BT0072 Computer Networks - 1

Computer Networking
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Copy Milan K Antony | milankantony@gmail.com | http://solveditpapers.blogspot.in/
Write about ISO OSI model.
The ISO (International Standards Organization) has created a
layered model called the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) model to

describe defined layers in a network operating system. The purpose
of the layers is to provide clearly defined functions to improve
internetwork connectivity between computer manufacturing
companies. Each layer has a standard defined input and a standard

defined output. Understanding the function of each layer is
instrumental in understanding data
whether Local, Metropolitan or Wide.
communication within networks
There are 7 Layers of the OSI model:

7. Application Layer (Top Layer)
6. Presentation Layer
5. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
3. Network Layer
2. Data Link Layer
1. Physical Layer (Bottom Layer
1 Application layer:
This layer provides a means for the user to access information on the
network through an application. Many user applications that need to
communicate over the network interact with the Application layer
protocol directly. The user applications are not part of OSI
Application layer, use the networking services offered by the
networking protocol suite. Application layer functions typically include

identifying communication partners, and determining availability of
required resources. Some examples of application layer implementations

include Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
2 Presentation layer:
Presentation layer converts local host computer data representations
into a standard network format for transmission on the network. On
the receiving side, it changes the network format into the appropriate
host computers format so that data can be utilized independent of
the host computer. ASCII and EBCDIC conversions, cryptography, and

the like are handled here.
Examples of Presentation layer coding and conversion schemes include

common data representation formats, conversion of character
representation formats, common data compression schemes, and

common data encryption schemes.
Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with a

particular protocol stack. Some well-known standards for video
include QuickTime and Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG).
QuickTime is an Apple Computer specification for video and audio, and

MPEG is a standard for video compression and coding.
3. Session layer:
The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication
sessions. Communication sessions consist of service requests and
service responses that occur between applications located in different

network devices. These requests and responses are coordinated by
protocols implemented at the session layer. Some examples of
session-layer implementations include AppleTalks Zone Information
Protocol (ZIP), and Decent Phase Session Control Protocol (SCP).

4.Transport layer:
Transport layer is responsible for providing reliable service between
the hosts. Upper layer datagrams are broken down into manageable
datagrams and then appropriate header information (such as sequence
number, port number, etc.) is added to the datagram before passing

it on to the Network layer. Two frequently used transport protocols
are the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and the UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).
Important features of Transport layer:

Transport layer ensures reliable service.
Breaks the message (from sessions layer) into smaller
datagrams, and appends appropriate unit header information.
Responsible for communicating with the Session layer

Important features of TCP/UDP:
TCP/IP widely used protocol for Transport/Network layers
TCP: (Transport Control Protocol) TCP ensures that a packet

has reached its intended destination by using an
acknowledgement. If not, it retransmits the lost messages.

Hence, TCP is called a connection oriented protocol.
UDP (Universal Data gram Protocol): UDP simply transmits

packets over the internet. It does not wait for an
acknowledgement. It is the responsibility of upper layer
protocols to ensure that the information had reached the
intended partner(s). Hence, UDP is often called connectionless

protocol.
Application programs that do not need connection-oriented

protocol generally use UDP.
5. Network layer:
Network layer is responsible for the routing of packets through the
entire network. The layer uses logical addressing for this purpose.
Note that the physical address (like MAC address) keeps changing
from hop to hop when a packet travels from source to destination.

As a result, an address that doesnt change is required to ensure
continuity between hops. This is nothing but logical address. For IP
networks, IP address is the logical address; and for Novell network,

IPX address is the logical address, and so on. This layer also
provides for congestion control, and accounting information for the

network. IP (Internet Protocol) is an example of a network layer
protocol.
6. Data link layer:

Data link layer provides delivery of information frames between
communicating partners. This layer is responsible for flow regulation,
error detection and correction, and framing of bits for transmission.

The network data frame is made up of checksum, source address,
destination address, and the data itself. The largest frame size that
can be sent is known as the maximum transmission Unit (MTU).
Important features of Data link layer:
Assembles bits into frames, making them ready for transmission

over the network.
Provides error detection, and correction to transmitted

frames. If the checksum is not correct, it asks for
retransmission. (Send a control message).
Consists of two sub layers:
Logical Link Control (LLC): Defines how data is transferred over
the cable and provides data link service to the higher layers.
Medium Access Control (MAC): Controls media access by regulating
the communicating nodes using pre-defined set of rules. (i.e.

Token passing, Ethernet [CSMA/CD] all have MAC sub-layer
protocol).
Different Data link layer protocols define different network and

protocol characteristics, including physical addressing, network
topology, error notification, sequencing of frames, and flow control.

Physical addressing (as opposed to logical addressing) defines how
devices are addressed at the data link layer. The protocols used in
Data link layer are SLIP, PPP, and CSLP.
7. Physical layer:
This is the bottom-most layer of the OSI model. The Physical layer
handles the bit-level communications across the physical medium. The
physical medium could be made up of wired electrical signals, or light,

or radio (wireless) signals. Physical layer specifications define
characteristics such as media, data rates, maximum transmission

distances, and physical connectors.
Some of the important standards that deal with physical layer

specifications are:
RS-232(for serial communication lines), X.21, EIA 232, and G730.

Physical layer and Data link layer implementations can be categorized
as either LAN or WAN specifications.
2.Describe the architecture and usage of ISDN.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of
communications standards for simultaneous digital transmission of
voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional
circuits of the public switched telephone network.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, which also
provides access to packet switched networks, designed to allow

digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone
copper wires, resulting in potentially better voice quality than an

analog phone can provide. It offers circuit-switched connections
(for either voice or data), and packet-switched connections (for
data), in increments of 64 kilobit/s. A major market application for

ISDN in some countries is Internet access, where ISDN typically
provides a maximum of 128 kbit/s in both upstream and downstream

directions. ISDN B-channels can be bonded to achieve a greater
data rate, typically 3 or 4 BRIs (6 to 8 64 kbit/s channels) are
bonded.
ISDN should not be mistaken for its use with a specific protocol,
such as Q.931 whereby
ISDN is employed as the network, data-link
and physical layers in the context of the OSI
model. In a broad
sense ISDN can be considered a suite of digital services existing on

layers
1, 2, and 3 of the OSI model. ISDN is designed to
provide access to voice and data services
simultaneously.
Integrated services refers to ISDNs ability to deliver at
minimum two simultaneous connections, in any combination of data,

voice, video, and fax, over a single line. Multiple
devices can be
attached to the line, and used as needed. That means an ISDN line
can take
care of most peoples complete communications needs at a
much higher transmission rate, without forcing the purchase of

multiple analog phone line.
The entry level interface to ISDN is the Basic(s) Rate Interface
(BRI), a 128 kbit/s service delivered over a pair of standard
telephone copper wires. The 144 kbit/s rate is broken down into two
64 kbit/s bearer channels (B channels) and one 16 kbit/s signaling
channel (D channel or delta channel)The other ISDN service available
is the Primary Rate Interface (PRI), which is carried over an E1 (2048

kbit/s) in most parts of the world. An E1 is 30 B channels of 64
kbit/s, one D channel of 64 kbit/s and a timing and alarm channel

of 64 kbit/s. In North America PRI service is delivered on one or

more T1s (sometimes referred to as 23B+D) of 1544 kbit/s (24
channels). A T1 has 23 B channels and 1 D channel for signalling
(Japan uses a circuit called a J1, which is similar to a T1).The bearer
channel (B) is a standard 64 kbit/s voice channel of 8 bits sampled at

8 kHz with G.711 encoding. B-Channels can also be used to carry data,
since they are nothing more than digital channels.Bharat Sanchar Nigam
Limited, the State owned and largest communication service provider,
offers both ISDN BRI and PRI services across the country. With the
introduction of broadband technology, the load on bandwidth is being

absorbed by ADSL. ISDN continues to be an important backup
network for point-to-point leased line customers such as banks,

Eseva Centers [1], Life Insurance Corporation of India, and SBI
ATMs.
3. Discuss various LAN protocols.

Local Area Network (LAN) is a data communications network
connecting terminals, computers and printers within a building or other

geographically limited areas. These devices could be connected
through wired cables or wireless links. Ethernet, Token Ring and

Wireless LAN using IEEE 802.11 are examples of standard LAN
technologies.
1.Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection, a set of rules
determining how network devices respond when two devices attempt to

use a data channel simultaneously (called a collision). Standard
Ethernet networks use CSMA/CD to physically monitor the traffic on
the line at participating stations. If no transmission is taking place at

the time, the particular station can transmit. If two stations attempt
to transmit simultaneously, this causes a collision, which is detected by

all participating stations. After a random time interval, the stations
that collided attempt to transmit again. If another collision occurs,
the time intervals from which the random waiting time is selected are
increased step by step. This is known as exponential back off.
CSMA/CD is a type of contention protocol.
Networks using the
CSMA/CD procedure are simple to implement but do not have
deterministic transmission characteristics. The CSMA/CD method is
internationally standardized in IEEE 802.3 and ISO 8802.3.

1-Persistent CSMA
Sense the channel.If busy, keep listening to the channel and
transmit immediately when the channel becomes idle.If idle, transmit

a packet immediately.If collision occurs,Wait a random amount of
time and start over again. The protocol is called 1-persistent
because the host transmits with a probability of 1 whenever it finds

the channel idle.
Non-Persistent CSMA
Sense the channel .If busy, wait a random amount of time and
sense the channel again If idle, transmit a packet immediately if
collision occurs wait a random amount of time and start all over
again
Trade of
B and C become ready in the middle of As
transmission, 1-Persistent:
C probably do not collide
of As transmission,
B and C collide
If only B becomes ready in the middle
1-Persistent: B succeeds as soon as A ends
Non-Persistent: B may have to wait

Persistent CSMA
Non-Persistent: B and
off between 1- and Non-
P-Persistent CSMA
Optimal strategy: use P-Persistent CSMA Assume channels are
slotted One slot = contention period (i.e., one round trip
propagation delay)
1. Sense the channel
If channel is idle,
transmit a packet with probability p if a packet was transmitted, go

to step 2
if a packet was not transmitted, wait one slot and go
to step 1 If channel is busy, wait one slot and go to step 1. 2.

Detect collisions If a collision occurs, wait a random amount of
time and go to step 1 Consider p-persistent CSMA with p=0.5 When

a host senses an idle channel, it will only send a packet with 50%
probability If it does not send, it tries again in the next slot.
4. Explain the concept of framing in Data Link Layer and its
importance in data
Communication.
The Data Link Layer is concerned with local delivery of frames

between devices on the same LAN. Data Link frames, as these
protocol data units are called, do not cross the boundaries of a local
network. Inter-network routing and global addressing are higher layer

functions, allowing Data Link protocols to focus on local delivery,
addressing, and media arbitration. In this way, the Data Link layer is
analogous to a neighborhood traffic cop; it endeavors to arbitrate
between parties contending for access to a medium.
When devices attempt to use a medium simultaneously, frame collisions

occur. Data Link protocols specify how devices detect and recover
from such collisions, but it does not prevent them from happening.
Delivery of frames by layer 2 devices is affected through the use of
unambiguous hardware addresses. A frames header contains source
and destination addresses that indicate which device originated the
frame and which device is expected to receive and process it. In
contrast to the hierarchical and routable addresses of the network

layer, layer 2 addresses are flat, meaning that no part of the
address can be used to identify the logical or physical group to which

the address belongs.
When a frame needed to be sent, the bridge could look up the
destination MAC address in the bridge table, and know which port
should be sent out. The capability to send data to only the correct
host was a huge advance in switching because collisions became much
less likely. If the destination MAC address wasnt found in the bridge
table, the switch would simply flood it out all ports. Thats the only
way to find where a host actually lives for the first time, so as you
can see, flooding is an important concept in switching. It turns out

to be quite necessary in routing, too.
5. Discuss the IEEE 802.11 Standard.

In 1997 the IEEE adopted IEEE Std. 802.11-1997, the first wireless LAN
(WLAN) standard. This standard defines the media access control
(MAC) and physical (PHY) layers for a LAN with wireless connectivity.
It addresses local area networking where the connected devices
communicate over the air to other devices that are within close
proximity to each other. This paper provides an overview of the

802.11 architecture and the different topologies incorporated to
accomodate the unique characteristics of the IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN

standard.
The standard is similar in most respects to the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet

standard. Specifically, the 802.11 standard addresses:
Functions required for an 802.11 compliant device to operate
either in a peer-to-peer fashion or integrated with an existing

wired LAN
Operation of the 802.11 device within possibly overlapping 802.11

wireless LANs and the mobility of this device between multiple
wireless LANs
MAC level access control and data delivery services to allow

upper layers of the 802.11 network
Several physical layer signaling techniques and interfaces
Privacy and security of user data being transferred over the

wireless media
The difference between a portable and mobile station is that a
portable station moves from point to point but is only used at a

fixed point. Mobile stations access the LAN during movement.
When two or more stations come together to communicate with each
other, they form a Basic Service Set (BSS). The minimum BSS consists
of two stations. 802.11 LANs use the BSS as the standard building
block. A BSS that stands alone and is not connected to a base is
called an Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS) or is referred to as
an Ad-Hoc Network. An ad-hoc network is a network where stations

communicate only peer to peer. There is no base and no one gives
permission to talk. Mostly these networks are spontaneous and can be
set up rapidly. Ad-Hoc or IBSS networks are characteristically limited

both temporally and spatially.
Extended Service Set (ESS)
Station Services the 802.11 standard defines services for providing
functions among stations. Station services are implemented within all
stations on an 802.11 WLAN (including access points). The main thrust

behind station services is to provide security and data delivery

services for the WLAN.
Authentication -Because wireless LANs have limited physical security to

prevent unauthorized access, 802.11 defines authentication services to
control access to the WLAN. The goal of authentication service is to

provide access control equal to a wired LAN.
The authentication service provides a mechanism for one station to
identify another station. Without this proof of identity, the station is

not allowed to use the WLAN for data delivery. All 802.11 stations,
whether they are part of an independent BSS or ESS network, must
use the authentication service prior to communicating with another
station.
IEEE 802.11 defines two types of authentication services.

6. Write about TCP/IP Protocol suite.
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core
protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. TCP is one of the two
original components of the suite (the other being Internet Protocol,

or IP), so the entire suite is commonly referred to as TCP/IP.
Whereas IP handles lower-level transmissions from computer to
computer as a message makes its way across the Internet, TCP
operates at a higher level, concerned only with the two end systems,
for example a Web browser and a Web server. In particular, TCP
provides reliable, ordered delivery of a stream of bytes from a
program on one computer to another program on another computer.

Besides the Web, other common applications of TCP include e-mail
and file transfer. Among other management tasks, TCP controls
segment size, flow control, and data exchange rate
The TCP/IP model consists of four layers (RFC 1122). From lowest
to highest, these are the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the
Transport Layer, and the Application Layer
TCP provides a communication service at an intermediate level
between an application program and the Internet Protocol (IP). That
is, when an application program desires to send a large chunk of data

across the Internet using IP, instead of breaking the data into IP-
sized pieces and issuing a series of IP requests, the software can

issue a single request to TCP and let TCP handle the IP details.
IP works by exchanging pieces of information called packets. A packet

is a sequence of bytes and consists of a header followed by a body.
The header describes the packets destination and, optionally, the
routers to use for forwarding until it arrives at its final destination.

The body contains the data IP is transmitting.
TCP is used extensively by many of the Internets most popular

applications, including the World Wide Web (WWW), E-mail, File
Transfer Protocol, Secure Shell, peer-to-peer file sharing, and some

streaming media applications.
TCP consists of a set of rules: for the protocol, that are used with
the Internet Protocol, and for the IP, to send data in a form of
message units between computers over the Internet. At the same
time that IP takes care of handling the actual delivery of the data,
TCP takes care of keeping track of the individual units of data
transmission, called segments, that a message is divided into for
efficient routing through the network. For example, when an HTML file
is sent from a Web server, the TCP software layer of that server
divides the sequence of bytes of the file into segments and forwards
them individually to the IP software layer (Internet Layer). The
Internet Layer encapsulates each TCP segment into an IP packet by
adding a header that includes (among other data) the destination IP

address. Even though every packet has the same destination address,
they can be routed on different paths through the network. When the
client program on the destination computer receives them, the TCP
layer (Transport Layer) reassembles the individual segments and
ensures they are correctly ordered and error free as it streams them
to an application.
.
7. Discuss various transmission and switching techniques.
Different types of switching techniques are employed to provide
communication between two computers. These are : circuit switching,

message switching and packet switching.
Circuit Switching
In this technique, first the complete physical connection between two

computers is established and then data are transmitted from the
source computer to the destination computer. That is, when a
computer places a telephone call, the switching equipment within the

telephone system seeks out a physical copper path all the way from
sender telephone to the receivers telephone. The important property

of this switching technique is to setup an end-to-end path
(connection) between computer before any data can be sent.

Message Switching
In this technique, the source computer sends data or the message to

the switching office first, which stores the data in its buffer. It then
looks for a free link to another switching office and then sends the
data to this office. This process is continued until the data are
delivered to the destination computers. Owing to its working principle,

it is also known as store and forward. That is, store first (in
switching office), forward later, one jump at a time.
Packet Switching
With message switching, there is no limit on block size, in contrast,
packet switching places a tight upper limit on block size. A fixed size
of packet which can be transmitted across the network is specified.
Another point of its difference from message switching is that data
packets are stored on the disk in message switching whereas in packet

switching, all the packets of fixed size are stored in main memory.
This improves the performance as the access time (time taken to
access a data packet) is reduced, thus, the throughput (measure of

performance) of the network is improved.
Data transmission, digital transmission or digital communications is
the physical transfer of data (a digital bit stream) over a point-to-
point or point-to-multipoint communication channels. Examples of such

channels are copper wires, optical fibres, wireless communication
channels, and storage media. The data is often represented as an

electro-magnetic signal, such as an electrical voltage, radiowave,
microwave or infra-red signal.
While analog communications is the transfer of continuously varying
information signal, digital communications is the transfer of discrete

messages. The messages are either represented by a sequence of
pulses by means of a line code (baseband transmission), or by a

limited set of continuously varying wave forms (passband
transmission), using a digital modulation method. According to the
most common definition of digital signal, both baseband and passband
signals representing bit-streams are considered as digital transmission,

while an alternative definition only considers the baseband signal as
digital, and the passband transmission as a form of digital-to-analog

conversion.
Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data
source, for example a computer or a keyboard. It may also be an
analog signal such as a phone call or a video signal, digitized into a
bit-stream for example using pulse-code modulation (PCM) or more

advanced source coding (data compression) schemes. This source
coding and decoding is carried out by codec equipment.
Asynchronous transmission uses start and stop bits to signify the
beginning bit[] ASCII character would actually be transmitted using 10

bits e.g.: A 0100 0001 would become 1 0100 0001 0. The extra one
(or zero depending on parity bit) at the start and end of the
transmission tells the receiver first that a character is coming and
secondly that the character has ended. This method of transmission is
used when data is sent intermittently as opposed to in a solid stream.

In the previous example the start and stop bits are in bold. The
start and stop bits must be of opposite polarity. This allows the
receiver to recognize when the second packet of information is being

sent.
Synchronous transmission uses no start and stop bits but instead
synchronizes transmission speeds at both the receiving and sending end

of the transmission using clock signal(s) built into each
component[vague]. A continual stream of data is then sent between the

two nodes. Due to there being no start and stop bits the data
transfer rate is quicker although more errors will occur, as the clocks
will eventually get out of sync, and the receiving device would have
the wrong time that had been agreed in protocol (computing) for
sending/receiving data, so some bytes could become corrupted (by

losing bits)[ Ways to get around this problem include re-
synchronization of the clocks and use of check digits to ensure the

byte is correctly interpreted and received.
8. Discuss IEEE 802 standards for LANs.

IEEE 802 refers to a family of IEEE standards dealing with local
area networks and metropolitan area networks. More specifically, the
IEEE 802 standards are restricted to networks carrying variable-size

packets. (By contrast, in cell-based networks data is transmitted in
short, uniformly sized units called cells. Isochronous networks, where

data is transmitted as a steady stream of octets, or groups of
octets, at regular time intervals, are also out of the scope of this
standard.) The number 802 was simply the next free number IEEE
could assign, though 802 is sometimes associated with the date the
first meeting was held February 1980. The services and protocols
specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers (Data Link and
Physical) of the seven-layer OSI networking reference model. In
fact, IEEE 802 splits the OSI Data Link Layer into two sub-layers
named Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC) ,
so that the layers can be listed like this: Data link layer
Sublayer
MAC Sublayer
Physical layer
LLC
The IEEE 802 family of standards is maintained by the IEEE 802

LAN/MAN Standards Committee (LMSC). The most widely used
standards are for the Ethernet family, Token Ring, Wireless LAN,
Bridging and Virtual Bridged LANs. An individual Working Group
provides the focus for each area.
9. Discuss the concept of Error Detection and Correction

techniques.
In information theory and coding theory with applications in
computer science and telecommunication, error detection and
correction or error control are techniques that enable reliable
delivery of digital data over unreliable communication channels. Many
communication channels are subject to channel noise, and thus errors
may be introduced during transmission from the source to a receiver.

Error detection techniques allow detecting such errors, while error
correction enables reconstruction of the original data.
The general definitions of the terms are as follows:
Error detection is the detection of errors caused by noise or

other impairments during transmission from the transmitter to
the receiver.[1]
Error correction is the detection of errors and reconstruction

of the original, error-free data.
Error correction may generally be realized in two different ways:
Automatic repeat request (ARQ) (sometimes also referred to as

backward error correction): This is an error control technique
whereby an error detection scheme is combined with requests for

retransmission of erroneous data. Every block of data received
is checked using the error detection code used, and if the check
fails, retransmission of the data is requested this may be done
repeatedly, until the data can be verified.
Forward error correction (FEC): The sender encodes the data
using an error-correcting code (ECC) prior to transmission. The

additional information (redundancy) added by the code is used
by the receiver to recover the original data. In general, the
reconstructed data is what is deemed the "most likely" original

data.
ARQ and FEC may be combined, such that minor errors are corrected
without retransmission, and major errors are corrected via a request
for retransmission: this is called hybrid automatic repeat-request
(HARQ).
A repetition code is a coding scheme that repeats the bits across a
channel to achieve error-free communication. Given a stream of data
to be transmitted, the data is divided into blocks of bits. Each block

is transmitted some predetermined number of times. For example, to
send the bit pattern "1011", the four-bit block can be repeated three
times, thus producing "1011 1011 1011". However, if this twelve-bit
pattern was received as "1010 1011 1011" where the first block is unlike
the other two it can be determined that an error has occurred.
A parity bit is a bit that is added to a group of source bits to
ensure that the number of set bits (i.e., bits with value 1) in the
outcome is even or odd. It is a very simple scheme that can be used

to detect single or any other odd number (i.e., three, five, etc.)
of errors in the output. An even number of flipped bits will make
the parity bit appear correct even though the data is erroneous
A checksum of a message is a modular arithmetic sum of message
code words of a fixed word length (e.g., byte values). The sum may
be negated by means of a one's-complement prior to transmission to

detect errors resulting in all-zero messages.
A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is a single-burst-error-detecting

cyclic code and non-secure hash function designed to detect
accidental changes to digital data in computer networks. It is
characterized by specification of a so-called generator polynomial,
which is used as the divisor in a polynomial long division over a finite
field, taking the input data as the dividend, and where the remainder
becomes the result.
Applications
The Internet
In a typical TCP/IP stack, error control is performed at multiple
levels:
Deep-space telecommunications
Satellite broadcasting (DVB)
The demand for satellite transponder bandwidth continues to grow,
fueled by the desire to deliver television (including new channels and

High Definition TV) and IP data. Transponder availability and
bandwidth constraints have limited this growth, because transponder
capacity is determined by the selected modulation scheme and Forward

error correction (FEC) rate.
Data storage
Error detection and correction codes are often used to improve the
reliability of data storage media.
A "parity track" was present on the first magnetic tape data storage
in 1951. The "Optimal Rectangular Code" used in group code recording

tapes not only detects but also corrects single-bit errors.
10. Write about the Point to Point Protocol.

In networking, the Point-to-Point Protocol, or PPP, is a data link
protocol commonly used to establish a direct connection between two

networking nodes. It can provide connection authentication,
transmission encryption privacy, and compression.PPP is used over

many types of physical networks including serial cable, phone line,
trunk line, cellular telephone, specialized radio links, and fiber optic
links such as SONET. Most Internet service providers (ISPs) use PPP
for customer dial-up access to the Internet. Two encapsulated forms

of PPP, Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE) and Pointto-Point Protocol over ATM (PPPoA), are used by Internet Service
Providers (ISPs) to connect Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Internet
service.PPP is commonly used as a data link layer protocol for
connection over synchronous and asynchronous circuits, where it has

largely superseded the older, non-standard Serial Line Internet
Protocol (SLIP) and telephone company mandated standards (such as

Link Access Protocol, Balanced (LAPB) in the X.25 protocol suite).
PPP was designed to work with numerous network layer protocols,
including Internet Protocol (IP), Novell's Internetwork Packet
Exchange (IPX), NBF and AppleTalk.PPP is also used over broadband

connections. RFC 2516 describes Point-to-Point Protocol over
Ethernet (PPPoE), a method for transmitting PPP over Ethernet that

is sometimes used with DSL. RFC 2364 describes Point-to-Point
Protocol over ATM (PPPoA), a method for transmitting PPP over
ATM Adaptation Layer 5 (AAL5), which is also sometimes used with
DSL.The previous section introduced the use of LCP options to meet

specific WAN connection requirements. PPP may include the following
LCP options:
Authentication - Peer routers exchange authentication messages. Two

authentication choices are Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) and
Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP). Authentication is

explained in the next section.
Compression - Increases the effective throughput on PPP connections

by reducing the amount of data in the frame that must travel across
the link. The protocol decompresses the frame at its destination. Two
compression protocols available in Cisco routers are Stacker and
Predictor.
Error detection - Identifies fault conditions. The Quality and Magic
Number options help ensure a reliable, loop-free data link. The Magic
Number field helps in detecting links that are in a looped-back
condition. Until the Magic-Number Configuration Option has been
successfully negotiated, the Magic-Number must be transmitted as

zero. Magic numbers are generated randomly at each end of the
connection.
Multilink - Cisco IOS Release 11.1 and later supports multilink PPP.
This alternative provides load balancing over the router interfaces
that PPP uses. Multilink PPP (also referred to as MLPPP, MP, MPPP,
MLP, or Multilink) provides a method for spreading traffic across
multiple distinct PPP connections.
IT Papers by MilanKAntony is licensed under a Creative Commons AttributionNonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Based on a work at http://solveditpapers.blogspot.com/.

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Computer Networking

Write about ISO OSI model.

The ISO (International Standards Organization) has created a

layered model called the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) model to

companies. Each layer has a standard defined input and a standard

whether Local, Metropolitan or Wide.

communication within networks

There are 7 Layers of the OSI model:

2. Data Link Layer

1. Physical Layer (Bottom Layer

Application layer, use the networking services offered by the

networking protocol suite. Application layer functions typically include

required resources. Some examples of application layer implementations

into a standard network format for transmission on the network. On

the host computer. ASCII and EBCDIC conversions, cryptography, and

Examples of Presentation layer coding and conversion schemes include

representation formats, common data compression schemes, and

Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with a

QuickTime is an Apple Computer specification for video and audio, and

service responses that occur between applications located in different

session-layer implementations include AppleTalks Zone Information

Protocol (ZIP), and Decent Phase Session Control Protocol (SCP).

datagrams and then appropriate header information (such as sequence

number, port number, etc.) is added to the datagram before passing

Important features of Transport layer:

Breaks the message (from sessions layer) into smaller

datagrams, and appends appropriate unit header information.

Responsible for communicating with the Session layer

Copy Milan K Antony | milankantony@gmail.com | http://solveditpapers.blogspot.in/

TCP/IP widely used protocol for Transport/Network layers

TCP: (Transport Control Protocol) TCP ensures that a packet

acknowledgement. If not, it retransmits the lost messages.

UDP (Universal Data gram Protocol): UDP simply transmits

acknowledgement. It is the responsibility of upper layer

protocols to ensure that the information had reached the

intended partner(s). Hence, UDP is often called connectionless

Application programs that do not need connection-oriented

from hop to hop when a packet travels from source to destination.

continuity between hops. This is nothing but logical address. For IP

networks, IP address is the logical address; and for Novell network,

provides for congestion control, and accounting information for the

6. Data link layer:

communicating partners. This layer is responsible for flow regulation,

error detection and correction, and framing of bits for transmission.

Copy Milan K Antony | milankantony@gmail.com | http://solveditpapers.blogspot.in/

Assembles bits into frames, making them ready for transmission

Provides error detection, and correction to transmitted

Consists of two sub layers:

Logical Link Control (LLC): Defines how data is transferred over

Medium Access Control (MAC): Controls media access by regulating

the communicating nodes using pre-defined set of rules. (i.e.

Different Data link layer protocols define different network and

topology, error notification, sequencing of frames, and flow control.

handles the bit-level communications across the physical medium. The

physical medium could be made up of wired electrical signals, or light,

characteristics such as media, data rates, maximum transmission

Some of the important standards that deal with physical layer

RS-232(for serial communication lines), X.21, EIA 232, and G730.

2.Describe the architecture and usage of ISDN.

communications standards for simultaneous digital transmission of

ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, which also

provides access to packet switched networks, designed to allow

copper wires, resulting in potentially better voice quality than an