lr) with a slopeE, is needed. A cubic polynomial of the
form:
v = a x 3+ b x z+ c x + d
(3-l0e)
can be fitted to satisfy the conditionspresented,but as it is known a cubic polynomial

might presenta changeof curvature,what meansthat it may not representa monotonic
transition. The curvatureis relatedto the secondderivative,which in this casewould be a
linear equation, that has to cross the x axis at some point. An equation that does not
presentthis kind of changein curvatureis needed. The proposedalgebraicequationhas
the general form:
| = ! o + E o(x x") + A(x x)B
(3-110)
!t=Eo+AB(x-xo)B-t
(3-111)
By taking derivative,
If it is now assumedthat the factor .B has a value gteater than 1, otherwise the first
derivativewould be indeterminateat x = xo. Thus,
Yt(x) = Eo
(3-112)
The derivative at the final point should be Er, then:
Also,
Yt 6f) = E f = E o + A B 1xy- xolB-l
(3-n3)
AB(xy-x)B-l = Ef -Eo
(3-114)
By evaluatingthe ordinateat the final point,

lf = lo + E o(xy- xo)+ A(xy- x)B
(3-1ls)
Or,
!f-lo
A(x1-xo)B-l xf- xo
Eo=Er""-Eo
3-47
(3-r16)
(Xr Vr\
Eo$7-xo)
(xo,fo)
Fig.3-24 A SmoothTransitionCurve
By dividingEqs.(3-114)by (3-l l6),

Er-8"
B=#
/]sec -
(3-117)
Lo
Finally,
,
A = ---
Er"" - Eo
^---
(xf - xo)o-'
(3-118)
where,
lf
r
Zsec =
Xf
-!o
X"
(3-11e)
is givenas:
In a moregeneralform,thefinalexpression
! = ! o+ Q - x)lE " +.llx- x"lRl
y t = E o + A ( R +1 ) l x- x o l R
(3-120)
(3-121)
where,
- Er- E"""
R=-- -
(3-r22)
Err, -Eo
,
''=--;-
(3-123)
Er.,
Eo
l xr-xol
andtsecis givenby Eq.(3-119).
3-48
3.8 CyclicPropertiesof Confinedand UnconfinedConcrete

The monotonic curve forms the envelope for the stress-straincyclic behavior"
This was shown experimentallyby Sinha,Gerstleand Tulin (1964); and Karsan and Jirsa
(1969) and modeled by Mander et al. (1988a) for unconfined concrete in cyclic
compression.For the caseof confinedconcreteMander et al. (1988b) also performedtests
and validatedtheir model (1988a). Experimentsby Gopalaratnamand Shah (1985); and
Yankelevsky and Reinhardt(1987b) have shown that this is also the casefor concretein
cyclic tension.
Envelope
Curve(Rules1 and5)
3.8.1Compression
envelopecurveis definedby the initial slope{ , the
The compression
peakcoordinate(e!,",f!"), Tsai'sequationr factorand a factorx;>1to definethe
spallingsffain"
Both the compressionand tension envelope curves can be written in
form by theuseof the followingequations:
non-dimensional
y\x)= n x
ryx)
Q-r24)
-x')
(l
z\x)=ffi
(3-12s)
where,
r
D ( x )= l + l / t - , \ . t x '
r-l)*'r-l
\
=l+(n-1+lnx).r
r+1
(3-126)
r=1
Let n andx be definedas:
le. l
x- =l',-l
,-=lTl
by:
non-dime"':"1
rhespalling
::'lffialculated
4 sp - .r
cr
n_ z(x_"r)
3-49
Q-r27)
(3-128)
(3-X2e)
where ec : concretesffain, f;
= concretestresson the compressionenvelop, Et, =
concretestrain at peak confined stress,Jf,, : conftnedconcretestrength, E" : concrete

initial Young modulus, x- : non-dimensionalsffain on the compressionenvelope, x7, =
non-dimensionalcritical sffain on the compressionenvelopecurve. This strain is used to
define a tangent line up to the spalling sffain. v,p = non-dimensionalspalling strain,
y (x) :
non-dimensional stress function, z(x):
function,/]:
non-dimensional tangent modulus
n-: n valueforthecompression
Et= tangentmodulus,
stressinconcrete,
curve, assumedto be the sameas that of unconfinedconcrete.
COMPRESSION
E"r#
\z.-
STRAIGHT
LINE
\.''
l'
\l//
\_t=_-
Not to scale
E),
<
Errk
Fig.3-25 Tensionand CompressionEnvelopeCurves
3-50
The sffessand the tangent Young modulus at any given strain on the envelope
compressioncurve are definedby:
f" =-f;(x-)
(3-130)
Et = E,(x-)
where f;(,x-)
and E;(x-) are definedas:
(a) For x- 1f
(b) For x
equation)(Rule 1):
",(Tsai's
",1x'
(c) For x') x
f; =f!, v(x-)
(3-r31)
Et = E" z(x-)
(3-132)
( x"o(StraightLine) (Rule 1):
f; =f!"W6)+n- z(x;)(x--x;)l
(3-133)
E; = E" z(x;,)
(3-134)
(Rule5):
",(Spalled)
f; =E; =o
(3-13s)
to have spalledthe stresses

are zero from that
Oncethe concretois considered
not to spall,in sucha casea largevalue
momenton. Confinedconcretecanbe considered
is consideredto refer to the
of x- shouldbe defined. Note that the minussuperscript
",
behavior.
compression
sideof the stress-sffain
Curve(Rules2 and6)
3.8.2 TensionEnvelope
The shape of the tension envelope curve is the same as that of the
compressionenvelopecurve. This curve is shifted to a new origin e, as it is explained
later in this section. The non-dimensionalparametersn andx given by:
'*=|u'#l
(3-13O
'- =E ;{'
(3-137)
crackingstrainis givenby:
The crackingnon-dimensional
xcrr=xL- l@il,
n' z\x;r)
3-5I
(3-138)
strain at peak tension stress, f, :
concrete tension strength, x- :

non-dimensional strain in the tension envelope curve, n+ : n value for the tension
where t
envelopecurve, rj, = critical strain on the tensionenvelopecurve. This factor is used to

defined the cracking strain. The stressand tangentmodulus for any given strain on the
tensionenvelopecurve are similarly definedas:
"f"=f!(x*)
(3-x3e)
E t= E i 6")
where-f|(x.) and E!(x*) aredefinedas:
(a) Forx* 1x* n, @ule 2):
(b) For x*
"r3x*
f! =f' Y(x*)
(3-140)
El = E" z(x*)
(3-141)
1x"rk(Rule 2):
f"* =f,[y(xi)+n+ z(x[,)(x*-xt,)]

Ei = E, z(xt,)
(Rule6):
(c) Forx* ) x* (Cracked)
",
f"* = Ef =0
Q-142)
(3-143)
(3-144)
Wherefunctionsy andz aredefinedby Eqs.(3-124)and(3-125). Whenthe concretehas

to no longerresistanytensionstress,asa resultof crackopening;
crackedit is considered
to takeplace.
but on theotherhanda gradualcrackclosureis considered
andReloading
Curves
Unloading
3.8.3 Pre-Cracking
The basicelementsof the unloadingand reloadingcurvesare dealt with in this
by a smoothcurvethat startsat a startingpoint with a
section. Every rule is represented
givenslopeand endsup at a targetpoint with an endingslope,and the equationusedto
andstrains:
thetransitionis theonederivedin section3.7.3. In termsof stresses
represent
f" =-fr*(s"- e;ln 1+.1lt" - trl^]
(3-14s)
E , = y r " = E r + A ( R1+) l e-"e r l R
(3-146)
3-52
in which.
(3-r47)
,-EP-Esrc
"- Er"r-E,
Er
Esnc------
A=
f'-f'
L;EC=
with,
(3-148)
ler'-erl"
(3-14e)
eF-el
"-I
where "_f " is stress,"g" is strain,"E'is tangentor secantmodulus, "c" meansconcrete,
parameters.
" initial, "F " final, "SEC'secant,"/" tangentialand "R" and "A" ate equation
To define the cyclic propertiesof concrete,statisticalregtessionanalyseswere
performed on the experimental data from Sinha, Gerstle and Tulin (1964), Karsan and
(1979)' The
Jirsa(1969), Spoonerand Dougill (1975),Okamoto(1976) and Tanigawa
were:
model parameterslooked for are shownin Fig. 3-26, andthe resultsof the analysis
E""" = E"
I
tl*].;
(3-1s0)
[sf;wl
(3-1s2)
|*l+osz
r- -n
Lpl-w.
t\
rE,exp(tft
t)
Lf- =o'
Ag- =
Ei"
(3-1s1)
(3-1s3)
z.tslft
r 15+
The derivedvariablesarethen:
(3-1s4)
Ert=ein
f;", =f;- Lf{-
Lnr*=
J new
(3-1ss)
(3-1s6)
,-r-%
El"=Ein+Ae-
(3-1s7)
'- -'-(l'; |)
(3-1s8)
--ll e; |\
1,,=E
(3-1se)
rre-r
U e l .l l
\.1;rll
3- 53
(ern, /)r)
(Er* f"r)
( e r ,L )
(eur,fnr*)
( e i l , 0)
Fig. 3-26 CyclicCompressionCharacteristicsof Concrete
For cyclic behaviorof concretein tension,someof the propertiesdefinedin
for
equations(3-150)through(3-159)requiredmodification.The hystereticparameters
cyclictensionaregivenby:
l*l +ooz
r+
"pl-
E,
+1"*,
(3-160)
(3-161)
Lf* = a.rs
f;,
(3-162)
Ag* = 0.22ef,^
(3-163)
Similarly,
f+
elt=eln-*
(3-164)
f[", =fi,- Lf*
(3-16s)
F+
Lre*=
f+
J ne|9
(3-166)
rld,
El" = Ein+Ae+
3-s4
(3-167)
fr=f|*#l)
Er=E.|+l)
(3-168)
(3-16e)
= unloading stress, Ept :

where Eun : unloading strain from an envelopecurve, frn
: new stressat the
plastic sffain, E pt = tangentmoduluswhen the stressis released,frr:
unloading strain, Er". = tangentmodulus at the new stresspoint, Ere strain at the
: tangent
returning point to the envelope curve, /e : sfess at the returning point, E,"
modulus at the returning Point'
A reversalfrom the compressionenvelopecurve is done through rules 3, 9 and 8
as shown. The variablesthat definethis reversalcurve are calculatedas follows:
(l) Calculatethe compressionstrainductility as:
,r=Wl
(3-170)
(2) Calculatethetensionstrainductility,
"r=l+l
(3-171)
COMPRESSION
(e;,' -fui )
Er",
(ert ,0)
'/
/
l(e,,0)
//
Not to scale
(' e + . f +
re
Jre
trl, f),
Fig. 3-27 CompleteUnloadingBranch
3- 55
(3)If xtr< x; then:

x;=x;
to=0
ejn = xf, e1
fi, =f!(xtr)usingEq.(3-139)
(4) Calculate
Q-r72)
(5) Finally,
eo= Eo1+
Ae, - xtrE,
(3-173)
El,n= xtret+ eo
(3-r74)
and,
COMPRESSION
(e1,,
f*)
(e)'
(e"r , f**)
f;)
I
E;,
( e o 1, 0 )
(eo,0)
Not to scale
(eir^,fri )
Fig.3-28 CompleteLoadingBranch
3 -5 6
The rules parametersfor the connectingcurve for a reversalfrom the compressron

envelopecurve are definedby:
tt = Ein
fi =f;"
Et=E"
Rule 3
Ep = Ept
(3-17s)
fe=0
Ep = Ept
E1 = Ept
fi=0
Er=Ei
Ep= Etrn
fr =fi"*
Er = Ei"-
Rule 9
(3-176)
fu =Etrn
Rule 8
fi =ff"*
Et=Etr"Er = El,
Q-117)
fr =fi
Er = El"
Similarlv. for a reversalfrom the tension envelopecurve:
Et = Ein
fi=fi^
Et=E"
Rule 4
Ep = E)1
(3-178)
fr=0
Ep=Elr
e=Elt
fi=a
Rule 10
E1= E)r
Er = Ein
fe =f^rEr = Ei"*
3-s7
(3-17e)
Et =Ein
fi =fi,.
F . _-
LI
Rule 7
F-
Dne|9
Er = Er"
(3-180)
fr =f;
t r - -- Dtrre -
Lf
Unloading
andReloading
3.8.4 Post-Cracking
Curves
After complete cracking is consideredto have occurred, no tension capacity is
assumedto exist, so the tension side of the hysteresisbehavior will also not exist. The
after unloading (rule 3), the crack will open (rule 6); when the direction of loading
reverses,gradual crack closure takes place(rule l3).
EI=8,
fi=0
Er=0
Rule 13
F = Ein
fr =fi"*
Er = Ei"*
(e"", fr".)
(e pr ,0)
Fig.3-29 Loadingand UnloadingCurve after Cracking
3 -58
(3-178)
Transition
Curves
3.8.5 Pre-Cracking
When a partial loading or unloadingwithin any of the connectingcurves,a
transitioncurve is used. Rules3, 4,9 and l0 are connectingcurves,so eachone will be
consideredindividually. When a reversal from rule 3 takes place. f,,*
needs to be
changed,the new stressordinateis called f,"*.; the returning point coordinate(e;",f;)

are alsochangedto (e;"*,fi-).
The modifiedexpressions
are:
f-- Jf -u n
Jnew*
'-,-Elo
- ^ fo-J" u r '
{-
L ne\9* -
J new+
^Lun -
eun _ E11
_{-
J ro
(3-182)
(3-183)
cro
"-,-Ero
El"*=e;, +Ae-f3
_;
_
(3-184)
f;. =f-(e;".)
(3-18s)
cyq
Lre*-L
cpl
--( le;".
(3-r86)
ll^l
Lcc
\l
The curvemodifiedRule7 is thussivenas:

RuleT*
Et = Elo
fi =fi
Et=E"
Er = Ein
le;l<le"l<le;,1
(3-187)
fr =-fi"**
E p = Er"**
Et=Ein
fi =f,",.
E1= Ef,".*
le;,1.le"l<
le;.1
Ep = E7s*
fr =fi.
Ep = Ei*
3 - 59
(3-188)
Similarlyfor a reversalfrom rule 4, themodifiedrule 8 is givenas:

Rule8*
Et = Etro
fi =-fi
- e " l < l e .- e , l < l e | - e , l
lelo
Er=E,
r = EXn
(3-18e)
fr =fi"-.
Ep = Ef,s**
Er= tr,
fr =f["..
-eo| < le"-,1< le|,-- e,I
letr,
E1= E[s- *
Ep = Els*
(3-1e0)
fr =f,tr.
Er=E/"*
COMPRESSION
( e u n ,f;)
(err.,f u-)
(ern, f*r.)
( e r " ,f * )
(e*ro,f Jo)
(eo,0)
Not to scale
1ei,.,f
).)
u@*un,f ir**)
(e*rr,
f ;r)>
Fig. 3-30 Partial UnloadingCurvesfor Tensionand Compression
3-60
E!,n- Eio
J i " - " = J i ^ - L l"-- -crn _
where:
F+
L newt
-f:"
f;r*
^+
Yun
^+
cro
(3-rel)
api
(3-1e2)
'*,-Etro
Eie*=ei,+ Le-! _e)1

q^
-t'
rrr+e * - rr +t(ll t l - t | )
|)
/tc+ -".1)
Etr,*=r.|?
t)
(3-1e3)
(3-1e4)
(3-1es)
A reversalfrom rule 9 at the point I (eo,fo) will targetthe point .B (eb, fb)
throughrule 11, an incompleteloadingon rule ll will targetthe point A (Eo,f") again
throughtherelation:
throuehrule 12.TherelationbetweenA and8 is computed
e"-eit _Ein-Et
(3-1e6)
ei^ - eot er, - elt
EI=E'
fi =f,
Er -- E"
Rule 11
EP=En
(3-1e7)
fr =ft
Er= Et(e)
EI=Er
fi =f,
Er = E,
RuIe 12
(3-1e8)
EF=Ea
fr =fo
Er = E{Eo)
where (e,, -f,) is the last reversalcoordinate.
Curves
Transition
3.8.6 Post-Cracking
After crackingthe tensionenvelopecurve is zero, and the connectingcompression
curve becomes rule 13. A reversal from rule 13 at coordinate (eo,fo) targets the
horizontal axis at sffain 5, which is calculatedby:
(3-1ee
Eb=Eo
*
3- 61
COMPRESSION
(e;,0)
(e)^, f),. )
Not to scale
@i,,'
f,I.)
Fig.3-31 TransitionCurves@eforeCracking)
COMPRESSION
( e o, f o )
(e. fr)
6 (rr,o)
Fig.3-32 TransitionCurves(After Cracking)
3-62
EI=8,
fi =f,
Et=E"
Rule 14
(3-200)
EF=Et
fr=0
Er=A
EI=Er
fi =f,
Et=E"
Rule 15
(3-201)
EF=Eo
fr =f'
E r = Et(Eo)
at lastreversal.
where,again(e,, f, ) is the coordinate
the relationamongthe rules of the modeljust presented"
Fig. 3-33 summarizes
for purposes
of clarity.
The tensionsidehasbeenexaggerated
COMPRESSION
l?
13
10
.>l
,12
't4
,,21i
/i,
/ )ts
11
i Llo
' ,) . /
,1.v^
/J
Notto scale
Fig. 3-33 RelationshipAmongthe Model Rules

3-63
3.9 ModelVerification
A subroutineACONCRETE was implementedto be used in a computerprogram"
Results from the model are shown in Figs. 3-34 to 3-38 for unconfined concrete.
Experimental data from Sinha, Gerstle and Tulin (1964), Karsan and Jirsa (1960),
Okamoto et al. (1976), and Tanigawaet al. (1979) for cyclic compression,were used to
test the model. Fig. 3-39 presentsYankelevskyand Reinhardt(1987b) experimentaidata
for cyclic tensionwith small incursionsinto compression,while Figs. 3-40 and 3-41 show
the applicationof the model to the Mander et al. (1988b) experimentaldata for confined
concretein cyclic compression. Finally Fig. 3-42 shows how the tension branch of the
model compareswith the equationsgiven by Collins and Mitchell, Eq. (3-86); and by
Hsu, Eq. (3-87)" It is to be noted that no previous model (Mander et al", 1988a;
Yankelevskyand Reinhardt,1987a)could describethe cyclic behaviorof concretein both
tensionand compression.
Analysis
3.10 Damage
The ultimate rotation capacityat a plastic hinge is a function of the ultimate
work led to empiricalequationsfor
sffaine-. Earlyexperimental
concretecompressive
thatthe
e*, (ParkandPaulay,1975).Morerecently,Scottet al. (1982)haveproposed
strainbe definedby the first hoop fracture. Manderet ai. (1984,
ultimatecompressive
1988a)proposeda rationalmethodfor thepredictionof thefirst hoopfracturebasedon an
energyapproach.In this methodthe energystoredin the hoop is consideredto give the
additionalenergyabsorptioncapacityto the confinedconcrete.An energyanalysiswithin
thecore area(Arr) is asfollows:
concreteU"ois givenby:
The strainenergycapacityof unconfined
.
Uro=Ar,
fEsPoJI
l"dE
(3-202)
"'0
where spal: spalling sffain of unconfinedconcrete. As the sffess-sffainrelationshipfor

unconfined concrete is known, the integral term can be calculated by numerically
3-64
integrating this expression. A good approximation to the volumetric strain energy

capacityof plain unconfinedconcretewas found by Mander et al. (1984) to be grven by:
le'r'tt f, de =
J0
0.20s
17
psi
a.ullT
MPa
Q-203)
The fracture strainenergyof hoop reinforcementis calculatedas:

Urh=PrnA"r)o e'de'
$-244)
steelcontentrelativeto the concretecore; fr and , =

where p"r,: volumeffictransverse
stress and strain in transversereinforcement;gsf = fracture strain of transverse
reinforcement.The volumefficfracturesffainenergywasfoundby Manderet al. (1984)
of bar size,that canbe
to be a constantfor all typesof reinforcingsteelandindependent
takenas:
tEsr^.
I6ksi
+ tooh
=
f'a''
Jo
tii ipo
(3-20s)
The energy balancetheory assumesthat the energy to fracture the transverse

reinforcementcomesfrom the differencein strainenergycapacitybetweenthe confined
concrete((Jr,-(J,o),plusan additionalenergyto maintainyield in the
andunconfined
(U""). Thus,
longitudinalsteelin compression
Ud= U"" - U"o+ U*
(3-206)
(Jr, = Pr"A rrJ',"'

7, de,
Q-201)
(J""= Auluo"u
f"" de,
(3-208)
with
and
in which, prr: volumefficlongitudinalsteelcontentrelativeto the core concrete,ft:

=
stresson the longitudinalstressbarc, fr" = stresson the confinedconcreteand e*
strainat fracture(ultimatestrainon coreconcrete).
For eccentricloading, the energybalancetheory can be readily applied by
assigninga participationfactor to the core concreteand to every steel layer. This
that is takenby
participationfactor is the proportionof energyabsorptionin compression
andvalidatedby Manderet al. (1988a.
wasdeveloped
the criticalcrosstie.This approach
b) andhasbeenadoptedherein.
3-65
3.11Conclusions
The following conclusionscan be drawn from this section:
1. It has been demonsffatedthat the equation proposed by Tsai is the most
effective in describing the shape of the monotonic behavior of concrete both in
compressionand tension. Other equationsmay give anomalies in behavior. Tsai's
equation can be used for both confined and unconfined concrete. This equation is a
generalizedform of that by Popovics,requiring four control parameterc:etcc,f!,, E" and
r. The fourth parametercontrols the falling branch curve. This is considered important
when modeling the behaviorof high shengthconcreteor when high strengthsteelis used
to confine the concrete.
2. The confinementmodeldevelopedby Manderet al. (1984, 1988a,b),applicablo
to any general cross-sectionalshape,can be further simplified by the use of the given
approximateequation.
3. Calibrationof parametersin both confinedand unconfinedconcreteled to some
empirical equations that can be further enhanced as more experimental data become
available.
4. The generalcomponentsof a rule-basedmodel are identified, and suggestions
to ensurea consistentbehaviorwere presented.
5. The mathematicaldescriptionof degradationhas been examined,and a general
model to describeit is proposed.
6. A mathematicalexpressionto join two slopesis proposed.
7. A model to describe the behavior of concrete in both cyclic tension and
compressionis proposed. To the knowledgeof the author,this is the first time a model to
represent the hysteretic behavior in both tension and compressionof confined and
unconfined concreteis proposed. The model proved to be effective in describing the
hystereticbehavior of confined and unconfinedconcrete,subjectedto both compression
cyclic loading and tensioncyclic loading. As more experimentaldatabecomesavailable
for cyclic tension,better equationvalidation/calibrationmay be possible. No experiments
to relate cyclic combinedtensionand compressionhave beendone to this date,exceptfor
3-66
that by Yankelevsky and Reinhardt (1987b) for tension cyclic loading with small
incursions into compression. It is necessaryto have this kind of experimentaldata to
calibrate the model more reliably, and is consideredessentialfor robust deterministic
of membersgovernedby cyclic flexure-sheareffects.
damageassessments
3-67
= 4060psi
:0.0026
0.8
f
lt
Experiment
0.6
f,
0.4
0.2
it
0
1.5
ec
x = ---;
c
Fig.3-34 UnconfinedCyclic CompressionTestby Sinha,Gerstleand Tulin (1964)
I' :287apsi
Model
vI
er:4.0020
Experiment
0.6
1
l,
-/
{l
0.4
/
,/
/
0.2
..)/
1.5
x:
2.5
ec
',
Fig. 3-35 UnconfinedCyclicCompressionTestby Karsan and Jirsa (1969)
3- 68
J(
:4350psi
ec :0.0020
0.8
T
- TI
y:
0.6
Experiment
-c
0"4
0.2
0
1
1.5
x=
2.5
ec
8,"
Fig.3-36 UnconfinedCyclic CompressionTestby Okamoto(1976)
l,
:0.00186
0.6
",,
= 5800psi
,
-c
0.8
f,
Experiment
fl
0.4
0.2
0
2
X:
ec
,
I
Fig.3-37 UnconfinedCyclic CompressionTestby Okamoto(1976)

3-69
0.8
0.6
I
lt
:/
fl
-c
0.4
0.2
0
1.5
ec
x = ---e'c
Fig.3-38 UnconfinedCyclicCompressionTestby Tanigawa(1979)
x:-
Ec
et
0.2
,,/
,/
-0.2
-0.4
Experiment
f = 500psi
i'
e, : 0 . 0 0 0 1 4
Model
y:
-0.6
l
-0.8
-1
-1.2
Fig.3-39 Cyclic TensionTestby Yankelevskyand Reinhardt (1987)

3-74
t
'c
60
{
(MPa)
50
Model
,.^,.,,, /
40
30
n
10
0
P
0.005 0.01
0.015 0.02
0.025 0.03
0.035 0.04
ec
Fig. 3-40 ConfinedConcreteCyclic Testby Mander et al. (1984)
80
/ - 7lttea;
0
60
,O*r^*t
50
40
30
20
10
0
il
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
ec
Fig. 3-41 ConfinedConcreteCyclic Testby Mender et al. (1984)

3-71
----
200
C o l l i n sa n d M i t c h e l l
-tn
o
o
lqn
E
a
100
<n
0
0.40020.00040.00060.0008 0.001 0.00120.00140.00160.0018 0.002
Strain
Big.3-42 Comparisonof the ProposedTensionBranch Equation

with other AnalyticalEquations.
3-72
Section4
ConcreteColumnsusing
of Reinforced
DamageModeling
Analysis
Fiber-Element
4.1 Introduction
A computerproglam RC-COLA was developedto obtain the moment-curvaturo
responseof structuralconcretecolumnsunder reversedcyclic
and force-displacement
flexureandaxial force. The mainobjectiveof theprogramaspart of this investigationis
to developan advancedmicro-modelanalysisprogramto performsimulatedexperiments.
Experimentalsimulationcanbe usedasthe input datafor the calibrationof macro-models
that are commonlyusedin generalpurposenon-lineardynamicanalysisprogramssuchas
IDARC and DRAIN -zDX. So far, the fine tuning of macro-modelparametershavebeen
basedcapriciouslyon the user choice. This arbitrarychooseof model parameters
regardingthe validityof suchanalyses.This problemwill be
generates
someskepticism
laterin the next section.The presentsectiondevelops,from first principles,a
addressed
Analysis"is coinedto refer to
biaxial "fiber" analysis.Hereinthe term "Fiber-Element
procedure.
the entirecomputational
Bending
for Uniaxial
Analysis
that planesections
to follow Bernoulli'sassumption
The strainprofile is assumed
remainplane,thusthe strainat anyfiber is givenby:
E=Eo+Q0-y,)
4-1
(4-t)
where o : sffain at the centroid,l, : ordinateof the origin, e : sffain at any ordinatey.
For a given centroidal origin, if no bond slip is assumedto occur, the strain in the
concreteand the reinforcing barswill be the same,both being determinedfrom Eq. (4-I)"
The axial force and the momentat a given sectioncan be readily calculatedas:
P = I f,dA+2( -f,,--f"i)A,i
{4-2)
/I
^g
U = JQ-y" )f" d A + 2( y,i- y) 6i- f") A,i
(4-3a)
u = I 1f,dA* T.y,,V,i -f,) A,i - !,p

AsI
(4-3b)
Asl
where, P : axialload, M:
momentaboutthe centroid,As:
grossarea, /] = concrete
stressfunction, i : index to refer to the ith layer of steel,,f,; : steelstress,,[; = co11crete

stress,Asi : &tQ&of steel,y,y : ordinate. Note that the origin can be locatedanywhere,to
make the formulation general.
It is important to note that for a zero axial load sectionthe neutral axis coincides
with the centroid of the ffansformedsection,and as the behavior goes into the inelastic
zone,the centroid shifts" When no axial load is presentthe point about which the moment
is defined is irrelevant. But in the presenceof axial load , the point about which the
moment is defined is important. For symmetric sectionsthe geometric cenffoid is the
obvious choice, but for asymmetricsectionstwo definitions are possible:(l) location of
the neutral axis in the absenceof axial load, as mentionedbefore, this location shifts; (2)
plastic centroid, which is defined as the centroid of the stressfield for a constantstrain
profile. This later definition will be adoptedherein.
If the centroidal strain eo and curvature Q are known the axial force p and
moment M can be directly calculatedby using Eqs" (a-2) and (4-3). But normally the
inverse problem, in which eo and Q are to be determinedfrom known values of p and,M,
or a mixed problem is encountered.In this casesomedegreeof iteration may be needed
to find the solution. The Newton-Raphsonalgorithm can be utilized for this purposeas
follows:
I r,,*,
l =I r,,I* Jor,,i
10,*'J lo',;Ll0'J
4-2
(4-4\
where the incremental sffain Aeo; and curvature AQ1are determined from
l-!4 aP1,
tr tr ljo'.,'l
{*,}=l
oq,
I tu,''f-l
ry ry lt " )i
La%aoJ,\
(4-s
in which AP; and L,Mi aft the incrementalforcesneededto reachthe specifiedforcesP

and M from the stateof stressesI at the section.
The first elementof the Jacobianmatrix.' dP..un
eo'
#=*
[r*.*
be calculatedas follows:
lrf,,--f"i)A,i
ag
'
r",
#=
l***.>(W-W')@de, j,d,
ar"*^ ? \Ee Ee )de"
(4-6)
(4-1)
wherein Eq. (4-7) thechainrule of derivationwasapplied.FromEq.(a-1)
F=t
dEo
(4-8)
By definition the tangentmodulusof elasticityfor concreteis defined as:

an=
af"
d{
{4-e)
and for steel, at layer i,
, -_
Lrsr
df,,
ae
(4-10)
Both arecalculated
at a specifiedstrain,thusfinally
tn = * = | En dl +
!@,,i Et"i)A,i
dEo j,
(4-11)
whereEA is the instantaneous

effectiveaxial stiffiness.
The off-diagonal
- d Q d Eterms
o''
{
una {
ur" equal, what resultsin a symmetrical
stiffiressmatrix. Theseterms are calculatedas follows:
-r"i)A,i
=
ffi * Jt,**$x,c,
P
i 4e
dA+\ (df"-EI' )dez
e0=-J.
atto^-
(4-12)
1[;t-E )N^"
(4-13)
&_,,_,,
(4-r4)
andfromEq.(a-1)
^
dQ
4-3
Vn
Thus,
aP'= En(f -v")dA+2 (E,,,-E,"i)(!,i-!) A,i
;i
(4-15)
^g
Finally.by rearranging,
E
tt = -,^ =Y
dQ
dEo
= | y E ndA+ly,i( Eui- E,") A,i- !o EA

)'
( 4- 16)
^g
The flexural rigidity can be determinedin the sameway as
Q M = l l E', " ( y - y " ) d A"+ I ! , i ( E t , i - E , " ) ( f i - f o ) A s - ! o E Z

J
a6 )
(4-r7)
E,,dA+E yl,(Eu,- E,"i)

A,i-, [ !E,"dA+Z y,,(E1,,- E,,i)A,, -,
*d q i=, 'I' r!2
"l
n,,l
I
(4-18)
oEZ
The expression
in bracketsin Eq. (4-18)canbe foundfrom Eq. (4-16) t o b e
= EZ + y" EA
Er ci) Asi
! fi " d A +l y,i (E t,i -
(4-re)
As
By substituting
Eq.(4-19)intoEq.(4-18),
t, =* = | y'E,,dA+ly!,(E u,- E,,)A,i-2y"EZ-yl EA
dQ i""
T'
(4-20)
Summarizing:
I
P = ) f,dA + 2 (f,,_f,i)A,i
(4-2ra)
Asi
M= J yf. dA + I.y", (-f,i-f.i) A,i - loP
(4-2rb)
Aet
EA= I EtudA + )
,)
(E1,i-E4) A,i
(4-2tc)
ABI
EZ = | yEvdA + I -y,,(Eo,- Et"i)A,i-yo EA
(4-2ld)
;,i
l'^
EI= I 12E,"dA+ lyl,{E,,,-Erc) A,i - 2y"EZ - ylEA

;,i
4-4
(4-2le)
In all the equationslistedabove,an integralover the areahas to be calculated.These

the concretecomponent.Numericallytheseintegralscanbe calcuiated
integralsrepresent
throughthe followingprocedure.
All theintegraltennsin Eqs.(4-21)areparticularcasesof themoregeneralequation:
-I y'f a,q [/ fb dy
(4-22)
Ash
the width
either f, or Ep, andb is a functionrepresenting
in this equation,/ represents
of the cross-section.This integralcan be accuratelycomputedby subdividingthe
into smallerfibers(strips),as:
cross-section
r'fau = > Jy'fb dy

J
aslhj
W23)
wherelry is theheightof the strip,r (seeFig. 4-1).

eachfiber contributioncanbe computedby:
In termsof localcoordinates,
nj
g-24)
= Jrn*
lfnay
hjo
o(
|
-.
.
?
It]ooy = J \y"i+qfbde=JefbdE*y",[toay
hto0hj
bG)
-T-.
-*!'
Fig. 4-1 Definitionof Global and Local Coordinates

4-5
g-25)
ht
hj
v'fnav= [
J
hto
h)
= J erft d\ + 2y"1
J ernae+ y"
(f o, * \)'fb d\
h.,
hl
Jrnae
0
hl
=J e'fbd\ + 2!oiI ,f tdy - y:,1fbdy

I
hl
(4-26)
hl
Note that integrals over dy are in global coordinateswhile those over d\ are in locai
coordinates(see Fig. 4-1). For any given strip the integrals can be computed to any
desireddegreeof accuracy. If parabolicbehavioris assumedfor f and D then:
f=A+B\+Cl2
b=D+E\+F\2
{a-27a)
(4-27b)
andby evaluatingthe functionsat equalintervalsAy

fo=A
(4-28a)
fr=A+BA^y+C(A^y)z
(4-28b)
-fz=A+28Ly +4C(A,y)2
(4-28c)
bo=D
bt = D + EAy + F(A,y)z
(4-2ea)
(4-2eb)
bz = D+2EA^y+4F(A,y)2
(4-29c)
also,
Thusby solvingfor A, B andC in Eq. (4-28)

A =fo
(4-30a)
B L y- - ) f r * 2 f , - i f ,
C(Ly)' = Ifo -y, + lfz
(4-30b)
(a-30c)
Similarly,
Bo=D=bo
Br = ELy - -*to + 2br - *b,
B z = F (L y)z = ibo- b r + ) b ,
4-6
(4-31a)
(4-3rb)
(a-3lc)
bz---l
4::
b1
F-ao--l
f
I
r')
lWlh
LJ____{_
H
'fr'
Fig. 4-2 Definitionof Variableson a Fiber Element
By applying Eqs.(4-30) and (4-31) to Eqs. (4-27) and then evaluatingthe integrals,the
following result was obtained:
hj
o n+l+k
l(-n+r-k)fo+
[{ndE=Ln*ty>^
U42)
4(n+ I + k)fi + (n+ | + k)2fzlB

r
Thus
hl
(4-33a)
lofbd\ a,ytiCfr+4.ft+fz;ro+|{s/'+ 4f)81+frt-fo+12fi+9f)Bzl
or
h,
lfte
= A/[ *tfo*4fi+f)bo+ltzf'+f)(-3bo+4bt-b)+
-2br+b)l
iefr+ t2fi+9f)(bo
(4-33b)
Also,
h;
' 4b
' v Lt - b)+
' ef)(-3b
+' r2fi
L'Jr +
'J./\
J v vo+
'
' J z ) u v o+
"L/'
3 \ " - / r +f)b
I lfu d\ = (Ly)',tltzf,
|t-lo
15\ -ru
U
l1
{4-34)
-2br+ b)l
ir+ + 8fi+ 8f)(bo
and
hj
+4bt - b)+ (4-3s)

+ef)bo+ frf-fr+8fi+ 8f)(-3bo
d\ = (Ly)3Lfrt-f,+ 12f1
fo
11,
'
# ?3fo+2ofr+25f)(bo-2bt+bzi
4-7
Lack of convergencenormally comesfrom the shapeof the stressfunction and not

from the geometry of the cross-section,so to simplify the integration formulae, it was
assumedthat the cross-sectionhad a linear variation profile, insteadof a quadratic. The
simplified equationsare then:
nJ
=
I fr at, lyLir f6 + 4fr +f)bo + lt2fr+f)(bz bill
(4-36)
hj
ro)]
I0 ef ud\ = (Ly)'llfrf'+f)bo+f f-l,+ t2fr+efz)@z-
W3n
+ of1+ef)+ fr{-fo+8/+ 8f)(bz-ro)]

I0 ?ru d\ = (a,y)3]i,;er,
(4-38)
hh
And for the caseof a constantwidth cross-sectiontheseequationscan be further

simplified to:
frt
Iru*
= Lrly(fo+4f1
+f2)bs
(4-3e)
hj
j efo* = 1{tg' eft +f)bo
g-44)
hj
Lrr(Ay)'
tfo + r2f1+9f)bo
I e'n & =
(4-41'.)
Eq. (a-39)canbe easilyidentifiedasSimpson's

rule of numericalintegration.
The procedureto evaluatethe concretecomponents
on Eqs.(4-21)is as follows.
The concretesectionis dividedinto discretefiber elementsof confinedand unconfined
concrete.For eachof thesefibersthe startingandendingwidth is specifiedbo andbz the
concretestress(f") for the starting,middleandendingordinateis computed(f*, fa and
"fa); the tangentialYoung's modulus (8") is also computedat these locations
(E,,o,E,aandEt"z). The startingordinateof the elementQto) andthe half-height(Ay)
arealsoidentified.Thentheglobalaxisintegralsfor the elementarecomputedas:
L p, = tyl! f" + 4f"1+f.)bo+ !1zf^+_fd@z-Do)]

LMo= ttyf lItzf"l+f;2)bo+ft-/"+lzf,1+9f")(bz-ro)]
* loiLp,
4-8
(4-42)
(4-43)
LEA" = tyl!{E,a+4Et"r* Ercz)bo+

+(28,,t+ Ea)(bz-br)]
(4-44)
LEZ"= (Ay)2l!{22,,, + Eta)bo+}{-r,, + IZEt,r+9Eo)@z-Do)]+ yo,LEA"
(4-45)
1r r
L E I , = ( A . v ) ' [ * ( - t a * l \ E r c t+ 9 E a ) b o + * e E , e t 8 E 6 1* 8 E e ) ( b z - U : l ]
*2yo, MZ" -y:iMA,
W46)
The total axial force, bending momentand stiffnessare then given by:
p=iLp";r itto-f")A,t
Fl
w47)
i=r
u = iLM,i*
Fl
i y,,(-f,i-f,)Asj- f oP
(4-48)
j=t
ns
ne
EA = ILEA,, + 2 @"i-En)A,i
Fl
g-49)
i=r
E Z = i l ,g z" ,*
Fl
iy,i( Eui- Er c) A,i - yoEA
( 4- 50)
j=I
ns
ne
EI = 2L,EI,i + Z y"j(Eui-En)A,i - 2yoEZ - ySEA
(4-51)
j=t
i=l
for BiaxialBending
Analysls
4-3 Moment-Curvature
canbe appliedto the
outlinedin theprevioussub-section
The samebasicconcepts
is given
caseof biaxialbending.The longitudinalstrainat anypoint on the cross-section
by:
E = Eo+ Q,( -y-!") - Q,(x -x,)
The axialforceis thengivenbY
, =!l f"dA+ 2 (f, -f") A,i
(4-53)
@s4)
As
u, = l[l f, dA + 2 t,i (f,i -f")A,i - lo P
(4-55)
My= -ll ,f,dA->x,i(f,j-f")A,i+xoP
(4-5O
Asl
As
4-9
yf
Fig. 4-3 Definition of Variables for Biaxial Bending
For a given centroidalstrain (e") and curvatures(0, and 0:u),the equationsare in

explicit form and therefore the axial force P and moments (M, andMy) can be readiiy
calculated. The inverseproblem (P, M, andM, specified)requiresiteration to compute
(to, 0, and Q, ). As in the caseof uniaxial bending,the Newton-Raphsonprocedurecan
be applied. Incrementaldeformationsare relatedto incrementalforcesthrough a stiffrress
matrix given by:
EZ,
ItrllunEZ.
EZ,EI, EIo
lfo',
^0,I
I M,
.ll
1LM, l=l
)
| EZy Er,y EI,
11
I
^0,
(4-s7)
with,
EA=#=
I (t,r-Et";)A,t
llz,,ae+
dEo
J
As
EZ,-#
dQ'
=Y
dEo
= fi ,,at+[y,i(Eui- En)A,i- voEA

J!
l
As
4-10
(4-s8)
(4-se)
=#
EZ,
'
dQy
=Y
dEo
-Z x,i(Eui- En)A,i+ xoEA

= -!l xE,"dA
(4-60)
As
(4-61)
EI, = +
= ll y'zE,"de+2 y'rE*i - En)A,i- 2yoEZ,- yZEA

t:"-
EI, =Y
=[[*'t,,a'e+lx!,@,,1-En)A,t+2roEzv-x\z'q g-62)
d0,
dQy
';,
dMt -l)"xlEndA
aM' =ffi
-yoEzy
-l**ort*i - Ep)Aq+xoEZ,
=
+x"yoEA(4-63
EIo=ffi
The formulation specified in Eqs. (4-54) through (4-63) have only two
assumptionsimplicit in them: (1) Plane sectionsremain plane, Eq.( -53); (2) The area
locationsoccupiedby the steelreinforcementis very small comparedto the concretearea,
so that no integrationis necessaryand all the propertiescan be expressedby summations.
The concretecomponentsin theseequations,nevertheless,need to be approximatedby
someintegrationtechnique.
For rectangularsections,an explicit formulation can be given. It is proposedthat
the cross-sectionbe divided in a matrix mesh of fibers as shown in Fig. 4-4a. Each
rectangularfiber elementhaving a midpoint node, as shown in Fig. 4-4b. A parabolic
interpolationfunction can be chosenas:
f =f" + B Tl+ C\+ Dr1|+ E rf + F 1'
(4-64)
with
BLx=CLy=_|fo*2fr_lfo
DAxLy=fo -fi -fz+-f+
E6i2 =lfo+f1-2fi++f4
(4-6s)
t4-66)
(4-67)
(4-68)
E(Ly)' = I fo +"f,- 2fi + ; f4
axis,that are relatedto the global
where 11and ( are the x andy localcoordinates
axisthrough:
coordinates
I =r-roi
(4-6e)
F - ,,-,,
\-l
!or
(4-70)
4-Tl
where x6; dnd loi dtathe coordinatesof the lower left corner of the element,and should
not be confusedwith the coordinatesof the centroid. In terms of local coordinateseach
fiber elementcontributionto the integralscan be computedas:
L,x Ly
IIrau=
J JfdTtd\
/
dg
A _r A.y
(4-7r)
00
Ar A_y
(!oi*qftdE=I Ief A4+y",[[lat

J
IIyfat=
J
As0000LA
Lx Ll
A,x Ly
*",J!fa.t
ll.1a,t=J J$,,+rt)fdrtd4=
tr Jn"ranaE*
A8
(4-72)
00
00
4-73)
LA
Similarly
Lx Ly
xyfa,n=
\Vd\4+r",1[yfdA+y"ill- f ou- r",y",JI
7a, (4-74)
lJ
J
,[
AAOOAAAAAA
Ar Ly
xfdA-xl,JJtan
IJilae=JO JO \'.f6d\*u",ll
AA
LA
wls)
yfdA-t3,![
rat
II y'rae=J0 0 J *fhdl+2y",J!
LA
LA
@i6)
AA
Lx try
LA
The numericalintegrationof the interpolationfunction Eq. (4-64) can be

computedin termsof thenodevalues(fo,ft,fz,ft andf+),resulting:
{4-77)
(4-78a)
(4-78b)
(4-78c)
(4-78d)
(-78e)
4-12
I
.f-
:2
I
r3
Ly
II
r_J
iL
0
F_rx_l
(b)
Fig.4-4 ElementNodeNumbering
4-13
Then by giving m andn the appropriatevalues:

for m:0 andn:0:
Lx LJ
=
+fi +fz+ 8f3+fl
[ lfnne ]ut1,1fo
(4-7s\
for m=l andn:0:

Lx Lv
I0 0 J Vant, = [{tt)2 tt( f1 + 4fi +fl
(4-s0)
for m:0 andn:1,

o, o,
(4-81)
t Ie"f hd\=f,tx1tyy'(.fr*4ft+fq)
00
for m:\ andn:I:

Ar Ay
(4-s2)
J !nEfirrr4=,,L(Li'6D'efo+fr+fz+t2fi+5fq)
00
for m:2 andn:0:

L,x LY
I I n'fanal=S{lx)'ly(afo+27fi -5fr+76fi+z6.fi
(4-s3)
00
and,for m:0 andn:2:

L,x ay
| | ..
- I
(-4fo- 5.f,+27f2+76f3
+261i
noE=
e'f
J0 0 )
fnox(nil3
The
procedure to
evaluate the
forces
(P, M, and Mr)
g-84)
and
stifftress
(EA, EZr, EZr, EIry, I, and 1r) is summarizedas follows.

(1) The geometryof the discretizedcross-sectionis known. For every elementthe size
(Ax and Ay) and coordinateof the lower-left node (ro;, yo) arc known. The position and
areaof reinforcingbarsis alsospecified(xoi,!oi), A,j.
(2) From Bernoulli's assumption,the strain at every node can be readily computed, for a
given centroidalstrain (e,) and curvatures(Q,, 0r), by using Eq. (a-53).
(3) The stress(f")
and tangentialYoung'smodulus (Ep) can be computedby knowing
the strain and previoushistory using an appropriateconstitutivemodel. Thus, for every

eiement -fni, -fru,frzi, -fdi,fc4i,fnoi, fntifn2i, f6r andfpai are known.
(4) The strain at bar location is calculated,and by using constitutivemodels for concrete
and steelthe stressesand tangentialYoung'smodulusare calculated( f,i, fri, Etri, Et"i).
4-14
(5) The concretecomponentsfor eachelementare definedby:
LPi= ibtytf*+-fa*f"z+8f"-,+f,q)
(4-85)
LM,i - LuAl-(ty)'(f,z+ 4fa +f,q)*!eiPi
(4-86)
A,Myi = |tni'
g'87)
tl( fa + 4fa +f"q) * xeiM i
LE Ai = $ *n y 1 Z ,,o *E ," r*E t,z+8 E 6 *Er ci
( 4- 88)
LEZ,i=LoM(A.y)'(Enr+4Et"z*Etuq)*loiLEAi
(4-89)
+xoiMA,
A,EZyi= $1tr )'nl(E,a * 486 * E,,0,)
(4-90)
LEI,,= *Ar(ny)'(
4E,a - SEtcl *27Erc2+76E6 +26Ea) +2yoiLEZ*i-y' o,A,EA,
(4-91)
/J]Irs=fitUl'&f+
E n*27Erct - SEta+76Ea *26Ercq)+2xo;A,EZri- x!,MA,
(4'92)
E61i E,62r l2Erz * 5E,"a)+xoiMZ,i +yoiMzti -xo;!6iLEAr

A,EI,yi= ]r{txLil'(-86*
(6) Finally the total forces and stiffness for the cross-section are given by
p =2 M i +z(f,i -f,)A,i
(4-93)
(4-e4)
j=l
Fl
ne
ns
M, =2 A,M,;+ly,i(f,i -f")Asj -loP

.=1
ns
ne
M, = -Z LMri -}x,i(f,i
Fl
ne
-f,)A si* xoP
(4-e6)
Fl
ns
EA = E L,EA,+ >(E'E - E n;)A'i

Fl
(4-es)
j=l
t4-e7)
fI
ne
'ls
i=l
i=r
EZ, = Z LEZ,i + 2 y,1(E61- E rc)A,i -y oEA

ns
ne
MZui - E xri(E,,,- E n)A,i + xoEA

EZ,' E =t ' j -2
=l
EI, - f MI,, + f y2u1n

u,- En)A,i - 2yoEZ,- yTEA
Ft
(4-e8)
(4-ee)
(4-100)
FI
EI, = i,rcttt+'i
- En)A,i+ZroEzv-xln'l'
x2o(E"i
(4-101)
EI o = -Y, tu o, -
4y,1@t,1 E p)A,i + x oEz' y oEz v + x oyoEA

rf'-rx
(4-102)
4-t5
4.4 Force-Displacement
Analysis
in the previoussectionsa procedure
to obtainthe moment-curvature
relationship
for uniaxial as well as biaxial bending was presented. This section presentsa
methodologyby which deformationcan be assessed.The total deformationA can be
in termsof its variouscomponents
expressed
as:
A,=L"+Lp+Ar"+Aro
(4-103)
where A" is the elasticflexure deformatiorr,Lp is the plastic flexure deformation,A," is

the elastic sheardeformationand Aro is the inelasticsheardeformation. In what follows
is descriptionof eachof thesecomponentsof displacement.
4.4.1 ElasticFlexuralDeformation
The flexural deformationon a columncanbe foundby taking first momentsof the
curvaturediagram.
L
A=JrQ@)dx
g-I04)
If the momentsin the column are causedby a concentratedshearforce applied at the top,
as shown in Fig. 4-5, then the momentat any distancex from the top can be found to be:
M,
M'--T*
where I is the length of the column and Ml is the maximum moment.
curvature
from
yieldpenetration
Fig. 4-5 FlexuralDeformationon a Column

4-16
(4-10s)
as:
Thus,the relationshipgiven in Eq.(4-i04) canbeexpressed
'i
I r \2
I Mq(tvt)dM
n=i#l
\lvtL
(4-r06)
the integralabove
relationship
arecalculated,
As discretepointson themoment-curvature
as:
canbe computednumericallY
\2 +
- M1-t)lLi
o" = 1 ( z ,
QMi+ Mt-) + 0;-r(Mi+2Mi-)l
tlft. ) P_1M1
(4-107)
For inelasticaeformationsit is necessaryto calculatethe elastic and plastic

separately.Manderet al. (1984)proposedto expressthe elasticcomponents
components
in termsof an effectivestiffrresscalculatedat first yield, givenby:
M,, LZ
EIrg=E
(4-108)
from Eq. (4-107)whenthe momentat the

calculated
whereA, is the yield displacement
basecausesa longitudinalbar to yield; and M, is the momentat first yielding. Thusfor
as:
beyondtheelasticlimit, theelasticflexuraldeformationis calculated
deformations
L,=Q"+=wr*,
(4-10e)
4.4.2 Plastic Flexural Deformation

distributionof curvaturesManderet al. (1984)
Basedon studyof experimental
proposeda parabolicdistributionof plasticcurvature.This is adoptedhereinto assess
is asfollows:
plasticdeformations.Theprocedure
(a) Themagnitudeof theplasticcurvature(0p) at thecriticalsectionis givenby,
Qp=(Q-Q,)
where Q, is the curvature to causefirst yield at the prescribedaxial load.
(b) The length of the plastic curvaturedistribution Lo" is given by:
Lr,=L_4hl
where M*r. is the maximum moment.
4-17
(c) Some additionalplastic curvaturefrom penetrationof the yielding of

longirudinalreinforcementis accountedfor by defining an empiricallength of yield
peneffation
as:
Lpy= 635Jdt
(in)
(4-ll2')
Lpy=32 Jda
( mm )
where do is the longitudinalbar diameter.

(d) The plasticrotation,0r, of the columnis calculatedas:
( lt,,+ r,, )
o, =oo
''
"
\J
(4-r13)
(e) Finally, the plastic deformationis given by:
b =oo(L-totr")
(4-r14)
4.4.3 ElasticShearDeformation
of sheardeformations"The
Two methodsare consideredhereinfor the assessment
first method considersdeformationsfor the elastic and cracked stages,when the member
hasnot yielded. The procedureoutlinedby Park and Paulay(1975) to assesselasticshear
deformations was used to calculate the shear deformations for the elastic and cracked
zones. The secondmethod uses a proposedEquivalent Truss Method which has been
found appropriateto assesscyclic inelastic sheardeformations.
In what follows is an explanationof the procedure.
(a) Prior to cracking the sheardeformation can be computed as:
Ar"
V'
=n"
(4-l1s)
givenby:
where I/ is theappliedshearand K* is theshearstiffrress
K'" =o'48:Aq
(4-116)
in which the factor 0.4 assumesthat the Poissonratio for concreteis v = 0.25 and
to shearstiffrress,and f is a form factor. For
G=0.4E,, Ao is the areathat contributes
rectangular
cross-sections
.f- 1.2, andfor T, I andhollowsections_f= l. At this stageof
4-18
uncrackedbehavior the member shows a much greater shear stiffiress comparedto the
crackedstage.
(b) When cracking exists over a length smaller than the hinge zone but no yield
has occurred:
,-H)]
*"=r,ri{#k-*;(
(4-1r7)
where M", is the crackingmomentandKu1,is thepost-crackingshearstiffrresswithin the

plastichingeregion.
is relatedto the inclinationof cracksand
elasticshearstifftress
The post-cracking
givenby ParkandPaulay(I975):
by theexpression
is calculated
_
p " sina0sin4P1cot0+cotP)
\.
r,
D
s r n " 0 + n ps,r n * p
"
(4-1r8)
where0 is the angleof inclinationof the cracksrespectto the longitudinalaxis,B is the

angleof inclinationof the stimrps,normallyI = 90". E, is the modulusof elasticityof
n=Ef
the hoop reinforcement,
itthe modularratio,E" is the modulusof elasticityof
calculated
by:
concrete,and p, is thevolumetricratioof hoopreinforcement
p"=#,
(4-r1e)
in which l" is the total areaof hoop steel,b," is the with of the concreteweb and s is the
hoop spacing.
For transversereinforcementwith p = 90o, Eq. ( -118) can be simplified to:
b* d cot9
Avo=
E'p,
-,
(4-r20)
E; ru.t'O
(c) Whencrackingextendsbeyondthe hingeregionthen the sheardeformationis

givenby:
r-r ^'-*++**(r-+-+'ll
L*=vLl*ft*
K,nL K,"\' M^
L)J
slnl
by usingEq. (4-120)
within the hingeregioncalculated
where K,r, is the shearstiffrress
for the hoop spacingrt within the hingeregion,while K," is the shearstiffrressoutside
for a hoopspacings, of theunconfinedzone.
thehingeregioncalculated
4-19
4.4.4 lnelasticShearDeformation
For squat columns the amount of sheardeformation can be significant. Under
cyclic loading some plaslis sheardeformationmay be present,particularly for existing
gravity load designedbridge columnsthat possessonly the nominal minimum amount of
transversereinforcement. Thus to correctly assessthis plastic shear deformations a
suitablemodel is needed. Both the Modified CompressionField Theory, MCFT, (Collins
and Mitchell, 1991) and the SoftenedTruss Model. STM, (Hsu, 1993) deal with the
problem of inelastic sheardeformations,but as they were developedare suitableonly for
monotonic loading of membranetype elements. Both models are what Hsu (1993) calls
rotating angle models, as at every stagethe inclination of cracks is calculatedassuming
that it coincideswith the principal axis. This approachhas shown good accuracywith
experimental results, as some of its variablesare calibratedwith experimental data.
In the context of a Fiber Element program for cyclic loading, a more straight
forward constantcrack angle model has been developed,which takes into account the
tensioncapacityof reinforcedconcretethat has beenincorporatedin both the MCFT and
the STM. When examiningexperimentalperformanceof columnstestedby Mander et al.
( 1984, 1993) and Ang et al. ( 1987) it is evidentthat after cracking the inclination of the
cracksremainsunchanged,but generallygrow in length and width as ductility amplitudes
increase, It is thus felt that the model presentedin this sectionthat assumesa fixed angle
is realistic for columnsmembers.
The procedure to assessshear deformation in the case of shear dominateci
membersis describedbelow.
Four defined shearzonesare identified as shown in Fig. 4-6. Three of tho zones
are elastic, which means that they are independentof the sffain history and thar the
deformationsare proportional to the shearforce applied. This does not mean that the
shear displacementis linear, becauseas cracking progressesupward, the length over
which the different shearstiffrressesapply is changed.
(I) Elastic UncrackedZone : the lengthof this zone can be calculatedby:
ur e-rlu*l
-Llu^
4-20
(4-122)
is K,, whichis givenby Eq.(4-115).

Overthiszonetheshearstiffiress
(2\ Elastic CrackedZone Outsidethe Hinge Region : if crackinghas extended
aSLr," = Lr, - Zr,, otherwiseit
beyondthehingezone,the lengthof thiszoneis calculated
is takenas zero. The stifftessprevalentin this zone K," is governedby the spacing
by usingEq. (-120). The cracked
providedoutsidethehingeregion,whichis calculated
lengthis givenby:
L", = L- L"
(4'123)
(3) CrackedZone Within the Hinge Region: the shearstiffrressK,i, within this
by Eq. (4-12q. The lengthof
regionis definedby thehingehoopspacingandcalculated
this zoneis givenby L",n=Ln-Lp" or by Lcrh=L"r-Lp, if crackinghasnot extended
outsidethehingeregion.TheyieldedzonelengthLo" is givenby Eq. (4-111).
to behaveinelastically,
(4) YietdedZone'. within this zoneshearis considered
andmay not be proportionalto the currentshear
thusthe deformationis historydependent
being applied. A sheardeformationT is calculatedusing a Cyclic InelasticStnrt-Tie
in thenextsub-section.
(CIST)modeldeveloped
is thusgivenby:
The elasticsheardeformation
o-=42,'*.*)
(4-r24)
while. the inelasticsheardeformationis calculatedby:

L,,o= y Lp"
(4-12s)
(CIST)Modelfor
Strut-Tie
CyclicInelastic
4.4.4.1Proposed
ShearDeformations.
The determinationof inelasticsheardeformationshasbeen one of the most elusive
subjects on reinforced concrete. Recently the Modified Compression Field Theory
(Collins and Mitchell, 1991) and the SoftenedTruss Model (Hsu, 1993) have gathereda
lot of attention as rational means of assessingsheardeformations. Nevertheless,these
models have only been developedfor membranetype elementsunder monotonic shear.
in this subsectiona straight forward model is presentedwhich is applicablenot only to
monotonic shearbut for cyclic inelasticshearas well.
4-21
Kr"
ElasticCracked
ZonedOutside
HingeRegion
Kr"
Krt
lnelastic(YieldedZone) L
Fig.4-6 ShearDeformationon a Column

*tt
:Y
I
){o
-t/
,zrr
l/
-t'_
TI
jd cotg
CONCRETE
STRUTS
-,1SHEAR
LUMPED
HOOPTIES
+V
Fig,4-7 EquivalentStrut-TieModel for ShearDeformations
4-22
eoe
tl
? ll l<
-jd
,l
u
u -A-
l*
jd cot 0
(a)
1K
Fv
(b)
(c)
Fig.4-8 Equilibrium and Strain Transformationin the
Cvclic InelasticStrut-TieShearModel
4-23
eo r l
y/2
__+_____>
I
r^
II
e<-t
lt
vl
utl.--f--- l"
y/2
oo
T
ll
il
eoy
eoe
------
-iL
eoeo
Mr*
M{M,
M,M,
(b)
Fig. 4-9 Definition of AverageLongitudinalStrain on ShearConcreteStrut
4-24
It is assumedthat the angle of inclination of the cracks remains constant after

cracking. This assumptron,as mentionedearlier, is supportedby experimentalevidence"
The concrete model developed in Section 3 is particularly appropriate for the CIST
model, as it can model the stress-straincyclic behavior of the concrete struts in both
tensionand compression. Of specialimportancein this model is the modeling of gradual
crack closure. An equilibrium of externalforcesin Fig. 4-8a leadsto,
V =( F,+ F,) sin0
(4-r26)
an equilibriumof internalforcesin Fig. 4-8bgives,

Whereas,
Fu = (F" -Fr) sin0
(4-r27)
where F" : compressiveforce in the concretesffut, F1 : tensile force in the concretetie,

Fu : force on the steelhoop and 0 : inclination of cracks. The forcesin the concreteand
steelare given by:
F, =frA*cssQ=f"jdb,, cos0
(4-128a)
F t =ftA* s6sQ=f1jdb, cos0

id cot9
=JsvAsi-V
(4-128b)
f u
(4-r2e)
stressin the concretesffut, f = tensilestresson the concrete

in which fc : aorrrpressive
A,=jdb*:
concretesheararea,Arr: areaof
tie, f* : stresson the hoopties,
ffansverse
steelresistingshear,ands : hoopspacing.It is to be notedthatA* cos0 is the
shearareaperpendicularto the concretestrut,wher ru, ,1,/$
is the lumpedareaof
reinforcement.By combiningEqs.(4-126)through(4-129)and rearranging,

transverse
is obtained:
the followingexpression
v = A,uf,u(
(4-130)
+ f1jdb. cote(2sin20)
i
"ote
with thatof theMCFT (CollinsandMitchell, 1991),
Theseequationcanbe compared
I
(4-131) |
v=A,,f*(rote+f,jdb*cot0
It canbe seenthat Eqs.(4-130)and(4-131)agreewhenthe inclinationangleg=+S"
I
of theconcrete
theerror- 1-2sin20,e.g.if 0=30o, etror=0.5= 50o/o
For otherangles
I
to the tensioncapacityof concrete,is I
tensioncontribution.The term that corresponds
to thesteel
normally
smallcompared
a good
Eq"(a-130)
whatmakes
;:--,,
approximation. The simplicity introducedby this approximationis well rvorth it. as it

will be shown in the following subsection.
Fig. 4-8c shows the relation between the sffains in the longitudinal/transverse
direction and the strainsin the struts. The tensilestrainin the concretetie ei is calculated
as:
+eu sin20+ y sin0 cos0

tf = ,scoszg
(4-r32)
strainon theconcrete
sffutis:
whereasthecompressive
+ eusin20- y sin0 cos0
tl = ro,cos2o
(4-133)
in which Eo" : averagelongitudinalstrainon the concretestruts,e, : strain on the

transverse
hoopsand y : sheardistortion.
The relation betweenthe stresses
and strainsis given by the constitutivemodels,
fi =f"(ei)
fi =f,(ei'ei)
(4-r34)
(4-13s)
f* =f" (e")
(4-136)
in which f" and f, representthe constitutiverelationsfor concreteand steelrespectively.

Note that in Eqs. (4-132) to (4-136) the nomenclaturehas been changed. The asterisk x
meaningthat they do not representthe true principal strainsor stresses,as the MCFT and
the STM assume.
The concrete is modeled in four sffuts, two for unconfined concrete and two for
confined concrete,in both directions. Although, in the precedingparagraphsthe struts
and ties have beenreferredto as compressiveand tensileelements,they actually alternate
betweenstrutsand ties as the memberis being subjectedto cyclic loading.
The implementationof the model in the context of a column analysisprogram is
given in the following steps:
A. Moment-Curvature Analysis
(a.l) Take a curvatureQ for which the analysisis going to be performed.
(.a.2) Assumea centroidalstrain e,. The assumptionof this sffain may be based
on an incrementalanalysisestimation,if previousstepsof the analysisare known.
(a.3) Perform a sectionanalysisto calculatethe axial force P and moment M at
the critical sectionaccordingto proceduredescribedin subsection4.2.
4-26
(a.a) If the axial load P does not satisfy the external axial load applied. then
repeat steps2 and 3 until convergenceis satisfied. Increasingthe value of eo increases
the axial load value, unlesscrushingof the concreteoccurs. It is possible,that for high
valuesof axial load, or high valuesof curvaturedeformation,no centroidalstrain could be
found to satisfy equilibrium. This meansthat the sectionmay not be able to sustainthat
axial load anymore,at this point the analysiscan be stopped.
B. Flexure Deformations
(b.1) Once the axial load and moment has beendef,rned,the flexural deformations
A, and L, can be calculatedaccordingto the proceduregiven in subsection4.4.1 and
4.4.2.
(b"2) If no PA effect is being considered,the shearforce is calculatedas:
, =T
rrM
(4-r37)
in which Z : length of column to the point of contraflexure.In the case where PA is

being considered,a first approximationthe deflectionmay be taken as A = A,"+ A,o,as the
sheardeformationsare not known at this stage. The shearforce can then be calculate<las:
M +PPL
,,
' -L+agL
(4-138)
where p : proportion of PA considered,which dependson geometric characteristicsof

the problem; cr : is the fraction of the shearforce which is addedto the axial load" Thrs
last factor is usedon a variableaxial load problem,as encounteredon extemal columnsin
a frame or multi-column pier seat. In Eq. (a-138) the moment at the critical cross-section
is consideredto be:
M=VL-pP
(4-13e)
in whichthenegative
signimpliesthattheaxialloadP is positivein tension.
C. Shear Deformations
The elastic shear deformationA* can be calculatedby the procedure given in
subsections4.4.3 and 4.4.4" To calculatethe inelastic sheardeformation the procedure
given in the following stepsis used. Thesestepssummarizethe proposedCIST model.
4-27
(c.l) The averagelongitudinal strain eo" for the concretestmts can be computed
as depictedin Fig. 4-9.
(i) The distance from the critical cross-sectionto the location of the
averagelongitudinal strain y is takenas the lesserof j L", andlid cot 0.
(ii) If M 1Mv then,
(4-r40)
o e= E o + ( e l " r - d *
Lcr
in which, ej., is the centroidalstrainat the limit of the crackedsectionof the column, that
can be calculatedas:
EXu=eoo+(eocr-Eo)lffil
(4-r4r)
where ML : moment at the commencement

of crackedsection,that is calculatedas:
L: L*
M;,' - l,f
L",
(4-r42)
in which Lu is the length of the crackedsection,which is definedby Eq. (4-123).

(iii) If M > M, then eo" is given by:
Eo"=EL,*(Eoy-r;,):=
f o ry > L ,
(4-143)
= o/+(o- ,r(T)'
oe
for1.< z,
(4-r44)
of,
where,
uz\
'r[)
Ly=Lll--
(4-14s)
in which ,, is the centroidalstrainat the locationof the yield moment (Fig. 4-9b).
(c.2) Assume a value of the sheardistortiony, which may be basedon prevtous
stepsof the analysis.
(c.3) Assumea transversestrain e,
(c.4) Calculatethe stressin the ffansversesteel,Eq. (4-136).
(c.5) Calculatethe strainsin the concretestrutsand ties Eqs.(4-132)and (4-133).
(c.6) Calculatethe stresseson the concretestrutsand ties through the constitutive
model, Eqs. (4-134)and (4-135). The stresses
shouldbe computedfor both the confined
and unconfinedconcrete.
(c.7) Computethe force components,
4-28
cos9
(4-146)
F"a =fio(eilidb-" cos9

F,"z =f!"1eiljdb*, cos9
{4-147)
(4-148)
F"o2=flo@i1idb*" cos9
(4'149)
F"a =fi(e\)jdb-"
F,=A,uf,,{.ote
(4-150)
andconfinedsheararearespectively.
wherejdb*" andjdb*" aretheunconfined
(c.8)Checkinternalequilibrium,
lF,+ (F,a * F,ot* F*z+Froz)sin0l < tolerance
is not met,repeatfrom step(c.3).
If the equilibriumrequirement
(4-1s1)
(c.9)Calculateshearforce,
V = (F ra t F rot- F r"z-F"oz) sin 0
(4-152)
in Eq. (4-152)is not equal,within a giventolerance,to the

If the shearforce calculated
shearforcegivenby Eq. (4-138),thenthe valuesheardistortiony needsto be adjusted,
from step(c.2).
is repeated
andtheprocedure
hasbeingsatisfied,the sheardistortionangle1 is usedto find
Onceconvergence
theinelasticsheardeflection,
A,ro=\ Lp"
(4-1s3)
D. Total Deflection
The totaldeflectionon thecolumnsis:
A , =L " + A p + A r , + A r o
(4-1s4)
thenthe shearforceneedsto be adjustedby usingthe

trf the PA effectis beingconsidered
from stepc.2.
is to be repeated
total deflectionA in Eq. (4-138),andthewholeprocedure
This procedureaccountfor both PA and variableaxial load effect. Of special
importancein this procedureis a robust algorithm to solve the different variablesat
certainsteps. Iterationsare neededto calculatethe centroidalstraineo, the ffansverse
sffaine, andthe sheardistortiony. The strategyto solvefor thesevariablesincludesthe
following:
(1) SecantMethodis usedas a first option. This methodis used,becauseof it
the solutionis not bracketednearthe solution,andbecause
higherorderof convergence
4-29
To guaranteethe stability a maximum stepis defined,as the method can get out of bounds
if the derivative of the function gets small^ The best solution is always srored,in casethe
method doesnot converge"
(2) If at any given iteration, it is found that a solution exists betweentwo points,
then the method of solution switches to a Regula Falsi approach, as this ensuresa
solution"
(3) If convergenceis not found, then as an alternative, a somewhat slower
algorithm will try to bracket the solution. During every trial value, the best solution is
always being kept track of" It is possiblethat by speciflng too small a tolerance"no
convergencecan be achieved, in which case the best solution is returned" If the
bracketingroutine is successfulin finding a range in which the solution is located.then a
Regulafalsi methodis appliedto find the solution.
(4) Becauseof numericalround-off errorsit is always necessaryto use a counter
to avoid an endlessloop.
This methodof solutionhasproven to be effectiveto give the numericalprocedure
good stability, which is particularly important, as so many calculations are
beine
performed.
4.4.4.2CrackInclination
Angle
The assessment
of inelasticsheardeformationwithin the plastic hinge region
impliesthat the fixed angleCIST modelhasan influenceonly after the sectionis fully
cracked. To ensurea tractablesolution,limit analysisis adoptedhereinto definethe
crackinclinationangle. Limit analyses
candefinethreepossibleshearfailure modesin
membrane
typeelements
(Marti andMeyboom,1992):
(l) Yieldingof bothreinforcements,
concrete
doesnot crush.Thus.
f'=f,
f, =fo
-f"=fL
444
(4-lss)
(4-1s6)
(4-rs7)
in which f, , fn : sffessand leld stressof longitudinalreinforcing steel, f,, fr,: stress

and leld sffess of transversereinforcement, fr, f!, : stress and effective concrete
strengthof concrete. In membranetype elementswhere there is little or no confinement
the effective concrete strength that may be lower than the uniaxial strength of plain
concretedue to the softeningeffect of tensionin the perpendiculardirection (Collins and
Mitchell, 1991). In this investigationthe effective concretestrengthwill be taken as the
uniaxial strengthof plain concrete,as the confinementeffect at the baseof a column tends
to compensatefor the softeningeffect. The inclination of the principal compressivestrain
for this caseis calculatedbv:
P* fy,
P'fy
tan0=
(4-rs8)
in which
Arr
P r = jdb*
(4-1se)
and
Prr=#
(4-160)
and the applied shearstressis given by,
r, = J(P,P
* f, fr')
(4-161)
(2) Yielding of reinforcement in weak (transverse)direction, concrete crushes and

reinforcementin strongdirectionremainselastic. In this case,
sino=
W
(4-r62)
and,
r" = J (f! - p," fy") p,ufyu

(3) Concretecrushesandbothreinforcements
remainelastic.For this case,
0=45o
(4-163)
(4-r64)
and
u = if!
(4-16s)
Note that this implies that the element is being subjectedto pure shear. To find the
governingmode, the lowest value of t, is taken,and its correspondinginclination angle.
4-31,
Nevertheless,the crack inclination is not to be taken lessthan a minimum which is given

by,
tangn;o=
(4-r66)
which is dictated by the rocking effect as describedby Mander et al. (1993). In this
analysis it is to be noted that the fixed angle assumedby the modei is taken as the
inclination angle of the principal compressivestressat failure. Analysesby Collins and
Mitchell (1991) indicatethat this angledoesnot changesignificantly after flelding.
Model
4.5 Validationof Fiber-Element
A computerprogram RC-COLA was developedto simulatethe cyclic behaviorof
a reinforce concrete column. The program incorporatesthe CIST model for shear
deformations. The concrete model advanced in Section 3, which incorporates the
simulation of concrete in both tension and compression cyclic behavior, and the
simulation of gradual crack closure, for confined and unconfined concrete, was
incorporated into the program. The energy balance theory developed by Mander et al.
(1988) for the prediction of first hoop fracture was also implemented,what makes the
program capableof predicting failure by hoop fracture. The steel model developedin
section2, which incorporateslocal cycle degradationand the proposedfatigue model, was
also incorporated. Thus the programis able to simulatelongitudinalbar fracture. Finally
the inelastic cyclic shear model presentedin this section was implemented into the
program to simulatemore accuratelythe cyclic behaviorof shearcritical columns.
Two column specimenstestedby Aycardi et al. (1992) were chosento compare
the fiber elementmodel against;theseare Specimens2 and4. The prismatic columnshad
a4 x 4 in. cross-section
embeddedinto a 20 x9 x 8 in. reinforcedconcretebase. The
distancefrom the column baseup to the point of applicationof the lateral load was 2l in.
The longitudinalreinforcementconsistedof four D4 bars Q.225 in. diameter,with an area
of 0.04 in2). The transversereinforcementconsistedof a 0.12 in diametersmoothround
wire (#11 gage) spacedat 4 in., with a cover of 0.5 in. measuredto the centerlineof the
hoop. The steeland concretepropertiesare given in Tables 4-l and4-2, rcspectively.
4-32
Table4-1 ExperimentalSteelProperties,Aycardiet al. (1992)

SteelType
JY
(ksi)
E,
Esh
(ksi)
Ern
Jsu
(ksi)
(ksi)
750
IJ
D4
65
31 0 5 0 0.026
# 1 1G a g e
56
29800 0 . 0 1 4 450
70
tsz
Esf
0.107 0.15
0.14
Table 4-2 ExperimentalconcreteProperties,Aycardi et al. (1992)

r
Espalt
elr"
E,
f!"
(ksi)
(ksi)
4.35
4280
0.0023 0.02
2.44
STRESS 4
(ksi)
,{'^t..
fxpsrimental
Analytical
o.oo2 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018
STRAIN
4-10 Comparisonof the AnalyticalStress-StrainRelationship

with the ExperimentatBehaviorof Plain Concretefrom
2 a'nd'4.
Aycardi et al. (1992)for Specimens
4-33
Specimen2 wastestedwith a constantaxial load of 21.2kips resultingrn a load

= 0.30" Whereasspecimen
ratio of +
4 wastestedwith a variableaxial load where
JlAe
P=6.95+2V (kips),which resultsin a load ratio of +-=0.10,
Thesemay be
JiAs
consideredtypical building columns. The columnswere testedat incrementalcycle
amplitudesof +0.25%,+0.5o/o,+lyo,!2oA,+3yo,!4oh
andl\Yo drift, wrth 2 complete
cycles at every drift step. The analyticalmodel given by Mander et al. (198a) is
successful
in predictingthe force-displacement
relationship
for a columnswith high level
of axialload(Fig. 4-ll), whereas
theproposed
modelgivesbetterresultsfor low levelof
axialloaddueto thegradualcrackclosureincorporated
in it (Fig 4-12).
Threeductilehollowreinforcedconcrete
columns(ColumnsA, C andD) testedby
Manderet al. (1984)arealsocompared
with the fiber elementmodel. The columnshada
height of 3.2 m and a squarecrosssectionof 750 mm with 120 mm thick walls,
containingsixty 10mm Grade275 deformedbars(Dl0) as longitudinalreinforcement
giving a volumetricration of 0.0155. The longitudinalreinforcementwas distributed
uniformly aroundeachfacewith a coverof 20 mm" The specimens
containeddifferent
arrangements
of transverse
steelin theplastichingezone. The cyclic testingconsisted
of
two completecyclesat each displacement
ductility factor of p-+),!4,+6 and+8"
ColumnA hada low axialload P = 0.lflAs andminimum(antibuckling)steel. Column
C had a moderateaxial load P =0.3f!A, andconfiningsteel,whereasColumnD had a
moderatelevel of axial load and minimum steel. For a detaileddescriptionof the
specimen
referto Manderet al. (1984).
Of particularinterestin thisinvestigation
is the capabilityof the modelof simulate
differentfailuremodes. After ColumnA had beentestedat the specifieddisplacement
ductility factors,the specimenwas subjected
to 40 dynamiccyclesup to fractureof the
longitudinal bars.
The presentmodel predicteda fracture of the longitudinal
reinforcement
after3l cycles,as shownin Fig.4-14. It may be notedthat the present
formulationimprovesthe simulationof gradualcrackclosure. Of specialimportanceis
the degreeof detail that the presentformulationwas capableto simulate,specially
concrete
failurein ColumnC, Fig.4-13.
4-34
Finally, a shear critical column was chosento show the capability of the CIST
model to accuratelysimulatecyclic inelastic shearbehavior. A full size cap-to-column
oonnectionof a shearcritical bridge pier testedby Mander et al. (1993) was testedunder
reverse cyclic loading. It should be noted that in this test, the cyclic inelastic shear
what allows the comparisonof the proposedanalyticalmodel with
behavior was assessed,
actualexperimentalbehavior. The pier had an averagesquarecrosssectionof 910 mm of
side. The longitudinal reinforcement consistedof 16 #7 bars enclosed by a single
perimeter hoops at 305 mm centers. The concretestrengthwas found to be 7 .4 ksi (51
MPa). A detailed descriptionof the specimenis found on Mander et al. (1993). Figs.
4-16 and 4-17 show the experimentalbehaviorand simulation of a shearcritical column
respectively. Note how the CIST model was able to simulateto accuratelythe inelastic
shear behavior. The fiber model proposedby Mander et al. (1984) was incapable of
simulatethis shearbehavior.as it is basedon an elasticshearmodels.
4.6Conclusions
hasbeenpresented
which can simulated
In this sectiona FiberElementapproach
the hystereticbehaviorof a reinforcedconcretecolumn. Equationsfor uniaxialbending
with quadraticallyvarying dimensionsand quadraticallyvarying sffessfunction were
presented.This higher order elementscan both improveconvergence
and reducethe
numberof elementsrequired. Equationsfor a five noderectangularelementfor biaxial
bendingwere also presented,althoughno implementationof such model has been
with curvatureassessment
wasfoundin the literature.
included,asno biaxialexperiments
to investigatethe biaxialinteractionof crackingand yieldingto support
It is necessary
to assess
in a biaxiallyloadedcolumn.
deformations
anyassumption
was successfully
appliedto
The cyclic inelasticstrut-tie(CIST)modelpresented,
simulatethe shearhystereticbehavior" The damagemodel presentedin Section2
predicteda failure by hoop fractureafter 31 cycles,comparedto 40 cycles found
experimentally.The simulationof gradualcrackclosurecanimprovethe hystereticshape
with previousmodelswith sudden
on columnswith low levelsof axialload,ascompared
4-35
crack closure" With the implementationof robust algorithms for solving for different
variablesin the procedurepresented,the programpresenteda very stableperformance. It
is important to mention that during the implementationof the program care is to be taken
to ensure numerical stability, during the evaluation of the different equations; as
underflow or overflow may occur, particularly when small reversals are tned by the
solving algorithms.
4-36
DRIFT(o/o)
Vt.6!
1l
(a)EXPERI
MENTAL
FORCE-DRIFT
FROMAYCARDI
et al. (1992)
S P E C I M E4N
1E
-z
I-UKUtr,
(kips)
2
1.5
1
(%)
DRrFT
- 15 t
-zL
(b)MANDER
et al.(1984)
ANALYSIS
FORCE 2 r
(kips) . 1
El
IT
DRrFT(%)
( c ) P R O P o S EFDI B E R
ANALYSIS
ELEMENT
Fig. 4-11 Comparisonof ProposedFiber ElementModel with

ExperimentalResultsfrom Aycardi et al. (1992)
4, P = 0,10f"' As.
Specimen
4-37
FORCE
(kips)
( a ) E X P E R I M E N T AFLO R C E - D R I F T
F R O MA Y C A R D e
I t a t .( 1 9 9 2 )
SPECIMEN
2
FORCE
(kips)
(b)MANDER
et al.(1984)
ANALYSIS
FORCE
(kips)
( c ) P R O P o S EFDI B E R
ELEMENT
ANALYSIS
Fig.4-12Comparisonof ProposedFiber ElementAnalysiswith

ExperimentalResultsfrom Aycardi et al. (1992)
2, P = A30f"' Ar.
Specimen
4-38
0tSP-ACEt'lENf A lnn)
(c) ProposedFiberElementAnalysis
Fig. 4-13 Comparisonof ProposedFiber ElementAnalysiswith

Experimentalrnd AnalyticalResultsfrom Mander et al. (1984)
Column A.
4-39
{=
4 - 0.1fJAc
Hoops R66o
4r = l4mm
5
{
{
lJJ
tu
V.255
2N
n.
ASPLACEMNT.A
lrml
4\,
\/l
=
.E 0J lJAc
Hoops RE60
Ay'llmm
{=
3ffi
5 Y =255
{
200
A
45
ll
=!
t, E
,@.
-a
L0 60
OISLACEHEM(nnl
-200
-L0
dynamic cycles ol
7.5 sccondsN clcle
-300
(c)Proposed
FiberElement
Analysis
Fig. 4-14 Prediction of Low CycleFetigueFrecture of Longitudinel Brrs

For Column A.
100
.a,l
(t--
f,: O.Jteo
lbops R6 L0
A,: l3m
I I'
I
"ll r
300
l=
a
IP
u /l
.^la' .vt
tu71a
60 80 t00
. a hnt
DtsPLAcMENr
tol xPEqpNTtt LnrEnat
Frsl
lrccture
LA0
{
:
<-
300
2@
t!>
o0 80
i
I b ) ANALYIICAL LATERAL LOAO-
-t
tirst
-? z tt
h@p lroctue
(c) Proposed
FiberElementAnalysis
FiberElementAnalysiswith
of Proposed
Fig.4-15 Comparison
ExperimentalandAnalyticalResultsfrom Manderet al. (1984)
ColumnC
4-41
?!-' n
\l
"ii
l=
:{
6n<
p
q
tI P
to
20
-1 ^'i * r
^^^
-'vu
60
&
t1Q
?ISPLACEMNI.a(nn)
loJ EXPR|aEN|AL LA|RAL

LoAo-otsPLEEpENl
RESPONSE COLUI'4N A
fhweltcol
h@o
lroclvre
IbJANALY|ICAL LATRAL
-3gg
LOAO-A9LtCEMENT
RESpCNS FOR
(c) Proposed
FiberElementAnatysis
Fig. 4-16 Comparisonof ProposedFiber ElementAnalysiswith

Experimentaland AnalyticalResultsfrom Mander et al. (1984)
ColumnD
4-42
TOTAL
TOTAL
14q0
^
1000
600
zJ
o
6
5
UI
o
ar
o
IL
2oo
lt
6 -2oo
3
500
o
( -rooo
-1400
lzs -zo .t.s -t.o {.5 0.0 0.5 1'0 1.5 e0 z.5
coLUMN DFIFT(%)
-2.5 -2 -'t.5 -1 4.5 0 0.5 | 1.5

coLUMN DRIFT(%)
1000
zJ
600
;
o
FLEXURE
FLEXURE
1400
2oo
8
l!
//, ,4
5 -2oo
600
P
()
(
aooo
2
5
UJ
3E
o
lt
G,
P
(,
.looo
{09
-1400
-25 -2 -'t.5 -l -0.5 0 0.5 I .|.5
(%)
coLUMNORIFT
SHEAR
I
^ t000 +
zl
ol
t
coLUMN ORIFT(t6)
SHEAR
t*rII
{oo
z
!
u,
o
em{
zoo{
5
rrl
8 -zoo{
o
lt
.E
vlz
FI
P
(,
P 6m+
ol
< -rooo
1
I
-rooJ-2.5 -2 -1.5 -'l 4.5 0
0.5
(%)
coLUMNOR|FT
1.5
coLuMNDRIFT(%)
EXPERIMENTAL
ANALYTICAL
Fig. 4-17 Analytical Simulation of e Full SizeShearCritical Bridge Pier

Testedby Mander et al. (1993)
4-43
Section5
HystereticModelwith Parameter
SmoothAsymmetricDegrading
ldentification
5"1 Introduction
The analytical descriptionof the behavior of reinforced concrete structural
elementssubjectedto inelasticcyclic behaviorusuallyrequireslengthy computation.
Both the steeland the concretehavenon-linearhystereticbehavior,so the behaviorof
concreteelementswill reflect the non-linearitiesof
structuralreinforcedand prestressed
the constituentmaterials.In the contextof dynamictime-historyanalysisprograms,
macro-modelstend to be the preferredapproachusedto simulatethe hystereticbehavior
of individualelements.Thesemodelstry to simulatea hystereticbehavior,withoutthe
thatmightbe involvedin modelingthis behaviorthrough
calculations
morecumbersome
analyticalapproach.Most macromodels
eithera finite elementor fiber modelapproach
(l) DifferentialEquations,such
response:
useoneof two methodsto simulatea hysteretic
linearrules,suchas the well known
asthe Bouc-WenModel,Wen(1975);(2) Piecewise
plastic,bilinear,Clough'sdegradingstiffnessmodelandvariousformsof
elasto-perfectly
the Takedamodel (Saiidi, 1982). The first classof macromodel is relativelyeasyto
implement,but may requirethe identificationof a numberof hystereticand monotonlc
controlparameters.Howeversuchmodelsalsotend to showinstabilitiesundercertain
partialreversalsituations.The secondclassof modelsthat arebasedon piecewiselinear
rulesmay be harderto implementandmaintainthe bookkeepingconffols,but they canbe
hereinbelongsto this second
designedto be stableand flexible. The modelpresented
by using continuoussmoothcurves. This is to more
category,but hasbeenenhanced
5-l
realistically reflect real behavior of structuralconcreteelements. The approachalso has

the advantageof minimizing numerical overshoot, becausethe stiffrress is changing
graduallyratherthan suddenlyas for linearizedmodels.
In what follows a smooth macro model is presented for the mathematical
simulation of hystereticbehavior of strucfuralconcreteelements. This macro model is
based on the Three ParameterModel suggestedby Park et al. (1987), which has been
further refined to better simulate experimental hysteretic behavior.
A FORTRAN
subroutinefor displacementcontrolledinput is given in the appendix (DICHMDL).
An
optimization routine for the identification of the model's control parameterswhich may
use experimentalor fiber-elementanalysesinput is also presentedin this chapter. The
sourcecode of this optimizationroutine is also includedin the appendix(OPTIMA).
5.2 A SmoothCurveto FitTwoTangents

It is necessaryto adopt a suitable function which can be used to smooth a
piecewiselinear system. Herein the modified Menegottoand Pinto relation (Mander et
al., 1984), describedbelow is used in the model to simulate a smooth behavior. This
curve essentiallyjoints two tangentstogetherwith the curve radii controlled by a singie
parameter,R. At every changein rule three points are identified and a smooth curve is
used to make the transitionfrom the startingpoint to the ending point. The middle point
representsthe intersectionof the tangentsat the initial and endingpoint.
5.2.1TheMenegotto-Pinto
Equation
The Menegotto-Pinto
equationis expressed
in termsof generalcoordinates
andits shownin Fig.5-l as:
r-Q
F=Fo+So(u-uo) Q+
[,.ls"gl^li
5-2
f cn-f ol -l
(5-la)
This equation was presented in Section 2, but will be described agarn, as some
modificationsto the procedurepresentedthereare neededin this section"
The tangentat anypoint is given bY:
ul-
S*.-PS,
aF -
-uSeC
du
r
(s-1b)
'
1,els^P-l-*
F"n-F"l
l'"
with.
usec -
where F : ordinate,It = abscissa,{

slope, F"h:
F-Fo
(5-1c)
U-Uo
= initial ordinate,uo= oigin abscissa,

S" = initial
characteristic(yreld) ordinate, Q : the post-yielding sloperatio and R
radius of curvature parameter.
tractabilityR hasto limit to about25"

It shouldbe notedthat for computational
This essentiallyrepresentsa bilinear curve given by a single equation.To use this
to developan algorithmto computethe parametersQ, F"nandR.
equationit is necessary
is presented
in the next section.
The procedureto computetheseparameters
Q: o.l
3
2
t.5
l
F-1
F,o- 4
0'6
1.5
Sofu-u,)
Fru-4
Fig. 5-1 The Menegotto-PintoEquation
5-3
of parametersQ, F"hand R.
5.2.2 Computation
By takingI as:
^- i
o=Lr.ls,nffil
j
|.
l^
u-un l" lx
(s-2a)
The derivativeof I can be found to be:

dl _Atl-A-R)
dU
(s-2b)
U-llo
in termsof I as:
Equation(5-1a)canbe expressed
F =Fo+S, -r"l(e(u
+)A )
\-
(5-2c)
with the derivativeof F beine:
(
;
l-0(u-u"dA\
S,=h =t"[0 .;_t-e')_"
)-s, Z=[ A du)
(s-2d)
(5-lc) and(5-2a)into (5-2d)andrearranging:

By substituting
equations
L=o*(l
=9)
L
So
(5-2e)
AR+l
tu".F ")
(u^,F^)
Fig. 5-2 Computationof Parametersfor the M-P equation
5-4
By evaluatingthis equationat u : ur, andsolving for Q,

sJ
-6{n+D
Jo
z1 -
I _ A_tK+t)
(s-20
Solving for Q in equation(5-3a),

A=
S s e c_ y ' _ l
s4
,Ul
(s-2e)
Equation(5-40 was obtainedfrom an equationrelatedto the final slope($ ), thus this

thatat the final pointthe slopeconditionis met Sr(zy): $. Equation
equationguarantees
(5-2g)wasderivedfrom the ordinateequationso,by satisflng this equation,the ordinate
conditionis met F(ur) : Fr. To satisfyboth conditions,it is neededto equateboth
equations.
qr-s*"$*s"ff=o
(s-3)
w h e r ea : A - t .
Supposethat the threepoints(u",F"), (u^, F^) and (ur, F1) arc given, it is
necessaryto computethe valuesof Q,f", and R so that the M-P equationpassesthrough
the point (u, F) and that the initial and endingtangentsintersectat (u^, F ^) as shown in
Fig. 5-2" The solutionprocedureis as follows:
=
(l) Compute
theinitialslope^So
m
(2) Compute
thefinalslope Sr=T+
(3) Compute
thesecant
slopeS, =m
,!.- S-
(4)R-"=#
Dm -Do
(5) If R*n : 0, it meansthat the threepointsarealigned,thus takeQ: 1 andF"n: Fr.

The valueof R neednot to be modified.
+ 0.01
(6) R S Rn,tn
thentakeR = Ro,in
(7) Solvefor the valueof a in thefollowingexpression:
5-5
o( - o^)=o
,qr-s*.+| - a *.t,
-" I
fi-=v
(5-3)
To find the valueof a the followingprocedure

is used:
(a) Define afunctionf(a) as:
f(a)=5y-s.".$*t"ff
(s-4)
(b) Evaluate
f (l-e) andf(e),wheree is a smallvalue(=9.91;.
(c) If "f (l-e) * f (e) > 0 , decrease
thevalueof e andrepeatstep(b).
(d) If f (l-e)*f (e)<0 thena solutionis foundin thisinterval. The quadratically
convergingNewton-Raphson
procedure
will beusedto find the solution.
(e) Takeasan initial estimate:
or-fu
R
(s-s)
(f) If fla,)*fl|-e)<0
thenreplace
a"by Jfi until inequality
is false.This
is to ensureproperconvergence,
if this conditionis not met the algorithmwill find a
solutionoutsidethemeaningfulrange.
(g) With a, as an initial estimatethe following recursiveexpressionshouldbe
applieduntil convergence
is met. It is importantto note that the function-f (q has a
singularity
at a : l, sothevalueof Aa shouldbethesmallerof 0.5(I - a" ) and 0.001.
ei+t=a,-ffi
(5-6)
(8) After thevalueof a hasbeendefinedthen,

I
u _ ( t _ al R ) i
(5-7)
(9) The valuesof fo andQ arethencalculated

as:
fcn = fo *
E;1r, D
t^ -o
O = S r o _a
|
5 -6
,"y
(5-s)
(5_9)
Model
of SmoothHysteretic
5.3 Description
The model has 32 control parameters that completely defines a general
asymmetric response. For a systemwith equal forward and reverse strengthsonly 18
control parametersare needed (eight of which are for monotonic, the rest for cyclic
control), becausemost of the parametersdefined for the positive side have a counterpart
in the negativeside. The model has eitherloading or unloadingcurvescomposedof three
basic types: (1) envelopecurves,(2) reversecurvesand (3) transition curves. Each of
thesecurvesare definedin the following sections.
5.3.1 MonotonicEnveloPeCurves
Forward MonotonicEnveloPeCurve
of branches1 and2 as
curveis composed
The forwardmonotonicenvelope
shownin Fig. 5-3. Branch1 beginsat theorigin,endsat (u"r,F,r) andits middlepoint is
(4,*,F"*). Any branchis definedby threepoints:a startingpoint, an endingpoint and a
of theinitial andendingtangents.
theintersection
middlepointthatrepresent
The point (u", F"r) is definedthroughthe proportionalityfactor frr- in the
followingway:
yo2= (l- k])ui+kiuj
(s-10)
F o 2 = ( 1- f r i ) F I + k i F j
(s-11)
Branch2 startsat (uo2,

dr), endsat (ttu*,d-) andits middlepoint is (u|, Fr*). The initial
is calculated
as:
envelopeloadingcurvestiffrress
fi=Sul
(s-r2)
relatedto the envelopeloadingcurveareseven:u"*,F"', Ltr-,

The modelparameters
and force with subscriptsc, y andu
Fu*,uu*,F,* andki. Herc u andF are displacoment
denotingcracking,leld andultimatepointsrespectively.
ReverseMonotonicEnvelopeCurve
Similarly,the reversemonotonicenvelopecurveis formedby branches1
and 3 (Fig. 5-3). Branch1 startsat the origin,endsat (uo' For)and its middlepoint rs
)-/
( u , ' , F , ' ) . T h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y f a c t o r ( - i s u s e d t o l o c a t e t h e p o i(nut4 , F 6 ) b e t w e e n ( u . - ,

d-) and (ur', Fr').
ud =0-
kr)u; +kru;
(5-13)
Fd = 0-
kt)F;+ktF;
(5-14)
Branch3 startsat (u6, {r), endsat (u,-,F,') andits middle point is 1tt,', F,).
The
initial stiffrressfor the unloadinecurve is then:
tr-
(s-rs)
, \ ^, u= c-
The model parametersrelatedto the reversemonotonic envelopecun'e are seven

ur', F,' , uu-,Fr-, llu , F, and kr-,
(ui,Fi)*
(uo,Fot )
k;*
* Formal lvtodei Parameters
(uor,1t )
(u,F;).
Fig. 5-3 MonotonicEnvelopeCurves
5- 8
5.3.2 ReverseCurves
Reverse Loading Cuwe
The reverseloading curve is composedof three branches5, 13 and 9 (Fig.
5-4). Curve 5 is formed by the points A, B and C. Point A is the point of reversalon the
envelopeunloading curve, and it definesthe minimum or most negativeexcursion. Point
h is a fixed point defined over the projection of the initial positive elastic tangent with
coordinate(a*ulo*Fr).
Point B is definedby the intersectionof the line joining points
A and h with a line which slopeis p-S; and passesthroughthe origin.
The reverseloadins initial stiffrressis:

a*F: - F*e
fi= a*u[-u)
(s-16)
ui =u;=\")=
!
,$ - B.E
(s-17)
r1 =p-firi
(s-r8)
Point i has a fixed coordinate(fut,fF|)

(u!,f
while point j has a variablecoordinate
Ft), whereu] is calculatedfrom the last reverseunloadingcurve. Point D is
factor(- betweenpointsi andj.

locatedthroughtheproportionality
u b = u i Q- r l ) + u i k ! = f u i \ - k ! ) + u ! k !
(s-re)
factorftr*betweenpointsB and D.
PointC is locatedthroughthe proportionality
Thereare eight proportionalityfactorsusedin the model, four for the forward direction
andfour for the reversedirection.
- k)
u *c=u *B(
l ) + u*oki
(s-20)
F*,= fu1 - kD+f Fiki
(s-21)
on
loadingcurveandit hasa valuethat depends
PointF is locatedon the envelope
the maximumpositiveexcursionand a degradingfactor (*.
Point E is then placed
betweenpoints D and F by using the proportionalityfactor fr.- Finally,point G is

factorki by afactorr,n.
by ampliflng thedegrading
calculated
,i=uk(r.4#)
(s-22)
ul=Q-kDub+k[ui
(s-23)
F\= (1-k}fD+ktrr-r
(s-24)
(s-2s)
,*.=u^*(t+r,^ki5\
'u;-u;)
\
where Dj is the total unloadingdisplacementsince the last reversalfrom the envelope

loading curve. Branch 9 is then formed by the points E, F and G. The ordinate for both
F
Qt"
Fig. 5-4 ReverseLoadingCurve
s-10
point F and G is calculated by evaluating the envelope loading curve for the
correspondingabscissavalue.
If the maximum loading excursion zlo has not exceededthe yield value uoz then
point D is taken at the location of point i and the reverseloading curve is formed by
branches5 and7" Branch 7 connectspoints i and (uoz,Foz), and makes the transition
directly to the envelopeloading curve (branch2).
The model parametersrelatedto the reversoloading curve are eight: o*, F-,nf, lk-,
lcr*,ko*,kr*, rin.
Reverse Unloading Carve
Similarly the reverseunloading curve is formed by branches4, 12 and 8
(Fig. 5-5). Curve 4 startsat point A, endsat point C and its middle point is B. Point A is
the point of reversal on the envelopeloading curve and defines the maximum positive
excursion. Point h is a fixed point on the projection of the initial envelopeunloading
tangent with coordinate (a-z;, a-F;).
Point B is the intersectionof the line that goes
through A and h with the line that passesthroughthe origin with slope p*^Si, where fi is
defined in Eq. (5-12). The reverseunloadinginitial stiffiressis given by:
A-F; _F;
sa=@f,n
(s-26)
The coordinateof B can be calculatedby:
S"u^-E
ui=u;=
S-0d
fi =9*fiui
(Tu;,TF;)
Pointi hasa fixedcoordinate
(s-27)
(s-28)
(u;,TF;),
andpointj hasa coordinate
wherea" is calculatedfrom the last loadingreversecurve. Point D is locatedby the

pointsi andj.
proportionalityfactorfr.'between
uo=ut\-k;)+u;kt=Tu;(l-kr)+u;k,
factork'betweenpointsB andD.
PointC is locatedby theproportionality
5 - 1I
(5-29)
u7=ui(I-kj)+uokj
(s-30)
F-r=FiQ -k;)*TF-cki
(s-31)
Point F is locatedon the envelopeunloadingcurve and it has a value that depends

on the maximum negative excursionu*, and the degradingfactor fr.'. Point E is then
placed betweenpoints D and F by using the proportionality factor t . Point G is then
calculatedby increasingthe degradingfactor k; by a factor r,n.
u;=r^^(t.ch)
(s-32)
u r = ( 7- k i l u i + k o u ,
(s-33)
Fi=0-k)rn+kiF-e
is-34)
u;=u^"(t+r1,t;;ff;)
(s-3s)
where D; is the total unloading displacementsince the last reversalfrom the envelope
unloading curve. Branch 8 is then formed by the points E, F and G.
The ordinate for
both point F and G is calculatedby evaluatingthe envelope unloading cun'e for: the
correspondingabscissavalue.
If the maximum loading excursion u,,;o has not exceededthe yreld value rr,3 then
point D is taken at the location of point i and the reverseloading cun,e is formed by
branches4 and 6. Branch 6 connectspoints i and (uoz, F6), and makes the rransltlon
directly to the envelopeunloadingcurve (branch3).
The model parametersrelatedto the reverseloading curve are seven:G', 0-, !', kr-,
k3, ka',/rr-. The factor r. is usedby both the loadingand unloadingreversecun'es
5.3.3 TransitionCurves
TransitionLoading Curve
When a reversaloccursfrom a point outsidethe envelope,a transition
curveis usedas shownin Fig. 5-6. The loadingtransitioncurvewill connectthe current
5-12
position with the reverseloading curve or with the envelopeloading curve. This curve is
branch 10 in the model.
The initial stiffnessof the hansition loading curve is calculatedas:
uo _
"*
S+sloSl
(s-36)
I +sio
where
'.u"rFq
fi
sl=
Fo-o*Fl
u o- a - u [
' .u"< F"

-
fi
Fig. 5-5 ReverseUnloadingCurve
5- 13
(s-37)
in which ao : current abscissa(displacement),d : current ordinate (force), ,S= current

stiffnessjust before reversal,s, : model coefficientrelatedto the rransitioncurves,Su*:
initial envelopeloading curve stiffrress(elastic)and o*, F"*, u"*: model coefficients.
The point of reversalis identified as A in Fig. 5-6. Point B is the intersectionof
the line that passesthrough A with slope S,* as given by Eq. (5-36). The difference in
abscissaAz is then amplified by a factor x,n to locatepoint C. Point C can be iocatedin
branch5,7, 13"9 or 2.
Transition Unloading Curve
When a reversaloccurs from any loading curve, other than the enveiope
loading curve (branch 2), the transition unloading curve will connect the reversal poinr
Fig. 5-6 TransitionCurves
5-14
with the reverseunloadingcurve or the envelopeunloadingcurve. This curve is branch 7

in the model. The initial stiffrressof the transitionunloadingcurve is given by:
S+spS;
.o_
)", = : I +.t/,
(s-38)
where
i
,9;
,r" =*
(s-3e)
"t;=j
i F"-a'F;
;u"'*
I "'-an;
uo,Fo, S, s,o
: sameas in Eq. (.5-37)
,Sr-
: initial envelopeunloadingcurve stiffiress(elastic)
a-, F"-,1t,-
: modelParameters
Elastic Reversal
An elasticreversaloccurswhen il-,* < uo, and unio) uot. if the reversalis
from the elastic unloading curve, the initial stiffrressfor the reversal branch is S,* as given
by Eq. (5-37). The ending stiffnessis given by:
cf
'
F:-F:
u : ,- u ;
---:
(s-40)
So the startingpoint for the elasticreverseloading curve is the point of reversal(uo,F.) ,

the ending point is (uo2,F,2) and the middle point is calculatedby using the starting and
ending slopes(S,- and Sr*)as:
/\
"'
u---
( s l u "- F o )
lSr", ,", )-
$ -sl
Fh=Fo+S!(uh-u")
(s-4r)
I
(s-42)
If on the otherhand,the reversalis from the elasticloadingcurvethenthe initial stiffrress

is S,-asgivenby Eq. (5-39). Theendingstiffnessis givenby:
F:_F^
e_ - -'' ----l
u; _u;
(s-43)
The startingpoint A for the elasticreverseunloadingcurveis (u",F,), the endingpoint B

is (uo2,F,r) andthemiddlepointC asshownin Fig. 5-6 is givenby:
5- 15
Um=
_ F")
(tu",-.,, ) - (s,u"
$ -s;
F;=Fo+S;(u;-u")
(s-44)
(s-4s)
5.3.4 ModelSummary
curves ond Branches: Three types of curveswere described( l ) Envelope
Curves,(2) ReverseCurvesand (3) TransitionCurves. Thereare 13 branchesin total.
The relationbetweenbranchesis summarizedbythe diagramshownin Fig. 5-7. Note
that therearetwo typesof alrowsto distinguishbetweena reversaland a changern rule
withoutreversing.Supposethat the modelis in branch8, if it reachesits endingpoint
then branch3 will follow, but if a reversaloccursthen branch10 will follow instead.
Branch3 movesin the reversedirection(it is at the left of branch8), while branch10
movesin the forwarddirection(it is at the right handsideof branch8). Summarizing
then:
(1) MonotonicEnvelope
Curves;
(a) ForwardDirection:branches
I and2.
(b) Reverse
Direction:branches
I and3.
(2) ReverseCurves:
(a) ElasticLoading:branchl.
(b) ElasticUnloading:branchL
(c) YieldedLoadingElasticPositive:branches
5 and7.
(d) YieldedUnloadingElasticNegative:branches
4 and6^
(e) Fully YieldedLoading:branches
5, 13and9,
(f) Fully YieldedUnloading:branches
4, 12,8.
(3) TransitionCurves:
(a) Loading:branch10.
(b) Unloadine:branchI 1.
5 -l 6
d%3%#'4
d% d% d% d%
(i}(1}(a
db d'b
db
I?
(L2)
X
I?
(,
forward
reverse
flrecnon #
orecnon
\ , \\
reversal
Fig. 5-7 Logical Branching Diagram
5-17
changeof rule
sameloading
direction
Parameters;There are32 parametersin total. The numbenngusedin the program

given in the appendixis summarizedin Table 5-1.
(1) Relatedto EnvelopeLoading Curve: u,-, F,-, u,,-,Fl, uu-,F,* and,kr-"
(2) Relatedto EnvelopeUnloadingCurve: Lt,-,F,', u,-,Fr , uu-,Fu-and.kr-^
(3) Relatedto ReverseLoading Curve: o*, 0*, {, lr-, l\-, ko-,kf , r,,.
(4) Relatedto ReverseUnloadingCurve: o', 0-, y', lr-, kj', k, , k, .
(5) Relatedto TransitionCurves:s,o,xnr,
(6) Relatedto Menegotto-PintoEquationCurvature:R"
Table5-1 Model Parameters

( l ) u "'
(2) F,"
(3)u,'
(4) F,-
(.5)u,
( 6)Fu
(7)u,'
(8) F"'
(9) ur'
(10) Fy'
(rr)u,
(12)F"-
(13)cr.
(14)p.
(15)t'
(16)cr.
( 1 7p)
( 1 8T
)
(r9) kt'
(20)t -
(:21)t -
(22) k4
(23)k,
(24) kl
(2s)t,
(26) k3
(27) ks
(28) k5
(2e)R
(30)+,
(31) r,^
(32) s,o
5.4 Parameter
ldentification
One of the most discouragingtasks in the use of a macro model is the
identificationof themodel'scontrolparameters,
if thishasto be donemanually.The trial
and error processrequiresa good insightof the effectthat everyparameterhas in the
model and also of the interactionamongthem. Nevertheless,
this processcan be
automated. Herein a methodfor the identificationof model'sconffol parametersis
presented.
5 -l 8
The identification of the parametersis a non-linearmultidimensionalconstrained

minimization problem. Given a discretizedhystereticbehavior (u,, F,), it is necessaryto
find a set of parametersfor which a certain function, representingthe deviation from the
actual behavior. is minimized" The function to minimized was chosen as a weiehted
variance:
VarJ 1,(F,-F,)2
where:
(s-46)
factor
6i is theweighting
{
is the actualhystereticforce
F, is the simulatedforce
The weighting factor was takenas:
E,= llu,*,- uil + llr, - u,-rl
6-4n
5.4.1 OptimizationMethod
The derivatives of
(arro, dvar dvar
"
Parametefs.
|'
,ffi
,''
\ du; #
the function given in Eq. (5-46) respect to the
, , - , - - ,known
-,: :.r r..,
i
' ) are
not
explicitly. If thesederivativeswere
)
needed they would have to be calculatednumerically, which could be a very time
consumingtask. For this reason it was decidednot to use an optimization method that
would require functional derivatives.
Brent's approach is a sure method for
one-dimensionaloptimization with quadraticconvergencethat does not requires the firsr

derivative, thus it was chosenas the line optimization method. Brent's method uses a
parabolic interpolationand a golden sectionsearchwhen the parabolic interpolation fails
to provide a better estimateof the answer. The equationto find the abscissa x which rs
the minimum of a parabolathroughthreepoints (xo, yo), (xu, yu), (x", y") is:
(xn- x)z (yn - y,) - (xn- x")z(yu * yo)
t. _ |
- ^D
^t _
2 $t -x)On -!") - (xr -xr)(yu -1,)
(s-48)
The golden sectionsearchis relatedto the bisectionmethod usedto finds roots of

equations. The methodneedsto bracketa solution. A minimum is known to be bracketeci
if threepoints,(x,,y,), (xu,!r),(x", y") with xo1xt1x", arefoundsuchthat yo<yo and
s-19
Ir < !,Âfter a solution is bracketed,the next stepis to evaluatethe function at a fraction

0.38197into the largerof the two intervals(for a denvatronof the origin of this number.
refer to Presset al. (1992).
- x u ) ) ( x 6 - x o )> ( . r ,- . r a )
(s-4e)
The interval is the reducedby including the new caiculatedpoint (x, y) and the
next three point set is chosento satisfythe bracketingconditrons
The proceduredescribedabove to minimize one dimensroncan be applied to a
multidimensional problem.
Starting at a point {X.i
in N-dimensronal space, the
minimum along a vector direction nr can be found, given a new pornt 1X, f . A set of N
orthogonal directions is neededto minimize the function. Once the function has been
minimized along all the directions,the procedureis repeateduntil convergencein twc
consecutivecyclesis achieved.This procedureis known as Powell'smethod(Presset ai.,
1992)" The setof directionsin this applicationwere chosenas the unit vectorse,, e,,..,e\..
This meansthat every parameteris identified independentlyof eachother. The procedure
proved to be very effective in identifying the parameters.
5.4.2 Scaling
Scaling of force-displacementinput history
Both the displacement
u, andthe forceF, arescaledbeforethey arepassed
to the optimizationroutine. Because
a minimizationproblemneedsthe variablesto be of
the samemagnitude,it is necessary
to scalethe variables.It is desirableto haveall the
variablesin the orderof magnitudefrom oneto ton. This minimizesround-offprobiems.
avoids having to provide scalingfactorsfor every variableand equally u'eightsall
parameters.
Thusthescalingis doneby using:
nr=ur#,
F,=f,=!Itmax -f
(s-s0)
(s-sl)
min
5-20
Scaling of Parameters
Model parametersare also scaledto have them in an appropriate range of
values. The monotonic parametersil. , F", ur, F, , uu, {
need not be scaledas the
force-displacementhistory is scaled. The hystereticcontrol parameterso, R, x,s, rjn and

s, do not needto be scaled. HoweverT, k,lh, k3,k4 are multiplied by 10, and p and (
aremultipliedby 100.
5.4.3Constraining
the Parameters
Parametershave to be constrainednot only within certain bounds but also
in their relation to other parameters. If this constraintis not provided, the model may
behavein a chaoticfashion. Suchconsffaintsapply to the unscaledparameters.Table 5-2
below summarizesall the constraintsusedin the model.
Table 5-2 ParameterConstraints
0"08( a.*
1.0< F"-
0"9F"*<Fr.
|.10u,"11.05u,"< uu'
u"-< -0.08
F " - <- 1 . 0
Fr ' < 0.9F"-
u u -1 l . 0 5 u r - < I . I A u i
0 . 1 0< a - < 9 9 9 9 0 . 0 < p . < 0 . 5
0.001
<t'
0 . 1 0< u - < 9 9 9 9 0 . 0< p ' <0 . 5
0.00r< y
0 . 1 5 < f r , - < 0 . 805. 1 5 < k * < 0 . 8 5-4.0< l\- <2.0 0 . 1 5 < / r . " < 0 . 805. 0 0 2 < , t - < s
0 . 1 5 < f r , . < 0 . 805. 1 5
< & - <0 . 8 5- 4 . 0
< 4 " < 2 . 0 0 . 1 5 < f t 4 - < 0 . 8 50 . 0 0 2 < a - s 5
1 . 0 < R < 1 0 . 0 1.05<r,s< 5.0 1 . 0 5< r j , < 5 . 0
5-21
0.05< s,o< 9999
5.4.4 InitialEstimate
The initial estimatemay have some influence on the final result obtained.
If an initial guessis far from the solution,the minimization algorithm may fall into a local
minima that doesnot accuratelyrepresentthe true optimal solution. An initial estimateis
found by isolating the points that define the positive and negativeenvelopecurves. The
optimization routine is then used to identify the parametersthat define thesetwo curves.
It was found that if these parametersare accuratelyidentified the optimization of the
hystereticconffol parameterswill convergeto a good solution.
5.4.5 Order of Parameterldentification

It wasfoundthatthe orderin whichthe parameters
are icientifiedalsohas
of theminimizationalgorithm.After the parameters
an effecton the convergence
related
to the envelopehavebeenidentifiedit is betterto identify the parameters
in order of
that is, thosethathavemoreinfluenceon the overallbehaviorare identified
importance,
(1) Identrfythe
first. The optimizationroutinecanbe calledwith four differentpurposes:
(3) Identrfy
(2) IdentifytheNegativeEnvelopeparameters,
PositiveEnvelopeparameters,
(4) Identifytheparameters
all the parameters,
for symmetriccase.Theorderin whrchthe
parameters
areidentifiedfor eachcaseis:
(a) PositiveEnvelope:
F"*,u"-,Fr*,Fu',ur",Fr*,k:
(b) NegativeEnvelope:
F"-, u"-,Fy, Fu-,uy-,Fr', k;
(c) Full Identificationafterenvelopehasbeendefined:{, lr-, y', lr', lr-, ll-, kr-,
k r ' , F * , F - r k o * r k 4 ' r R , x n g r r l n r s pa,' , a * r u " * r F r t r u r ' r F r * r u u - r F u - r t l . - , F - ' , u r ' , F r - r u u - r F u - ,
kt*, kl
(d) Symmetric ldentification: f ,lk*,
lc2*,k5*, F*, ko-, R, xng, r1n, stp,e-, u,-, F"-,
r.r,*, Fr*, ur*, Fu*, k;
s-22
Method
of SmoothModelandSystemldentification
5"5 Verification
The modelwastestedon threedifferentcolumnswith low to moderatelevelsof
in this simulationarethe resultfor a full sizebridgepier
axialload. Of greatimportance
testedby Manderet al. (1993). The macromodelwas calibratedagainstexperimental
dataand alsoagainsta FiberElementSimulatedExperiment.This is to showthat actual
bridge pier behaviorcan be indirectly simulatedby using an indirect fiber model
of the macromodelbehavior,whencalibratinga simulated
simulation"The comparison
behaviorof the full sizebridgepier is shownin
andthe actualexperimental
experiment,
that this procedure
canproduceexcellentagreement.Tho
Fig" 5-8c. It canbe observed
are given in Tables5-3 through5-5. No attemptwas madeto
calibratedparameters
is to eliminatethe empiricismfrom the
defineany trend,asthe purposeof theprocedure
modelingof bridge piers. Typical parametervaluesare, nevertheless,
useful as seed
valuesfor theoptimizationalgorithmto minimizethepossibilityof a localminima.
Macro simulationswerecarriedout on the experimentalandanalyticalresultsof a
column test on a 1/3 scaledreinforcedconcretecolumn conductedby Aycardi et al.
(1991)anda hollowcolumntestedby Manderet al. (1984).Theresultsof the parameter
identificationare given in Tables5-4 and 5-5, and the resultsare showngraphicallyin
F i g s 5. - 1 1t o 5 - 1 3 .
It is importantto note that in the contextof a sffucturalanalysisprograrnthe
levelaxial load, P - L effect,etc.,is an importantfactor,
assessment
of the approximate
as thesevariableshavea stronginfluenceon the shapeof the hystereticbehavior. If a
high degreeof refinementis needed,a preliminaryanalysisbecomesnecessary,
andthen
through a backfeedapproacha more preciseanalysismay be achieved. In this
preliminaryanalysis,it may be possibleto usetypicalor averageparameters,
thatmay to
a certainextentapproximatelysimulatethehystereticbehavior.
In general,the degreeof detail simulatedby the proposedmacromodel when
andanalyticalresults,wasvery good.
comparedwith the experimental
5-23
5.6 Conclusions
In this sectiona generalizedsmooth degradingmodel with strengthand stiffiress
degradationhas been presented. The model has a total of 32 envelope and hysteretic
control parameters,what makescumbersomethe visual choosingof an appropriateset of
parametersfor any given hystereticcharacteristics.It is to be noted that the envelope
parameters as well as the u, p and y parametersmay be lnltially estimated from
geometricaiconsiderations.
A systemidentification routine was implementedfor an automatrcseiectronof a
suitable set of parametersto a specific structural element. Excellent agreementwas
achieved between the output simulation and the experimental or analytical supplied
hystereticbehavior. Of particularimportanceis the high degreeof agreementbetweenthe
macro modeling and the experimentalbehaviorof a full size bridge prer, as this would be
the basisof an inelasticspectralenergyassessment
presentedin the next section.
The systemidentificationprocedure,where the backbonecurve is identified first,
and then the rest of the parametersare identified in the order of influence over the
hystereticshape,proved to be a robust approachto achievegood agreementwith the input
hysteretichistory.
s-24
Table 5-3a Parametersfor a Full SizeBridge Pier (Experimental)
0.5722
-4.5722
0.5722 r.4928
-0.5722 -1.4928
5 6 .5 9
0 .0 1 9 8 9
56.59
0.0r989
0.85
0 .8 5
1.715
8.8749
t.2360
-1.0148
-8.8749
-r.2360
0"3802
0.3802
0 .8 5 -0.07061
0 " 8 5 -0.07061
4.00
1.0148
r.3026
0.85
0.01
0.85
0.01
9606
Table 5-3b Parametersfor a Full SizeBridge Pier (Fiber Element)

1 .3468
1.0075
7.1821
r.1343
-0"s263 -0.5263 -r.3468
- 1.0075
-7.182r
-r.1343
0.s263
0.5263
39 .8 9
0.200
0.900
39 .8 9
0.200
0.900
0 .8 5
0 . 7 1r8
0.1395
0.85
0.03842
0 .8 5
0.718r
0.1395
0.85
0.03842
2.84t2
9999
1.000
4.00
5-25
Table5-4a Parameters
for a 1/3ScaleColumn@xperimental)
4.5997
0.5997
-0.s997
-0.s997
r.4498
-r.4498
|.257
0.200
0"900
1.257
0.200
0.900
0.4402
0 .8 5
0.4402
1.000
0.9737
tt.067
0.4121
- 0.9737
rt.067
- 0.4t21
0.5344
0 .l 5
0.0331
0 .8 5
0.s344
0.r5
0.0331
5.00
1.05
t577.9
Table 5-4b Parametersfor a ll3 ScaleColumn (Fiber Element)

0.2434
0.2434
-0.2434
-0.2434
r.t6r2
-r.r6t2
2.052
0.200
0.90
2.052
0.200
0.90
0 . 5 21 1
0 .8 5
-0.2447
0.85
0.01
0.52r I
0 .8 5
-0.2447
0.85
0.0r
3.100
2.8296
2120.1
r.292
5-26
0.9883
-0.9883
7.7777
1 1',711
0.5085
- 0.5085
Table 5-5 Parametersfor a Hollow Column (Fiber Element)

0.9999
7.8080
0.998s
-0.4300 -0.4300 -r.3525 -0.9999
- 7.8080
-0.9985
0.4300
0.4300
1.3525
18.44
0.a2567
0.90
18"44
0.02567
0.90
0.15
0 .8 5
0.03945
0.5017
0.02
0.15
0 .8 5
0.03945
0.5017
0.02
3.8 7 7
4.430
L854
2t4.5
5-27
Force
Normalized
,UT
1+
051
.0.5
il
-1
1.5
2
2.5
Experimental
MacroModel
Basedon
Experiment
I
1
. 1, 'q" (
,a)
Normalized
Force 1 . 5T
I
1 iI
0.5-
tI
-1
+
r.5
1.5
2
2.5
FiberElement
MacroModel
Baseoon Fiber
Element
. 5I
(b
Force 1.5
Normilized
P'1
,.,I
(c)
1.5
2
2.5
Experimental
MacroMo'del
Basedon Fiber
Element
Fig. 5-E Comparison of Macro Model SimulationsGenaratedthrough (a) Experimental

Data, and (c) Fiber Element Experiment Simulation
5-28
Normalized
Force
1.5
2.5
(a) Experimental
Behaviorof
a FullSizeBridgePier
Drifi (%)
2
2.5
(b) MacroModelSimulation
Fig. 5-9 Macro Model Simulationof a Full SizeBridge Pier Based

on Actual ExperimentalData
5-29
Normalizedt
Force
1.5
2.5
(a) FiberElementSimulation
of a FullSizePierBehavior
Normalized
Force
(b) SmoothMacroModel
Simulation
Fig. 5-10 Simulationof the CyclicBehaviorof a Full SizeBridge Pier

Basedon e Fiber ElementSimulatedExperiment
5 -30
Normalized
Force
(a) Experimental
Behaviorof
a 1 / 3 S c a l eC o l u m n
Normalized
Force
1.5
0.5
Simulation
Fig. 5-11Macro Model Simulationof a ll3 ScaleColumn Based

on ExperimentalData
s-31
Normalized
Force
(a) FiberElementSimulation
of a 113ScaleModel
Normalized
Force
Simulation
Fig. 5-12 MacroModel Simulationof t ll3 ScaleColumnBased

on Fiber Model SimulatedExperiment
5-32
Displacement
Ductility
6
10
(a)FiberElement
Simulation
of a BridgeHollowColumn
Normalized1 . 5T
Force
'l+
lt
o . s +L
Displacement
Ductilitv
6
10
(b)MacroModelSimulation
Fig. 5-f3 Macro Model Simulationof a Bridge Hollow Column Based

on a Fiber ElementSimulatedExperiment.
5-33
Section6
EnergyDEMAND
of Hysteretic
Assessment
6.1 Introduction
to assess
the energyandductiiity
Deterministic
methodsof analysisarenecessary
only on the
demandon reinforcedconcretestructures.The ductilitydemandis dependent
response,
whereasenergydemanddependson
maximuminelasticseismicdisplacement
the durationand magnitudeof the response.In previoussectionsa methodologyto
simulatethe behaviorof reinforcedconcretecolumn CAPACITY starting from the
the endresultof this being
of concreteandsteelwasadvanced,
hystereticcharacteristics
for the determinationof hystereticDEMAND on
the macromodel hystereticparameters
bridge columns. The macro model parameterscan then be used to representmore
realisticallythe behaviorof a sffucturalconcretemember,or a SDOF idealizationof a
dynamicanalysis
sffucturalsystem. In this sectiona nonlinearsingle-degree-of-freedom
is used to determinethe responseDEMAND on a reinforcedconcretesffucturewhen
andit comparedwith moretraditional
usingthemorerealisticmacromodelingtechnique,
low cyclefatiguespectral
models.Particularemphasis
is givento assessing
energy-based
demands.which can in tum be relatedto CAPACITY via the fiber-elementanalysis
is shownin Fie. 6-1.
whichin theoverallcontextof seismicevaluation
of a SDOFSystem
6.2 ElasticResponse
systemshownin Fig. 6-2. The equationof
Considerthe single-degree-of-freedom
motionis givenby:
m(i - i r) + c(x- * ) + Hx - xg) = p(t) - -mi s
6-l
(6-1)
SEISIvIICEVALUATION METHODOLOGY
Stepl.
StrengthDemand,C(d)
Step2.
^
Strength
Capacity
C(c) (Limit Analysis)
= C(c)= t ->
Step
3. r*
Fra
fr
[f r". I.5 STOPI
Step4.1 DuctilityDemandp(d)
Step5.1 DuctilityCapacityp(c) perATC 6-2
::
rE
13
!;<
fi
S t e6p..1 r r = fu(c)
[ I f r u2 1 . 5 S T O P ]
F6'
i t\
-UD
9D.=
i?
,=;
b<
Eq)
LEO
oE
EF
&a
hF
5X
at!
Step4.2 RotationalDEMAND
Section 6
0p(4, N(A =f (Rp,EQ,Hyst.model)

Step5.2 RotationalCAPACITY Oo(c),N(c)
Step
6.2 ,r = ffi
Secrtons2 - 4
2 1.5STOPI
Ufr,,,,
Step7. Generate
Seoion 5
EA
-.o
,Eg
FE
ba
A5D
vdt
9E
;X
Step8. PerformTime HistoryAnalysis

(IDARCor DRAIN-2DX)
to predictdetailed
UseFiber-Element
Sectionn
behaviorbasedon membertime-history.
Fig. 6-1 ProposedThreeLevel SeismicEvaluationMethodology
6-2
where k:
stiffness,c : damping coefficient, m = total mass; xg,*g,ig are the ground
displacement, velocity and acceleration respectively; and x,i,i
are the system
displacement,velocity and accelerationrespectively.
Eq. (6-1) can alsobe writtenas:
i)+ 2\aît+ o)ntt= +
= -i s
(6-2)
g : damping
of the systemrespectto theground(deformation),
in whichu : displacement
ratio and{0, = naturalangularfrequencygivenby
,, =,l#
(6-3)
(6-4)
F and the dampingcoefficientby:

y _-
2mo)n
The solutionto the equationof motionof a linearSDOFsystemcanbe foundby

Integralgivenby:
usingthe Duhamel's
u(t)= #r*'"'
co,(r- r)ldt
1'oWQlre'^"sin
(6-s)
This equationcan be solvednumericallyby using standardprocedures.An alternative

proceduregiven by Craig (1981),which appearsto be more efficient,is given in the
followingrecursiveequations:
uial = Ap ; * Bp i+r * Cu i + Dit i
(6-6)
i l i + t= A P i * B p i + r * C u i + D i t i
(6-7)
throughD aredefinedin Eqs.(6-8) through(6-19)in which ft is

wherethe constants,,{
the integration time step.
o=
#te$o1l
u=
#te4h[-v
a6h)l+ v2j
ah)- (vz+co,'ft)cos(
r- Fft)sin(ro
(6-8)
* v2cos(oa
h)l+ a4h- vz]
rsin(co",ft)
(6-e)
rRl
5 = e4 hlcos(or",ft
)
) + fi sin(codft
J
O= fie+hsin(roaft)
6-3
(6-10)
(6-11)
Z=
#te-Fh!;F+
- co,]
colft)sin(ro
ah)+ ru,acos(c0,,ft)l
E = *+-e-Phlgsin(oraft)* @acos(o;
h)l + oaj
k[)ah "
e =ffr-aosin(coai)
hlcos(crr",ft
b = e-P
) - $ ri"trral]
(6-12)
(6-13)
(6-14)
(6-1s)
vt = | -2\2
(6-16)
vz=2\,[4
(6-17)
0)d= 0)n,[4
0= or"
(6-18)
(6-1e)
This approachwasusedto computethe elasticresponse

of a SDOFto a giveneanhquake
groundmotion,astheinelasticresponse
is to be compared
to the elasticone.
6.3 InelasticResponse
of a SDOFSystem
Considernow the casewhere the stiffrressof the systemk is not a constantduring
the analysis. In this casethe Duhamel'sintegral given previously does not representthe
solution for this equation. A stepby step integrationprocedureis neededduring which
the stiffrressof the system is being kept track of. The macro-model presentedrn the
previous sectionis ideal for this kind of analysis,becauseit can representverv accurately
the hysteretic behavior of the system. Consider a viscous damped SDOF system
subjectedto a horizontalgroundmotion. The equationof motion is given by:
mi+ c*+fs = pG)- -mis
(6-20)
A procedure given by Clough and Penzien (1975) was modified to improve

convergenceand is outlinedbelow:
(1) Knowing the displacementand velocity of the system at any given time /,
calculatethe dampingforce as:
fD = c(t)*(t)
6-4
(6-2r)
(2) The inertia force in the massand the accelerationcan be computedby:
fi(t) =p(t)-fs(t) -fo1)
*1t1=[19)-
(6-22)
rc-x)
stiffnesst(r) are
where{(/) is the forcein the spring. This forceand the instantaneous
macromodel.
computedby usinga suitablehysteresis
by:
is calculated
(3) An equivalent
stiffrress
instantaneous
= tc(D
+ 9m +?cQ)
t'1t1
(6-24)
h"n
I
(4) And an equivalent
forceis givenby:
* \x1,1]*7,*
* *l \Wl+ 3i(r)l+co)[r*(r)
^p(t)= Lp(t)
LNILZJ
Lp(t) = p(t+ h) -p(t)
(6-2s)
(6-26)
and
-f,(t)
t6_27)
f,o =f,(t - h) + l4t h)lx(t) x(t h)l
(6-25)
in the original procedurepresentedby Cloughand Penzienthis last factorof Eq.
doesnot appear,but the introductionof this error factor,Fig. 6-3a, greatlyimproves
as shownin Fig. 6-3b. This forceerrorcorrectionhasbeenusedbeforein
convergence,
programsasIDARC andDRAIN-2D(Kunnathet a1.,1'992).
(a) The changein displacementand velocity can then be computed by:
= ryQ)
Ax(/)
(6-26)
k(t)
Ailr;=
2.h
iLxO
-3*(t)-;iA\
(6-27)
(5) Thedisplacement
by:
andvelocityareupdated
x(t+h)=x(r)+Ar(/)
(6-28)
x(t+h)=i(r)+Ai(r)
(6-2e)
then,the procedureis thus repeateduntil the endingof analysistime is reached.
6-5
F i g .6 -2 EquivalentSingle-Degree-Of-Freedom
System
Fig. 6-3a ForceCorrectionFactor

1.5
-"-.- Clough
Method(6t = 0.02sec)
Modified
CloughMethod(lt = 0.02sec)
,|
Exact(Finetimestep)(At : 0.0001sec)
',
,i
t,'
/ ' l
n4
/ v^/
t'
i.
135
i
-u.c
time(sec)
Fig. 6-3b Step-By-Step

Integration
6-6
InelasticMagnificationSpectra
(6-3s)
DinerasrlDrbrt=*=[
Sd Rr
Note that for "long" periods this ratio is approximately equal to i and is commonly
" principle. As the penod tendsrowarci

referredto as Newmark's"equaldisplacement
to infinity.
zero,theratioincreases
6.4.2EnergyBasedSpectra
According to the proceduresdescribedby Uang anciBenero t1990) the
total absoluteenergyat any given instantis given by:
Et = Er* E' * E,t* E1,
(6-36)
whereE6 : absolutekineticenergy,E, : strainenergy,Eq : absorbedviscousdamping

energy,and E1,: hystereticenergyabsorbedby the sffucture. Whenthe -eroundmotlon
as the srrucrures
stops,both the kineticandthe sffainenergyvanishaftera few seconds.
vibratesin dampedfree motion. On the otherhand,the dampingand hvstereticenergy'
(absorbed)
by the structure.The absolutekrnetic
areindicationsof the energydissipated
energyis grvenby:
Ep= jmg+ir)z
(6-37)
wherei : relativesffucturalvelocitywith respectto the gtound,andi, : r'elocityof the

movingground.
Thehystereticenergyis computedas:
(6-38)
En=Eo-E'
by thestructure,
whereEo is thetotalenergyabsorbed
computedas,
tt^,
E'= )of tu =
3t
lrttf'*
f ' - i ) ( x i- x i - r )
(6-3e)
andE" is thestrainenergycomputed
as,
F
-r
"'- 2 /r1t=o)
6-8
(6-40)
strainenergyis a functionof the originalinitial stiffrressof the

Notethat the recoverable
system. The dampingenergy is always a positive increasingquantity, as it is a
energy,andis givenby:
non-recoverable
gr,= c* dx=t 2
I
trO,* i i-)(xi x i-)
(6-41)
Cycles
EquivalentElasto-Plastic
plasticloop of amplitudeXu is
in a elastic-perfectly
The energyabsorbed
givenby:
E"p = 4 fyX"
{6-42)
Equivalentor EffectiveEqui-AmplitudeCycles
The standarddeviationof a constantamplitudesinusoidaltime historymay
be shownto be:
=
= srDlAsin(wr)l
xsrnU)
ft
(6-43)
whereI is the amplitudeof the sinusoidaland the valuesof x are takenover equaltime
steps. For a generaldisplacementresponsetaken over equal time steps,the standard
deviationcan be readily computedand thus an equivalentsinusoidalamplitudemay be
definedas:
D,f = J2 xsrn
6-44)
An effective ductility may also be definedas the ratio betweenthe effectiveamplitude
Ds6 and the yield deformation,
Drtr
ll
---
t ell-
v
"v
(6-4s)
Effective Number of Cycles

An effective number of cycles may be defined as the number of cycles at
the effective ductility, given by Eq. (6-44), that would give the same hysteretic energy
computed for the whole deformationhistory. To compute this value, after the analysis
ended, the hysteretic macro model was used to simulate 4 cycles with a ductility
6-9
amplirude equal to the effective equi-amplitudeductility. The averageof the loop area
was then taken as the loop energy,
E h bop= E 6([to,gXtt,f)
(6-46)
where lro,s : averageductility for the time history. The effective number of cycles are
thus defined as:
M"-
En
(6-47)
Ehuop
Factor of Symmetry Spectra

A symmetry factor is commonly used in fatigue studieswhen describing
the relative magnirudeof positive and negativedisplacementpeaks. The parameterR is
normally usedto expressthe degreeof asymmetryof the deformationhistory. Thrs factor
is formally expressedas:
^
,lf=-
F.io
Pmax
in which pn,,,. : the maximum ductility, and F[-io : the minimum ductility.
(6-48)
The
maximum ductility is taken so that, F'n* is positive and p6o is negativegiving a normai
rangeof from -1 (equi-amplitude)to about0.4 as shownin Fig. 6-4.
(R=-1)
Symmetric
Response
(R=-0.5)
TypicalResponse
(c) One-Sided
(R=0)
Response
(d) Predominatly
Monotonic
(R-0.4)
One-Sided
Response
Fig. 6-4 SymmetryParameter

6- 10
andResults
6.5 tmplementation
An inelasticSDOF dynamicanalysisprogramimplementingthe identification
6.4 was developed.The macro
quantitiesof all the quantitiesdescribedin sub-section
into the programto realisticallysimulate
modeldevelopedin section5 wasincorporated
the hystereticbehaviorof typicalbridgepiers. Six typesof input groundmotionswere
in the analysis:
considered
(i) El Centro(May 18, 1940)recordedat ImperialValley S00Ewith a groundpeak
(PGA)of 0.348g;
acceleration
(ii) Pacoima
Dam(Feb.19,I97l) S16E,with PGA: 1.1.79;
(iii) SanSalvador
(1986),with PGA: A.6959;
(iv) Taft (July21, 1952)recorded
at LincolnSchoolTunnelN21Ewith PGA = 0.156;
(v) Mexico City (Sept. 19, 1985)recordedat Secretariatof Communicationand
Transportation,
N90Wwith PGA= 0.1719;and,
(vi) An artificialsinusoidal
groundinputwith PGA: 1ganda frequencyof lHz.
Thesegroundinputmotionsareplottedin Fig. 6-5.
that very accuratelyrepresented
The macromodelusedthe calibratedparameters
the behaviorof an actualfull sizebridgepier, thus the inelasticspecffalquantitiesshown
to be a reliablerepresentation
of actualbridge
in Figs. 6-6 through6-11are considered
pier inelasticresponse.
In Figs.6-12through6-17,inelasticspecffagenerated
by usingan elastic-perfectly
plasticmodelareshown. This secondtypeof hystereticmodelandresultingspecffamay
typicalofbridge sffuctures
seatedon steelor PTFEbearings.Suchcurves
be considered
are necessaryin a seismiclimit analysisfor establishingthe hierarchy of failure
(i.e.bearingvs.pier failure).
mechanisms
6 - 1I
El Centro(1940)
0.4
gl
0.2
,9
|E
o
o
u
(J
0
-0.2
-0.4
30
Time(sec)
PacoimaDam(1971)
1.5
Et
o
0.5
g
g
0
o
(J
(, -0.5
,ll
4il,Wlffil
llr,,. ,
I'l'r '-'
'rf
-1
10
30
Time(sec)
40
50
SanSalvador(1986)
1
ctl
e
o
0.5
g
o
u
IJ
-0.5
-1
Fig. 6-5 Input Ground MotionsUsedfor SpectralAnalysis

6-12
60
Taft(1952)
0.2
El
o
G
g
o
IJ
IJ
0.1
0
-0.1
#q//o1fflry'A#
hnd
fi$fo+'\ffd
M|ilffiWd
-*fH
,/L.,
,^r
-0.2
60
50
30
Time(sec)
10
Mexico(1985)
0.2
Et
,I
0.1
,9
g
o
o
(J
(J
.ffir\
0
-0.1
ilt
IT
il^ l\t,1,,
^n
" ii-"v
{ul/vv
-0.2
E0
100
120
Time(sec)
160
180
SinusoidalInput
1
ctt
c 0.5
o
a6
g
(u
IJ
g
0
-0.5
Jn
nA
Â
"V\
VV
\lU
-1
15
10
Time(sec)
Fig. 6-5 Continuation.

6-13
20
25
Example.
6"6 An lllustrative
Considerthe shear-critical
bridgethat was part of the Jeri'ett-Halmwood
bridge
testedby Manderet al. (1993). Accordingto the analysisof Manderet ai. who applied
the ATC 6-2 evaluation,
a criticalearthquake
with a PGA of 0.6259w'ouldcausea brittle
shearfailure(StepsI to 6.1of Fig. 6-1.) Thisis in spiteof thehighbaseshearcapacityof
C,(c)= 0.90
The following describesa more realistic energy based seismrc evaluatron
in accordance
to Fig. 6-1.
methodology
StepI Considerthe PacoimaDamearthquake
with C(d)= 3 for T : 0.09sec
Step2 C,(c) =0"9 for flexurebasedon the experiments
and analysisof Manderet ai.
( 1993).(SeeFigs.4-17, 5-8and5-9)
Step3. r", =W = g.3
1
Rp=*=3'33
Step4.2 RotationalDemand
D"f = 6mm
fromFig.6.6b.
fromFig. 6.6d.
V,tr=4
=
N(A l0 cYcles
' ' - Ar - - \tq- l)Do
Al.n-l*P'-F\"'
L-Lo
lto&-Lp)
0.(d)=I+
vP\''
__I_
4 Q2oo-220\
=0.0023
radians
Step 5.2 RotationalCapacity

AtOp(d) = +0.0023radiansthe fiber model programRC-COLA gives
N(c) = 2096 for which the pier fails in low cycle fatigue of longitudinal steel.
step
6.2or=m=#=2to
6-14
It is evident from this example that the traditional ductility based seismic evaluation is
exffemely conservative"It can thus lead to the false conclusionthat bridge columns may
be unsafein the eventof a severe motion suchas PacoimaDam.
6.7 Conclusions
The macromodel developedin section5 provedto be useful in describingthe
hystereticbehaviorof a bridgepier sffucture.The inelasticspectraproducedthrougha
of bridge pier
well calibratedmodel is believedto be a realisticallyrepresentation
by the calibrationof a full sizeactualbridgepier. The
sffucfures,asthey weregenerated
procedurecanbe useto genorateinelasticspectrafor otherkind of structurefollowing the
(1) realistichystereticbehaviorcanbe
procedureoutlinedthroughoutthis investigation:
or indirectly(FiberElementmodeling);(2) the macromodel
knowndirectly(experiment)
behavior;(3) a non-lineartime historydynamic
canbe calibratedto simulatethe structure
theinelasticresponse.
analysisprogramis usedto evaluate
A spectralstudyof the inelasticbehaviorof typicalbridgesffucturesmay leadto
This,may in turn leadto rational
for thehystereticparameters.
identifydesignenvelopes
inelasticdesigndemand.
waysof assessing
that the low cycle fatiguedemandis both earthquakeand
It shouldbe emphasized
hystereticmodel dependent. This is evidentby comparingthe different responses
for a givenearthquake
comparingthe bridge
anddifferentresponses
amongstearthquakes,
for the determination
andEPPmodels. Therefore,furthersensitivitystudiesarenecessary
of spectralfatigue demandsfor different sffucturaltypes, where the hystereticmodei
shouldbe variedto properlyreflectglobalresponse.In thismannera rationalassessment
canbe madeof energybasedfatiguedemandson structuralelements.
6- 15
(a) SpectralAcceleration
(b) EffecliveDeformation
10
1
E
o
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(c) Hysteretic
Energy
(d) EffectiveDuctility
1000
E
g
=
.c.
uJ
1000
=
100
100
10
1
o)
10
c)
o
uJ
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.01
Period(sec)
0.1
Period(sec)
(e) EffectiveNumberof Cycles
(f) Faclorof Symmetry
100
-0.2
10
q)
-0.4
tr -0.6
-0.8
0.1
0.01
-1
0.1
0.01
Period(sec)
0.1
Period(sec)
Fig. 6-6 Energy,Ductility and Low-CycleFatigueDemandSpectrafor

El Centro (1940)N-S,with 57oViscousDampingRatio and
pGA = 0.348g.
6-16
(h) MaximumDeforrnation
(g) TotalEnergySpectra
1000
e 100
100
;10
i10
o't
il1
0.1
0.
0.1
1
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(j) MaximumDuctility
(i) Damping
Energy
1000
1000
e 100
100
o
:t
o
E
J
E
i10
E1
10
1
(!
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(k) Maximum
KineticEnergY
(l) InelasticMagnification
Factor
^ 100
1000
o
(!
e 100
g
d10
o
=10
o1
(t)
fi1
0.1
n
Fig.6-6 Continued.
5-17
(b) EffectiveDeformation
10
I
1000
E
E
0.1
o
0.1
0.01
100
10
IJJ
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(c) Hysteretic
Energy
(d) EffecliveDuctility
1000
1000
E
10
c)
0.01
0.01
100
100
o
tv"'1
i\
10
q)
uJ
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.1
10
0.01
Period(sec)
0.1
Period(sec)
(f) Factorof Symmetry
100
i
-0.2 i
10
q)
tr
1
0.1
0.01
0.1
1
Period(sec)
0.1
1
Period(sec)

PacoimaDam (1971),with 5% ViscousDampingRatio and
PGA = t.t1 g.
6 -l 8
(h) MaximumDeformation
1000
1000
E
E
=
UJ
e
g
100
10
100
10
E
o
I
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.01
Period(sec)
(i) Damping
Energy
fi) MaximumDuctility
1000 _
=
100
--
100
10
10
[l
1
0.01
Period(sec)
1000
E
E
=
0.1
r\!"
4
--- 2
-1
' ' u . \\-
'. ''-l$L
""ar :4\Z
1
0.1
0.01
1
0.1
Period(sec)
R=10
8
1
Period(sec)
0.1
10
Factor
(k) Maximum
KineticEnergy
100
1000
a
g
=
100
10
-g
(l)
*s$l
\
E
\N-
o
a
(D
0.1
l7
0.01
0.01
10
0.1
10
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
Fig.6-7 Continued.
6-19
10
(b) EffecliveDeformation
(')
10
1000
,|
100
E
10 ---2
(!
o)
0.1
-1
0.01
0.01
0.1
1
0.1
0.01
10
10
Ul
it
0.1
Period(sec)
(c) Hysteretic
Energy
10
1000
=
100
,\
Period(sec)
1000
E
E
100
o
o
10
o
o)
uJ
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.01
10
10
Period(sec)
Period(sec)

0
-0.2
100
10
(l)
1
0.1
0.01
0.1
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0.1
10
0.01
Period(sec)
1
Period(sec)
0.1

San Salvador(19E6), with 5% ViscousDampingRatio and
P G A : 0 . 6 9 5g .
6-20
10
1000
1000
E
E
100
e
g
10
x
(U
10
uJ
E
o
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.01
Period(sec)
(i) Damping
Energy
1000 _
:
()
100
o
E
E
10
L!
1
0.01
=
-v
tiJ
100
--
R=10
8 ^
6
4
10 ---2 '
i
M.
/i
"\J'
r.
--
i \ ----'J n +
--\J
-_\:/_
1
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.1
10
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(k) Maximum
KineticEnergy
Factor
100
1000
tr
E
0.1
Period(sec)
1000
E
E
=
100
o
6
100
;i
10
(o
(l)
0.1
10
1
,E
0.01
0.1
0.01
0.01
Fig.6-8 Continued.
6-21
1000 _
100
E
;
0.1
o
0.01
0.01
0.1
-?
10
R=10
--- 8
4
,zf
.7
"K/
'.f
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(c) Hysteretic
Energy
1000
1000
=
g
3
uJ
100
100
10
10
o
q)
l.!
0.1
0,01
0.1
0.1
0.01
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(0 Factorof Symmetry

0
-0.2
100
10
ts
-0.4
-0.6
1
0.1
0.01
0.1
-0.8
-1
0.01
1
Period(sec)
0.1
0.1
Period (sec)

Taft (1952)N218, with 5% ViscousDampingRatio and
PGA = 0.156g.
6-22
10
1000
100
E
E
=
100
10
E
x
E
o
t!
10
1
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
fi)MaximumDuctility
(i) Damping
Energy
1000 _
1000
--
100
E
E
100
10
o
E
I,IJ
.E
x
0.1
0.01
R=,to
I l^'
10 --- 2
v'\
-\z
0.1
0.1
0.0r
10
0.1
10
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(k) Maximum
KineticEnergy
Factor
100
1000
o
(5
E
E
100
10
tIl
q)
o
ct
(o
10
1
i?
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Fig.6-9 Continued.
6-23
'!0
(b) Effective
Deformation
1000
100
t
0.1
ts
q)
o
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.01
Period(sec)
1
Period(sec)
(c) Hysteretic
Energy
1000r
I
E
E
=
Lll
10
0.1
1000
|
E 100
o
100
10
10
q)
t5
Lu
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.1
1
Period(sec)
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
100
0
-0.2
10
(l)
-0.4
-0.6
i
rfi\,,/iIYillit
-0.8
0.1
0.01
-1
0.1
0.01
Period(sec)
J^
,AI },iJ
0.1
Period(sec)

Mexico(1985), with 57oViscousDampingRatio and
P G A : 0 . 1 7 1g .
6-24
10
1000
10000
E
E
=
r.u
e
g
1000
100
x
o
E
o
10
1
0.01
100
10
LIJ
(i) Damping
Energy
O MaximumDuctility
1000 _
J.:1,
<'\\,,
100
/,^-t I
t,
10
E
x
/,
--
0.01
0.1
10
--- 2
10
-v
ul
/\;
\
I
t\W
0.1
10
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(k) Maximum
KineticEnergy
Factor
100
o
\\\
.'N
it
*.Ar:
0.01
1000
100
R=10
.I = =^:\
6
0.1
0.1
E
E
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
1000
E
E
10
0.1
0.01
0.1
100
o
o
o)
10
1
{f
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.01
Fig.6-10 Continued.
6-25
(b) Effective
Deformation
10000
1000
0.1
E
E
100
q)
10
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.01
1000
Period(sec)
(c) Hysteretic
Energy
(d) EffecliveDuctility
1000r
I
,'v
100
100
o
:l
10
10
tJJ
Period(sec)
10000
E
E
0.1
Lu
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.01
10
Period(sec)
0.1
1
Period(sec)
(0 Factorof Symmetry
-0.2i
q)
210
-0.4
- 0.6
-0.8
-,1
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
Fig. 6-f f Energy,Ductility and Low-CycleFatigueDemandSpectrafor

SinusoidalInput , with 57oViscousDampingRatio and
p GA : 1 .0g .
6-26
10000
100000
E
E
3
t!
10000
1000
100
IU
10
E
o
10
1
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(i) Damping
Energy
(j) MaximumDuctillty
1000
100000
=
rc
100
1l
0.01
E
E
1000
E
E
10000
'1000
100
o
E
E
'x
100
10
10
1
0.1
1
0
0.1
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(k) Maximum
KineticEnergy
Factor
100
10000
1000
E
100
E
ts 1 0
1
.Y
UJ
0.1
0.01
0"01
o
(o
o
o
o
6
l?
10
1
I
0.1t
0.01
Fig.6-11 Continued.
6-27
1
Period(sec)
0.1
10
1or
I
E
E
1
a
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.1
10
[!
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(c)Hysteretic
Energy
1000
=
100
0.1
0.01
1000
10
'
":.,
ffi
bs
\
10
o
q)
I.IJ
0.1
0.01
0.1
10
100
0 . 1i
0.01
Period(sec)
0.1
Period(sec)

0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
o
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0.1
0.01
il
0.1
0.01
Period(sec)
0.1
Period(sec)

El Centro(1940)N-S, with 57oViscousDampingRatio and
PGA = 0.348g. @lasto-Perfectly
PlasticModel)
6-28
1000
1000
E
E
=
uJ
100
E
E
100
10
10
E
o
0.1
0.01
0 . 1L
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
(i) Damping
Energy
1000
=
100
10
o
tu
C)
/)n
J*,".
s...---
f,r:
'x
(g
0.1
10
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(k) Maximum
KineticEnergy
Factor
1000
uJ
0.1
0.01
100
10
0.1
E
E
=
Period(sec)
1000
e
g
0.1
^ 100
o
(5
100
d'
10
10
tn
o
=
1
0.1
0.1
Fig.6-12 Continued"
6-29
1000
10
100
1
U)
10
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.1
1
0.1
0.01
3
ur
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(c) Hysteretic
EnergY
(d) EffectiveDuctilitY
1000
1000
E
E
0.1
i
100 I
10l
100
10
/a>
iM
lr'
UJ
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(e) EffectiveNumberof CYcles
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.4
4.2
0
-0.2
5
x. -0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0.1
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)

PacoimaDam (1971), with 57oViscousDampingRatio and
PlasticModel)
PGA: l.l7 g. @lasto-Perfectly
6-30
10
1000
1000
E
100
10
UJ
g
X
10
E
o
1
0.1
0.01
0.1
100
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(i) Damping
Energy
1000
1000
=
100
E
c)
100
10
o
E
10
uJ
E
x
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(k) Maximum
KineticEnergy
(l) |nelasticMagnification
Factor
1000
100
a
100
10
g
.Y
UJ
o
ttt
-g
o
r=
0.1
0.01
10
1
$il
Gl(X
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Fig.6-13 Continued.
6-31
10
1000
10
E
E
0.01
0.01
0.1
1
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(c) Hysteretic
Energy
1000
1000
LU
10
q)
0.1
E
E
=
100
100
100
10
10
o)
UJ
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)

4.4
0.2
0
-0.2
tr -0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0()4
zl
0.1
0"01
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)

SanSalvador(1986), with 57oViscousDampingRetio snd
PlasticModel)
PGA: 0.695g. @lasto-Perfectly
6-32
(g) TotalEnergySPectra
1000
1000
E
100
10
ul
E
E
x
E
o
0.1
0.01
o
ut
0.01
(i) Damping
Energy
O MaximumDuctility
1000
100
100 _
o
f
o
E
=
10
,E
x
1
0.1
10
1
-r\s-
--4
i
0.1
10
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(k) Maximum
KineticEnergy
Factor
100
100
10
1
I
.Y
t!
-- 6
-,.-.
\
. - . . . . . . . 4 v l,
(t)
g
3
R = 1 0\ .r\N
-\t1
-'--'8 ^
0.1
0.01
1000
E
Period(sec)
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
ts
10
0.1
0.1
1000
E
100
;i
0.1
0.01
0.01
10
1
0.1
0.01
Fig.6-14 Continued"
6-33
1000 _
100
;
a
E
E
01
o
0.01
0.01
0.1
--
.4F
10 ---z
=4
. =''
'lx
0.1
0.01
0.01
R-10
8
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(c) Hysteretic
Energy
1000
=
100
10
-c
llJ
100
o
q)
(l)
10
1
UJ
0.1
0,1
0.01
0.1
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)

0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0.01
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)

Taft (1952)N2lE, with 5% ViscousDampingRatio and
PlasticModel)
PGA = 0.156g. (Elasto-Perfectly
6-34
10
(g) TotalEnergySPeclra
1000
100
E
E
=
ttt
10
1
E
E
100
10
E
o
4
I
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(i) Damping
Energy
1000 _
1000
E
g
=
E
uJ
100
=
o
100
10
o
E
10
E
x
1
0.1
(E
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.01
R=N^
-.- I
.\^\
4
, .i\\,-q'
/'\,\\;""JV
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
(k) Maximum
KineticEnergy
Factor
100
a
10
v,
I,JJ
10
Period(sec)
1000
100
'I
I
I
7i
o
o
10
,'la
:w!$.
^"i,lnA'p"-A
:, '"1i
i,
"
If'
i=
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Fig.6-15 Continued.
6-3s
10
1000r_
100
E
o,
01
o
0.01
0.01
0.1
10
0.1
0.01
0.01
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(c) Hysteretic
Energy
1000
E
E
=
-c
ul
0.1
10000
100
10
1000
100
10
t5
o
uJ
1
0"1i
0.01
1
0.1
0.01
1
Period(sec)
0.1
0.1
Period(sec)

0
-0.2
o
tir:
! : l
-0.6
lr
lr
#Tfr
0.01
Period(sec)
)i
itrii l { ' ,l ii
l:
\l t
-1
0.1
ll If]|,
r1 ,
-4.4
-0.8
0.1
0.01
ntdA
0.1
Period(sec)
Fig. 6-16 Energy,Ductility and LowCycle FatigueDemandSpectrafor

Mexico(1985), with 57oViscousDampingRatio and
PGA = 0.171g.@lasto-Perfectly
Model)
6-36
10
1000
10000
E
g
=
I.IJ
1000
100
100
10
E
o
(g
10
1
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.01
Period(sec)
(i) Damping
Energy
10000
1000
e
g
100
10
o
tI|
1000
o
E
'x
(!
0.1
0.01
0.1
100
10
g
.Y
llJ
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
10
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(k) Maximum
KineticEnergy
Factor
1000
E
1
Period(sec)
0.1
1000
100
o
o
(5
o
/\\
0.1
0.01
0.1
o
10
10
1
0.1
0.01
Period(sec)
0.1
Period(sec)
Fig. 6-16 Continued.
o-J /
10
(b) Effeclive
Deformation
10000
10
(g
@
1000
100
0.1
'10
0.01
0"01
0.1
1
0.01
(c) Hysteretic
Energy
10000
100000
10000i
1000
100
.u
UJ
10
1000
q)
100
q)
ts
10
uJ
1
0.01
0.01
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
E
E
0.1
0.1
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
0
-0.2
o
E
210
-0.4
-0,6
-0.8
-1
0.1
0.01
Period(sec)
0.1
1
Period(sec)

SinusoidalInput, with 57oViscousDampingRatio and
PlasticModel)
PGA: 1.0g. @lasto-Perfectly
6 - 38
(g) TotalEnergySPectra
10000
100000
I
E
E
=
ul
10000i
1000
100
X
(E
E
o
100
10
0.01
0.1
I.JJ
N.=
10
1
0.01
0.1
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(i) Damping
Energy
10
10000
100000
E
E
=
>
1000
10000
1000
1000
E
'iE
100
(5
10
0.01
0.1
6\
4
100 ---2
10
-1
1
0.01
\
\\
\
0.1
//(/7/--'
/.- -
10
Period(sec)
Period(sec)
(k) MaximumKineticEnergy
(l) |nelasticMagnification
Factor
1000
10000
1000
E
g 100
10
=
1
.Y
uJ
0.1
0.01
0.01
o
o
100
o
10
o
(E
1
I
0.1
0.01
Fig.6-17 Continued.
6-39
Section7
and Recommendations
Conclusions
Summary,
7"'lSummary
This study has been concerned with the computational modeling of energy
absorption (fatigue) capacity of reinforced concretebridge columns by using a cyclic
dynamic Fiber Element computationalmodel. The results were used with a smooth
hysteretic rule to generate seismic energy demand" By comparing the ratio of energy
demand to capacity inferencesof column damageabilityor fatigue resistancewere made.
A complete analysismethodology for bridge columns was developed starting from
the basic principles of nonlinearmechanicsof materials. The hystereticbehavior of steel
reinforcementis dealt with in detailed: stability, degradationand consistencyof cyclic
behavior is explained" An energy baseduniversally applicablelow cycle fatigue model
for steel was proposed. A hysteretic model for confined and unconfined concrete
subjectedto both tension or compressioncyclic loading was advanced,which is also
capablefor simulating gradual crack closure. A Cyclic Inelastic Stnrt-Tie (CIST) modei
was developed,in which the comprehensiveconcretemodel proved to be suitable. The
CIST model was shown to be capableof assessinginelastic shear deformationswith a
high degree of accuracy, within the context of a Fiber Element (FE) program. A
parabolic fiber element with parabolic stress function element for uniaxial flexure was
developed, as well as a rectangular fiber element with a quadratic interpolation function
suitablefor biaxial flexure.
A smoothruie-basedmacro model for the simulationof the hystereticbehavior of
reinforced concreteelementswas developed. The model was shown to be capable of
7-1
accurately simulating cyclic behavior when compared w'ith acruai experimental data"
through use of an automatedsystem identification procedure. This black-box type of
procedure proved to be very effective in finding the modei parameters to best
approximatememberbehavior. The macro model was caiibratedto stmuiatethe behavior
of a full size bridge pier and then implementedinto a SDOF non-linearcilnamic analysis
program to generateinelasticresponsespectra.
In addition to the usual ductility-basedinelasticspecffa,severaladditional energy
spectra are also generatedwhich include: viscous damping, hysteretic energ)', cyclic
(fatigue) demand. Thesespectramay be usedas part of a rational methodology in w'hich
the cyclic demand on bridge columns is compared with the capaciqv-predicted by
Fiber-Elementanalysis.
7.2 SomeSpecificConclusions
Modeling
1. SteelStress-Strain
model for mild and high strength
A universallyapplicablestress-strain
reinforcingsteelswas developed.This modelincludesthe effectsof low cycle fatigue
in the
and is capableof accuratelypredictingbar fracture--an importantphenomenon
seismicdamageanalysisof bridgecolumns.Thepredictionof bar fractureis achievedby
tracking hystereticenergyabsorption. This methodgives superiorresults to the best
therainflowcountingmethod.
alternative-Modeling
2. ConcreteStress-Strain
model for concretehas also been
A universallyapplicablestress-strain
by Manderet al.
versionof thatoriginallyproposed
advanced.This modelis anenhanced
(1988a).Someof thenewfeatures
include:
(i) An improved monotonic sffess-sffainidealizationusing the equation of Tsai
(1988), this can now caterfor low to very high strengthconcrete"
"1 1
(ii) Enhancedcyclic loading stress-sffalnrelation that couple tensile and

excursionsand allow for gradualcrackclosure. This now greatly
compressive
predictionof beamsan<i
force-displacement
improvesthe moment-curvature,
columnswith low levelsof axialload"
thereliablepredictionof
(iii) Cyclicstress-sffain
relationsin tension"This enables
cyclicinelasticsheardisplacements.
Analysis
3. Fiber-Element
thatuses"Fiber-Element"
A computerprogramRC-COLAwasdeveloped
and force-displacement
for the predictionof both the non-linearmoment-curvature,
behavior of sffuctural concretebeam-columnsunder dynamic cyclic lateral (shear)
loading. The programis capableof predictingthe modesof failurethat generallyleadto
columncollapse,namely:
(i) Low cyclic fatigueof the longitudinalreinforcement-commonin beamsand
columnswith low axialloads(P" <0.15flAs)
(ii) Fractureof transverse
hoops--corlmon in confinedcolumnswith high axial
l o a d( P , > 0 . 2 f ! A s )
(iii) Buckling of the longitudinalcompressionreinforcementand subsequent
hoop spaclng
cornmonin columnswherethe transverse
crushingof the concrete-exceeds
six longitudinalbardiameters.
(iv) Shearfailure,whenthe concretestrutscrush.
The programhasthe uniquefeatureof being ableto reliably track inelasticshear
in lightly reinforcedcolumnswhichhavenot beendetailedin accordance
displacements
with capacitydesignprinciples.
4. MacroModeling
that is a smoothedversionof a piecewise
was developed
A macro-model
Takedamodel(Saiidi, 1982). However,due to the natureof the
linearthree-parameter
(1973)smoothingfunctionused,the modelhasbecomemore complex.
Menegotto-Pinto
requiring considerablymore control parameters. This makes manual assessment
t-5
somewhat difficult. Therefore an automated"black-box" system identification routine

was developed. This procedureis used in conjunction *ith real force-deformationor
moment-curvaturedata from experiments,or with slnthetic data precirctedusing the
fiber-elementprogram RC-COLA. It has been demonstratedthat excellent agreement
betweenexperimentalbehavior and the smoothmacro model srmulationrs achievedvia
fiber elementpredictions. This macro model forms the basisof forming reliable inelastic
of hystereticdemand.
energyspectrafor the assessment
5. HystereticEnergyDemand
The cyclic hystereticenergycapacityon memberscan be reliably predicted
through the fiber-elementmodel. This can be compared with the seismic hysteretic
energy demand on the member. The ratio of the two gives a measureof the damage
consumption. Hysteretic energy demandwas expressedherein as the number of cycies
(Nd) at an effective constantplastic-displacementductility factor $"d"
This whole evaluationprocedureis summarizedagainin Fig. 7-1
for FutureResearch
7.3 Recommendations
(l) The natureof the cyclicbehaviorof concretewith incursionsinto tensionand
compressionneedsto be established.Very limited experimentalinformationexists
regardingthecyclicbehaviorofconcrete.
(2) The fatiguemodelneedsto be calibratedwith additionalexperimentalresults
its parameters.
to morereliablyestablish
(3) Well-designed
to assess
sheardeformations,
and crackformation
experiments
CyclicInelasticStnrrTiemodel.
areneeded,to validateor refinetheproposed
(4) The fiber elementanalysisin its presentform is "curvature"controlled.That
thenthe inelasticshear
is, for a givencurvaturethe moment,andhenceshear,is assessed,
from a "force"(shear)controlledalgorithm.This processworkswell
strainis determined
exceptfor columnsfailing prematurelyin shear. It is thereforerecommendedthat an
inverseform of the solutionbe exploredfor such shear-criticalelements,where the
1- 4
controlled. In this approachshearforce would be

responseis perhaps"shear-strain"
momentthe curvature
determinedfor a givenlevel of sharestrain. From the requested
from a "force"controlledalgorithm.
wouldbe assessed
(5) Parametricstudiesto measurethe influenceof modelparameters,
frdy clarify
modelparameters.
therangeandvalidityof thevariousproposed
(6) A studyon the interactionbetweenthe orthogonalcrackingand lelding on
biaxialflexureis needed.
(7) A modifiedshearmodelfor the assessment
of sheardeformationon biaxial
shearneedsto be developed.
(8) The macromodel needsto be integratedinto a generalpurposenonlinear
dynamic analysisprogram as IDARC or DRAIN-ZDX to study the effect of having
realisticallycalibratedmodelsin a multi-degree
of freedomsystem.
(9) InelasticEnergySpectraneedto be generatedfor differenttypesof sffuctures,
where a realisticmodelingof hystereticbehaviorare implementedby following the
generalguidelinesgivenin thisinvestigation.
7-5
SEISMC EVALUATION METHODOLOGY
Step l.
StrengthDemand,C(dt
Step2.
StrengthCapacityC(ct (Limit Analt.sis)

C(d) I
^
Step3.
=A
Ev
r". =
n"
[if r". 2 l.-< STOP]
Step4.1 DuctilityDemandpr(d,l
Step5.i
i6!
q
!.<
vE
DuctilityCapacityp(c) perATC 6-2
Sd zt-e- pr 61. l ,- .r = - t ' t ( c )
rr a
[If ru 21.5 STOP]
-6
GA
-aD
9r.=
gs
G
r-t
-g
b<
E)
Lco
v:
Step4.2 Rotational
Demand
Sections5 & 6
Qp(4, N(A =-f(Rp,EQ,Hyst.mo

de[)
Step5.2 RotationalCapacity0o(c),N(c)
Step6.2 ,r
Ml'r'l
= ^ffi
Sections2 - 4
[If ry > 1.5 STOP]
E=
ctt
tOrAo
4F
EA
ao
E>,
trqt
b;
:1
Section5
Step8. PerformTimeHistoryAnalysis
(IDARC or DRAIN-2DX)
q)
450
vd
pE
Step7. Generate
&A
UseFiber-Element
to predictdetailed
behaviorbasedon membertime-hi
Fig. 7-l Summaryof ResearchSignificanceof this Study in the

Contextof a SeismicEvaluationMethodology.
7-6
Section 4
References
- Section1
References
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A-22

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SEISMIC ENERGYBASEDDAMAGE ANALYSIS OF

Gilberto Axel Chang

has completedall requirements

for the degree o( M,*. ) ftrn.f;+)C.l*l+lvt*rcLl

2. Acceptance and Defenre of{bir:sr

Julv 29, 1993

successtullydefended $is) {fer}{thesie) (dissertatign) enriiled

Dr. Mrchael P. Gaus

Director ol GrsduaroStudis (typ)

This study is concernedwith the computationalmodeling of energy absorption

to my advisorDr. JohnB. Mander,whosebrilliant

To my belovedMarfa,for your love.

: ateaof the confinedcore concretemeasuredto the centerlineof the perimeter

: areaof bound concreteunder compression

: effectively confinedareafor rectangularsection

: total areaof hoop steel

: areaof the shearreinforcement

: total areaof transversereinforcementparallel to the x axis

: total areaof transversereinforcementparallel to the y axis

: breadth of the section

: concretecore dimensionin the x direction

: fatigue ductility exponent

: bar diameterof steel

: concretecore dimensionin the y direction

: damagefor one cycle of a given amplitudeAe

: diameter of circular or spiral hoops

is measuredto the neutral axis

: tangentmodulusof elasticityat the initial point for a softenedcurve

: tangentmodulus at the returning point

: elasticmodulusof elasticityfor steel

: total energy at a given time

: strain under the confining fluid pressure

: final stressfor a softenedcurve

: confining sffessin the x direction

: confining stressin the y directron

: new sffessat the unloadingstrain

: stressat initial point for softenedcurve

: sffessat the returning Point

: force in the spring

: sffessin the hoop

: ultimate (maximum) stress

: steel yield stress

= yield sffessof transversereinforcement

: yield strengthof the ffansversehoop steel

: total section depth

: effective height of the structure

: height of the strip j

= shearstiffinessoutsidethe hinged region

: effective stifftess at time stepn

: member length to the point of conffaflexure center of the column

: length of plastic curvature

: yielded zone length

: moment aboutthe centroid

: moment at first yielding

: effective or equivalentnumberof equi-amplitudecycles

: number of cyclesto failure

: post yielding sloperatio

: critical value of R for the M-P equation

- force reduction factor

: centerto centerhoop spacing

: clear longitudinalspacingbetweenspiralsin which arching action of the

: period of the structure

: period that separates"long" and "medium" period behavior

for the degree o( M,. ) ftrn.f;+)C.ll+lvt*rcLl