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1
Vibrations and Waves
Amplitude
The _______________________________ of the objects
from their _______________ position.
Introduction
Period, T
A wave is produced by a source of vibration.
Mechanical waves need a material or medium for their
propagation.
Examples of mechanical waves include water waves
,sound waves, shock waves as in earthquakes and waves
in strings, springs and rods.
Electromagnetic waves do not need a material medium for
their propagation.
Examples of electromagnetic waves are radio waves ,
light waves , infra-red (IR) and ultra-violet ( UV).
As a wave travels through a medium, there is no transfer
of matter but only transfer of energy from a vibrating
source.
t = time
n = number of oscillations
Frequency, f
The number of _______________________________ per
second.
The S.I. unit is Hertz (Hz)
f= 1
T
Or
T= n
t
Graph displacement-time
Equilibrium position
The position of the object where is ____ resultant force
acts on the object.
One oscillation
To-and-fro motion from the equilibrium position.
Example 1
A pendulum makes 20 complete oscillations in 24.0 s.
Calculate
(a) the period
Solution
(b)
the frequency
Example 2
(b) period
Solution
Natural Frequency
Factors affecting
Formula
Oscillation of a
pendulum
Oscillation of a
spring hang with a
mass
Oscillation of a
jigsaw blade fixed
with plasticine ball
Damping
Damping is a word used to describe how movement and
vibrations are _____________ or ________________.
Damping is a process whereby oscillations die down due
to a loss of energy to friction forces.
When a system is damped , the amplitude of the of
oscillation decreases slowly until the system stops
oscillating.
Damping is usually caused by external frictional forces
such as air resistance . It can also be caused by internal
forces , where energy is lost from the system in form of
heat.
Example 2:
The story is told of an opera singer who could shatter a
glass by singing a note at its natural frequency.
Example 3:
The wind ,blowing in gusts, once caused a suspension
bridge to sway with increasing amplitude until it reached a
point where the structure was over-stressed and the
bridge collapsed.
Example 4:
Wind instruments such as flute, clarinet, trumpet etc.
depend on the idea of resonance. Longitudinal pressure
waves can be set up in the air inside the instrument. The
column of air has its own natural frequencies at which it
can vibrate. When we blow, we use the mouthpiece to
start some vibrations. Those which happen to match
exactly the natural frequencies of the instrument are
picked out and magnified.
Example 5 :
The another example of useful resonance is the tuning
circuit on a radio set. Radio waves of all frequencies strike
the aerial and only the one which is required must be
picked out. This is done by having a capacitanceinductance combination which resonates to the frequency
of the required wave . The capacitance is variable; by
altering its value other frequencies can be obtained.
Example 6 :
Microwave ovens use resonance. The frequency of
microwaves almost equals the natural frequency of
vibration of a water molecule. This makes the water
molecules in food resonate . This means they take in
energy from the microwaves and so they get hotter. This
heat conducts and cooks the food.
Example 7 :
TUTORIAL 6.1
1
A
C
E
A to B
A to C
A to C and back C to B
A to C and back C to A
2.0 s
6.0 s
10.0 s
B
D
4.0 s
8.0 s
1 Hz
3
1 Hz
2
2 Hz
3
3
2
2 Hz
Hz
0.69 s
1.45 s
276 s
B
D
1.38 s
27.6 s
0 .1
0.2
0.1
0.2
Period / s
0.50
0.50
0.25
0.50
Frequency / Hz
2
1
4
2
11
12
A P
B Q
C R
D S
Pak Abu has a pendulum clock as shown in the
diagram below.
( g earth = 1 g moon )
6
A
C
E
13
0.6 s
4.2 s
15
B
D
14
0.1 s
3.6 s
10.0S
D
17
18
Pendulum W
Pendulum Y
B
D
Pendulum X
Pendulum Z
19
A frequency
B period
C amplitude
D acceleration
A spring vibrates at a natural frequency 50 Hz.
Resonance occurs when the frequency of forced
vibrations on the spring is
A
C
24
A
C
20
0 Hz
50 Hz
B
D
25 Hz
100 Hz
A
B
C
B
C
D
23
frequency
number of
oscillations
22
B
D
21
period
energy
It remains constant
It decreases
It increases
24
Longitudinal waves
Introduction
Oscillations can produce waves. Waves transfer energy
from one place to another without permanently displacing
the medium through which they travel.
When we drop a stone into a pond, the kinetic energy of
the stone makes the water surface move up and down
near where the stone lands; ripples spread out outwards
and if an floating object on the water some distance
away will start to bob up and down. It is becaused the
original energy of the moving stone has been transferred
to the object by the wave motion on the water surface.
When we are at the seaside, we can see large as well as
small waves reaching the shore. These waves arise
because of the strong winds in the middle of the sea.The
energy of the winds is carried by the waves to the shore.
The water from the middle of the sea does not reach the
shore.
The wave motion is regular and repetitive (i.e. periodic
motion)
There are two main types mechanical waves such as
sound waves and electromagnetic waves.
Transverse waves
Period , T:
The ________ for one complete oscillations of each
particle in the wave.
Frequency, f :
The number of oscillations of each particle in the wave in
_______ second.
f=1
T
Wavelength ,
The distance between two _________________ points
which are vibrating in phase.
Or
The distance from one wave crest to the next.
Or
The distance from one wave trough to the next.
Or
8
Compression
Region along a longitudinal wave where the pressure and
density of particles are higher than when no wave is
passing.
Wavespeed , v
The distance moved by a wave in one second.
The wavespeed depends only the medium the waves are
traveling through.
Rarefaction
Region along a longitudinal wave where the pressure and
density of particles are lower than when no wave is
passing
Wavefront
The locus of points which vibrates in phase.
Example 1
A student moves the end of a long spring from side to side
4 times persecond. The wavelength of the wave on the
spring is 0.6 m. With what speed do the waves moves
along the spring?
Solution
circular wavefron
Example 2
Radio waves travel at a speed 3 x 108 ms-1. What is the
wavelength of FM radio waves received at 200 MHz on
your radio dial?
plane wavefront
Solution
Crest
The point where a wave causes
_____________________
__________________displacement of the medium.
Trough
The point where a wave causes ____________________
_________________displacement of the medium.
Example 3
Determine
(a) the amplitude
(b) the wavelength
(c) the speed
Solution
Example 4
The figure shows the sound waves produced by a tuning
fork.
T UTORIAL 6. 2
1
speed
period
amplitude
direction of vibration of the particles and
direction of wave propagation
Solution
11
Type of wave
A
B
C
Parallel
Perpendicular
Parallel
Longitudinal
Longitudinal
Transverse
D Transverse
Perpendicular
In which of the following pairs is the first wave motion
transverse and the second wave motion
longitudinal?
Transverse
A
B
C
D
Light
Infra-red
X-ray
Micro
Longitudinal
Radio
Ultra-violet
Sound
Ripples
A
C
E
9
P and R
Q and T
B
D
10
15 cm
45 cm
75 cm
B
D
11
30 cm
60 cm
A
D
8 cm s-1
18 cm s-1
0.5 m
80 m
180000 m
B
D
2.0 m
5000 m
2 cm s-1
12 cm s-1
36 cm s-1
Q and S
P and T
A
C
E
6.7x 10-6 Hz
3.0 x 101 Hz
3.0 x 105 Hz
B
D
1.5 x 101 Hz
1.5 x 105 Hz
Amplitude
6 cm
6 cm
3 cm
3 cm
Wavelength
8 cm
11 cm
8 cm
11 cm
A
C
E
12
0.5 ms-1
4.0 ms-1
20 ms-1
B
D
2.0 ms-1
10 ms-1
12
40 cms-1
16 cms-1
4 cms-1
B
D
20 cms-1
8 cms-1
17
13
A
B
C
D
E
18
15
19
8 cm
12 cm
40 cm
B
D
10 cm
16 cm
19
LESSON 6.3
Analysing reflection of waves
13
Hypothesis:
The angle of reflection increases as the angle of incidence
increases.
Aim of the experiment :
To investigate the relationship between the angle of
incidence and the angle of reflection.
Variables in the experiment:
Manipulated variable: Angle of incidence
Responding variable: Angle of reflection
Fixed variable: depth of water in ripple tank
List of apparatus and materials:
Ripple tank, lamp, motor ,wooden bar , power supply
white paper , protractor ,plane reflector and mechanical
stroboscope.
Arrangement of the apparatus:
Reflection of waves
Reflection of a wave occurs when a wave strikes an
obstacle such as barrier, plane reflector , mirror and wall.
The reflection of waves obeys the law of reflection :
(a) The angle of incidence is ___________ to the
angle of reflection.
(b) The incident wave, the reflected wave and the
normal lie in the ____________ plane.
When the reflection of a wave happened, the
___________, the _____________ and the
____________ do not change but the
_________________________________ of the wave
changes.
Reflection of water waves
To investigate the reflection of water waves a metallic
plane reflector is placed at the centre of a ripple tank. The
motor with a wooden bar attached is switched on to
produce plane waves which propagate towards the
reflector. The reflector repositioned to produce different
angles of incidence.
The following figure shows two examples pattern of the
reflection of the water waves.
(a)
(b)
14
When rays of light strike any surface the rays are reflected
, unless the surface is black, when they are absorbed.
The reflection depends on how smooth the surfaces are.
Good mirrors reflect well over 90% of the light that
reaches them, with only a small amount being absorbed.
A plane mirror is a flat smooth surface which reflects
regularly most of the light falling on it.
The phenomenon of reflection of light obeys the law
of reflection.
(a) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.
(b) The incident wave, the reflected wave and the
normal lie in the same plane.
It also can be seen that
(a) The size of the image ___________ the size of
the object
(b) The distance of the image ___________ the
distance of the object
Hypothesis:
The angle of reflection increases as the angle of incidence
increases.
Aim of the experiment :
To investigate the relationship between the angle of
incidence and the angle of reflection.
Variables in the experiment:
Manipulated variable: Angle of incidence
Responding variable: Angle of reflection
Fixed variable: position of the plane mirror
List of apparatus and materials:
Ray box, plane mirror, plasticine, protractor and white
paper
15
TUTORIAL 6.3
1
16
20o
50o
100o
B
D
40o
700
wavelength
wave direction
B
D
speed of wave
frequency of
wave
A
C
E
15o
45o
90o
B
D
30o
600
A
B
C
D
Angle of
incidence
35o
55o
35o
55o
Angle of
reflection
55o
35o
35o
55o
What is the new angle of reflection of the light ray?
A
17
00
150
C
9
300
600
11
12
A
B
C
D
a greater amplitude
a shorter wavelength
the same speed
the same velocity
14
10
18
(b)
LESSON 6.4
Analysing refraction of waves
Refraction of waves
Refraction of a wave occurs when the wave moves from
one medium to another which causes to travel at different
speed.
The refraction occur when a water wave moves from
deeper water to shallower water, a light wave moves from
air to water , and a sound moves from air to carbon
dioxide gas.
(c)
(d)
Shallow
decrease
decrease
constant
water
Deep
increase
increase
constant
water
If the waves meet the boundary between deep and
shallow water at an angle , then the direction of the waves
changes.
The plane wavefronts will change to the curved
wavefronts if the waves move into the curved boundary.
(e)
(a)
19
(cm)
Analysis the data:
Plot the graph against d
Hypothesis:
The depth of water increases as the wavelength of water
waves increases.
Aim of the experiment :
To investigate the relationship between the depth of water
and the wavelength of water waves.
Variables in the experiment:
Manipulated variable: depth of water
Responding variable: wavelength
Fixed variable: frequency
List of apparatus and materials:
Ripple tank, lamp, motor ,wooden bar , power supply
white paper , protractor ,plane reflector , perspex plate ,
metre rule and mechanical stroboscope.
20
21
TUTORIAL 6.4
1
speed
amplitude
frequency
Speed
Increases
Decreases
Increases
Decreases
Wavelength
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Frequency
No change
Decreases
No change
No change
22
C
D
6
A
C
23
reflection
diffraction
B
D
refraction
interference
10
13
Figure (a)
Figure (b)
The observer can see the coin in Figure (b) due to
A the total internal reflection of light
B the refraction of light
C the reflection of light
D the diffraction of light
14
15
11
12
reflection
diffraction
B
D
refraction
interference
A
C
16
24
Reflection
Interference
B
D
Refraction
Diffraction
Figure 1
Figure 2
..
(ii)
..
(iii) name a physical quantity is unchanged .
(1m)
..
(b) Relate your answer in (a)(i) and (a)(ii) to
deduce a wave phenomenon.(1m)
B
D
Interference
Reflection
(c)
B
C
D
19
Diffraction
Refraction
23
25
(c)
Edge of a obstacle
(d)
Small obstacle
Diffraction of waves
The spreading or bending of waves as they pass through
an aperture or round the edge of a barrier.
The amount the wave bends depends on the _________
of the aperture or barrier. The smaller the aperture by
comparison , the more wave bends.
When the diffraction of a wave happened , the
______________ ,the ______________ and the
_____________ do not change but the _____________ of
the waves decrease.
The ____________________ and the ____________of
the wave change.
Diffraction of water waves
To investigate the diffraction of water waves an obstacle
is placed at the centre of a ripple tank..
The following figure shows two examples pattern of the
diffraction of the water waves.
26
The procedure :
Method of controlling the manipulated variable:
The width of the slit is recorded, a is 1 mm
The light beam from the source is directed towards the
slit..
method of measuring the responding variable.
The wide of the middle bright fringe = x is measured by
using a metre rule.
The experiment is repeated by 2mm, 3mm,4mm, and
5mm for different widths of slit.
Tabulate the data:
a(mm)
x(mm)
Analysis the data:
Plot the graph x against a
27
Frequency
increase
decrease
unchanged
Wavelength
increase
decrease
unchanged
TUTORIAL 6.5
1
28
Refraction
Diffraction
B
D
Interference
Reflection
Refraction
Diffraction
B
D
Interference
Reflection
10
B
D
Interference
Reflection
Refraction
Diffraction
B
C
11
29
( 5 marks)
.. interference
.................................. is a point at which
...interference occurs.
16
Interference of waves
When two or more travel in the same or different
directions in a given space, variations in the size of the
resulting disturbance occur at points where the meet or
overlap.
Interference is the __________________ of two waves
originating from two coherent sources.
Two waves are in coherent if they are of the _________
frequency, same amplitude and in phase (_______ phase)
There are two types of interference :
(a) Constructive interference occurs when the
__________ or troughs of both waves coincide
to produce a wave with maximum amplitude.
(b) Destructive interference occurs when the crests
of one wave coincide with the trough of the other
waves to produce a wave with _________
amplitude.
Interference of the waves is a result or obeys the
principle of _________________.
.. interference
.................................. is a point at which
...interference occurs.
(c)
Principle of superposition
Principle of superposition state that When two waves
move simultaneously and coincide at a point the
_________ of the displacements at that point is equal to
the sum of the displacements of the individual waves by
vector method.
30
.. interference
.................................. is a point at which
...interference occurs
Interference of water waves
To produce the interference pattern of the water waves in
a ripple tank we can use:
(a) Two dippers operated from the same motor,
Or
(b) A plane water waves passing through two slits.
3.
31
7.
As a increases , x decreases
The experiment to investigate the relationship
between the distance between to coherent sources
and the distance between two consecutive node lines
Where , =
a=
Hypothesis:
The longer distance between two consecutive node lines
the shorter distance between to coherent sources .
Aim of the experiment :
To investigate the relationship between the distance
between to coherent sources and the distance between
two consecutive node lines
Variables in the experiment:
Manipulated variable: the distance between to coherent
sources
Responding variable: the distance between two
consecutive node lines
Fixed variable: frequency of vibrator or the wavelength
List of apparatus and materials:
Ripple tank, lamp, motor ,wooden bar , power supply
,white paper , spherical dippers ,metre rule and
mechanical stroboscope.
Arrangement of the apparatus:
x=
D=
How to change the pattern of interference of waves?
The pattern of interference depends on the distances
between two consecutive nodes or antinode lines , x.
How to change x ?
From the formula = a x
D
Hence x = D
a
Conclusion : As increases , x increases (a, D fix)
As D increases , x increases (a, fix)
As a increases , x decreases (D, fix)
As increases , x increases
The procedure:
Method of controlling the manipulated variable
By using a metre rule , the distance between two dippers
is measured , a is 1 mm.
32
Solution
or one wavelength.
The formula for interference of light waves is,
= ax
D
33
The procedure :
Method of controlling the manipulated variable
A yellow filter is placed between the light source and the
slits.
The source of light is switched on.
The interference pattern formed on the screen is
observed and drawn.
Method of measuring the responding variable.
By using a metre rule the distance across 6 consecutive
bright fringes is measured.
The distance between two consecutive bright fringes is
calculated , x = L
5
The experiment is repeated by using green, blue, indigo
and violet for different wavelength of light.
Tabulate the data:
(mm)
x(mm)
Analysis the data: Plot the graph x against
34
= ax
D
Where,
= wavelength of sound waves
a = distance between two loudspeakers
x = distance between two successive loud
regions or quiet region.
D = distance between the listener from the
loudspeaker.
Example 3
The procedure :
Method of controlling the manipulated variable
By using a metre rule the distance between the listener
from the loudspeaker is measured, D is 2m
The audio-frequency generator is switched on.
Method of measuring the responding variable
The listener is requested to walk in a straight path and the
distance between two successive loud regions,x is
measured by using a metre rule.
The experiment is repeated by using 3m, 4m,5m and 6m
for different distances between the listener from the
loudspeaker
Solution:
35
TUTORIAL 6.6
1
36
C
9
W and X
Y and Z
B
D
X and Z
W and Y
What is the length of the monochromatic light ?
A
C
E
10
________
11
A
C
8
phase
amplitude
B
D
colour
intensity
12
37
5x10-7 m
7.5x10-6 m
2.4 x 10 - 7 m
5.0 x 10 - 7 m
4.0 x 10 - 7 m
B
D
4.2 x 10 - 7 m
6.0 x 10 - 7 m
B
D
1x 10-7 m
2.5 x10-6 m
5 x 10 - 8 m
width of slit
colour of light is used
intensity of the source of light is used
16
1.25 m
2.00 m
4.50 m
B
D
1.50 m
3.00 m
red
blue
green
green
blue
red
blue
red
green
green
red
blue
38
17
Producing sounds
Sound waves are ____________l waves that are
transmitted through almost any substance i.e solid , liquid
or gas.
The waves are produced by any mechanism which
produces compressional _____________ of the
surrounding medium. Some examples are the vibrating
string of a guitar, exploding gas in firecracker and the
vibrating diaphragm of a loudspeaker.
Vibrations in a vacuum
Sound ____________ travel through a vacuum because
in a vacuum there is no material to transmit the
compressions. A common demonstration of this to show
that is a ringing bell cannot be heard if the bell is in a
vacuum chamber. The bell is vibrating , but there is no
surrounding material to carry the vibration to our ears.
Similarly we cannot hear the nuclear explosions on the
sun because there is no medium in space. Astronauts
cannot speak to each other on the moon without using
radio waves, because there is no air on the moon through
which sound waves can travel.
17
39
40
d=vxt
2
(4) In modern fishing trawlers, echo -sounding
Produces SONAR ( Sound Navigation and
Ranging) is used to detect shoals of fish. The
equipment can detect the reflected pulse from
the shoal, and work out its position and depth
(5) Geologists also use echo sounding methods
to locate boundaries between rock layers far
below the surface. This is useful, for example in
finding places where it might worth drilling for
oil. A small explosion on the surface sends a
sound wave downwards into the Earth , and
some of the sound is reflected from the
boundaries between rock layers. The detector
measures the time interval between the sound
and the echoes. From this, the depth of the
rock layers can be measured.
Example 1
A Sonar signal sent vertically downwards from a ship is
reflected from the ocean floor and detected by a
microphone on the keel 0.8 s after transmission . If speed
of sound in water is 1 500 ms-1, what is the depth of the
ocean?
Solution
Example 2
B
Solution
C
D
6
A
B
C
D
TUTORIAL 6.7
1
Is a longitudinal waves
Is a mechanical waves
Can travel through a vacuum
Produce from the compressions and
rarefactions of the air molecules
B
D
Water
Water
Air
Steel
Fastest
Steel
Air
Steel
Air
Air
Oxygen
Aluminium
Iron
Lead
Vacuum
Steel
Slowest
Air
Steel
Water
Water
Substance
Speed of
sound
waves/ ms-1
330
320
5 100
5 000
1 200
Density of
substance / kg m-3
1.29
1.43
2 710
7 870
11 300
A
B
C
D
Water
Air
B
C
D
42
10
C
D
14
12
A
B
11
15
1 Hz - 20 Hz
20 Hz - 20 kHz
20 kHz - 200 kHz
1 000 kHz 20 000 kHz
100x10
A
B
C
D
16
13
43
1x103
10x103
17
100
204 m
340 m
816 m
B
D
283 m
408 m
375 m
1 500 m
6 000 m
B
D
750 m
3 000 m
330 m
990 m
3 960 m
B
D
660 m
1 980 m
18
44
Sources
Detector :
Special
Properties :
Uses
Detector :
Special
Properties :
Uses
Sources
very penetrating
very dangerous causes cancer and
mutation
to kill cancerous growth
to find flaws in metal castings
to sterilise equipment
to control pest in agriculture
Detector :
Special
Properties :
(2) X-ray
Uses
Sources
Detector :
Special
Properties :
Uses
X-ray tubes
photographic film, Fluorescent
screen
very penetrating
very dangerous , damage to cells
to take X-ray picture;
Radiography
to treat skin disorders
to study crystal structures
to scan baggage
to scan cracks in building structures
to detect art forgeries
Detector :
Special
Properties :
45
Uses
B
C
D
2
microwave transmitter ,
microwave ovens
4
Detector :
Special
Properties :
Uses
Sources
Detector :
Special
Properties :
Uses
Ultra-violet radiation
Infra red rafiation
Radio wave
Microwave
Electromagnetic wave
I
U
R
X
V
Infra-red radiation
Ultra-violet radiation
Radio wave
X-ray
Light wave
TUTORIAL 6.8
1
White light
Ultra-violet radiation
Radio wave
Sub-sonic wave
X-ray
Infra-red radiation
Radio wave
Ultrasonic wave
(6) Microwave
Sources
Sound wave
Radio wave
Light wave
A
C
Microwave
46
X,V,R,U,I
V,R,I,U,X
B
D
R,U,I,X,V
R,I,V,U,X
Red light
Transverse wave
Low speed
Long wavelength
Cannot travels
through vacuum
14
10
X-ray
Longitudinal
wave
High speed
Short wavelength
Can travels
through vacuum
13
Microwaves
B
Ultra-violet radiation D
15
Sound waves
X-ray
X-ray
gamma rays
ultraviolet rays
infrared rays
A
B
C
D
12
Bulb
Toaster
Hair drier
Microwave oven
Microwave
Radio wave
Red light
Sound
Red light
Infra-red
Sound
Ultra-violet
16
A loudspeaker
A television set
A camera
A hand phone
47
Radio wave
Microwave
Light wave
Sound wave
Infra-red
Light
Radio
Ultra-violet
17
Radio wave
Ultra violet
Infra red
Sound wave
18
48