Chapter 12

Chapter 12
Nuclear Energy
Lecture Outline:
I. Introduction to Nuclear Processes
Nuclear energy is the energy released by nuclear fission or fusion
A.
i. In the process of a nuclear reaction, a small amount of the mass of an atom is
transformed into a large amount of energy (i.e., 1lb of uranium can release as
much as energy as 7,300 metric tons of TNT)
ii. Today there are 440 commercial nuclear reactors in 31 countries around the
world
iii. In nuclear bombs, the energy from many atomic fissions is release all at once,
producing a tremendous surge of heat and power that destroys everything in
its vicinity
Atoms
and
Radioactivity
B.
i. Forms of a single element that differ in atomic mass are known as isotopes
ii. The emission of energetic particles or rays from unstable atomic nuclei is
called radioactive decay; each radioisotope has its own characteristic rate of
decay
Nuclear Fission
C.
i. The steps, from mining to disposal, of the uranium fuel used in nuclear power
plants are collectively called the nuclear fuel cycle
1. Uranium ore contains three isotopes: U-238, U-235 (used in
conventional fission reactions), U-234
2. Uranium ore (used in the nuclear reactors of conventional power
plants) is a nonrenewable resource; it must be refined (enrichment)
after mining to increase the concentration of fissionable U-235
ii. The fission of U-235 releases an enormous amount of heat, used to transform
water into steam the steam, in turn, is used to generate electricity
iii. How electricity is produced from conventional nuclear fission
1. A typical nuclear power plant has four main parts:
a. The reactor core where fission occurs; it contains the fuel
rods/fuel assemblies
b. The steam generator uses heat produced in the reactor core
is to produce steam from liquid water
c. The turbine uses steam to generate electricity
d. The condenser cools the steam, converting it back to a liquid
2. Typically three water circuits are used to heat the water, convert the
water to steam, and provide cool water to the condenser
3. A huge, steel reactor vessel surrounds the reactor core; it is designed to
prevent the accidental release of radiation into the environment
4. Additionally, the reactor vessel and the steam generator are placed in a
containment building, providing an additional line of defense against
accidental radiation leaks
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iv. Breeder reactors and mixed oxide fuel (MOX) for nuclear fission
1. Breeder nuclear fission converts U-238 into fissionable Pu-239
a. U-238 is not fissionable and is a waste product of conventional
nuclear fission
b. There are both safety and weapons proliferations concerns
associated with breeder fission
2. Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) is a reactor fuel that contains a combination
of uranium oxide and plutonium oxide
a. For MOX reactions, spent fuel from standard uranium-based
reactors is reprocessed
b. MOX is now used in about 30 European reactors compared
with the operation of only about 3 breeder reactors worldwide
II. Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy has less of an immediate environmental impact than fossil fuels, it
A.
emits fewer pollutants into the atmosphere, and does not produce CO2
Nuclear energy generates dangerous radioactive wastes (spent fuel, coolant fluids,
B.
gases) that must be carefully stored and disposed of, it is not climate neutral
(requiring substantial amounts of gasoline and diesel), and it is expensive to create
and run plants
Electricity deregulation caused several non-competitive nuclear power plants to shut
C.
down
Can nuclear energy decrease our reliance on foreign oil?
D.
i. Oil generates only about 3% of the electricity in the U.S.
ii. However, technological advances could change nuclear powers potential
contribution in the future (electric heat pumps, electric motor vehicles)
III. Safety Issues in Nuclear Power Plants
Meltdowns could occur, releasing dangerous levels of radiation into the environment
A.
While the probability of a major accident is low, the public perception of the risk is
B.
high
i. Nuclear power plants are involuntary and potentially catastrophic
ii. People are distrustful of the nuclear industry
iii. Consequences of an accident are drastic and life threatening (both short and
long term)
Three Mile Island (1979)
C.
i. Most serious nuclear reactor accident in the U.S. resulting from both human
and design errors
ii. A 50% meltdown of the reactor core took place; most of the radioactivity was
contained in the containment building
iii. No substantial damages or human casualties resulted; it took 12 years and 1
billion dollars to repair and reopen Three Mile Island
D.

Chernobyl (1986)
i. The worst accident ever to occur at a nuclear power plant; one and/or two
explosions ripped apart a nuclear reactor and expelled large quantities of
radioactive material into the atmosphere

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ii. Significant amounts of radioisotopes spread across Europe; over 170,000
people had to permanently abandon their homes
iii. Even 20 years later, much of the farmland and forests are so contaminated
they cannot be used for more than a century, and local peoples still cannot
drink the water or consume locally produced milk, fish, meat, fruits, or
vegetables
1. Mothers do not nurse their babies
2. The number of attributable deaths is estimated between 10,000 and
100,000
3. Even small doses of ionizing radiation can be harmful; nearly 400,000
adults and more than 1 million children currently receive government
aid for health problems related to Chernobyl
The link between nuclear energy and nuclear weapons
E.
i. U-235 and P-239 are the two fuels commonly used in atomic fission weapons
ii. 31 countries currently use nuclear energy to generate electricity; the
possession of nuclear power plants gives these countries access to the fuel
needed for nuclear weapons
IV. Radioactive wastes
Radioactive wastes are classified as either low-level or high-level
A.
In 2004, US Federal Courts decided that any permanent burial site must meet EPA
B.
standards for the next one million years; potential sites include
i. Stable rock formations deep in the ground
ii. Mausoleums built in remote locations
iii. Storage in Antarctic ice sheets
iv. Burial in the seabed
Radioactive wastes with relatively short half-lives
C.
i. U-235 may split in several ways, forming smaller radioactive atoms (i.e.,
krypton-85, strontium-90, cesium-137 all with relatively short half-lives)
ii. In 300 to 600 years they will have decayed to the point where they are safe
High-level
radioactive liquid waste
D.
i. These wastes are dangerously unstable and difficult to monitor; they must be
converted to solid form before they can be stored
ii. Solidifying liquid waste into solid glass or ceramic logs is known as
vitrification
Decommissioning nuclear power plants
E.
i. Nuclear power plants are licensed to operate for a maximum of 40 years
ii. Three options exist when a nuclear power plant is closed: storage,
entombment, and decommissioning
1. Storage the utility company guards it for 50 to 100 years (allowing
some radioactive materials to decay) until it is dismantled
2. Entombment permanently encases the entire power plant in concrete
for at least 1,000 years
3. Decommission dismantles an old nuclear power plant after it closes
iii. Worldwide, 107 nuclear power plants were permanently retired as of 2004 (23
in the U.S.); 143 operational plants were 25 years or older
V. Fusion: Nuclear Energy for the Future?

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In fusion, two lighter atomic nuclei are brought together under conditions of high heat
and pressure so that they combine, producing a larger nucleus (30mL of fusion fuel
has the energy equivalent of 266,000L of gasoline)
Isotopes of hydrogen are the fuel for fusion
B.
Supporters of nuclear energy view fusion as the best possible form of energy, both
C.
because its fuel (hydrogen) is available in virtually limitless supply and because it
produces no high-level radioactive waste
VI. The Future of Nuclear Power
Standardizing a new generation of nuclear reactors designed to be 10 times safer
A.
than current reactors could lower costs for nuclear power
Creating new fission reactors (i.e., PBMR pebble-bed modular reactors) are
B.
potentially much safer than the ones in current operation
More research and training is needed for nuclear engineers to safely design, build,
C.
and operate nuclear power plants
A.

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In-Class Activities:
Instructor Notes for In-Class Activity 1
Title:

Yucca Mountain and The Facts

Time:

5 10 Minutes prep; 40 60 minutes in class (or can assign research

between class periods)
None
None

Materials:
Handouts:
Procedures:

For Against Jury standard procedure. Randomly divide class into

three groups.
Statement: The following four facts are evidence that Yucca
Mountain should be opened as soon as possible.
1. Yucca Mountain is located on the Nevada Test Site, 100 miles
north of the City Las Vegas
2. There is already enough high level nuclear waste to cover a
football field 15 feet deep.
3. Terrorists could target un-stored nuclear waste
4. Recent earthquakes at Yucca Mountain have not been large
enough to cause any damage at the site.
Assign one group each to argue FOR or AGAINST the statement, and the
third group to serve as a JURY.
Each group should select a leader and a recorder.
The FOR group should research (not just think up!) information that
supports the statement. They should be explicit about their sources,
whether those are data, ethics, theories, or political positions. They
should then synthesize this into a five-minute verbal argument, to be
made before the full class.
The AGAINST group should do the same for the opposite position. Their
original argument SHOULD NOT respond to items brought up by the
FOR group.
After each has made a five-minute argument, each side will have two
minutes to respond to claims or statements made by the other side.
The JURY group will then deliberate openly; the FOR and AGAINST
groups will listen to the deliberations, but may not respond. The JURY
may challenge either group to provide evidence for up to three pieces of
information, and may ask up to three questions of each group (they may
ask the same question to both groups).

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The JURY should then make two judgments:
1. Which, if either, provided the most credible INFORMATION
2. Which, if either, provided the most compelling overall argument?
3. Be sure students argue their points forcefully, whether or not they
believe them personally.
Student
See above
Instructions:
Specific
Suggestions:

The instructor is likely to have to serve as a facilitator or moderator from

time to time
1. Do not allow personal assaults
2. Feel free to challenge pieces of information that you find dubious
if the JURY does not.
It will probably take a couple times through this debate process before
you and your class is comfortable with it.

Objectives:

Relate the pros and cons of permanent storage of high-level radioactive

wastes at Yucca Mountain.

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Instructor Notes for In-Class Activity 2

Title:

Why Not Too Cheap To Meter

Time:
Materials:
Handouts:

0 minutes prep; 15 25 minutes in class

Internet access
None

Procedures:

In the 1950s, many nuclear power advocates believe that it would, in the
future, provide the country with an energy source that would render
electricity too cheap to meter. Some current advocates claim that this
still should be true, but that regulations and public fears have pushed up
expenses. Others argue that the economics of nuclear are inherent, and
that it is not a particularly competitive energy source.
In groups of 3 5, have students explore these two arguments
1. What are the major arguments that the two sides use
2. Who are on the two sides?
3. How credible do you find the different sources of information?
4. Does it seem to you that nuclear could be less expensive that
fossil fuels? Why or why not?
5. How much cheaper would nuclear have to be for electrical
vehicles to replace gasoline powered vehicles?

Student
See above
Instructions:
Specific
Suggestions:

None

Objectives:

Explain why nuclear power does not have much effect on U. S. oil
needs.
Evaluate the economic viability of nuclear power

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Instructor Notes for In-Class Activity 3

Title:

Nuclear Materials on Campus

Time:
Materials:
Handouts:

5 20 minutes prep; full class session

None
None

Procedures:

Contact your campus environmental management personnel (the people

who manage environmental affairs, not the department). Ask them to
provide you a list of types and locations of nuclear materials on your
campus or, if possible, request a tour of nuclear materials on campus.
Alternatively, ask your students to look for nuclear materials warnings
around campus.
Have students discuss
1. What kinds of nuclear materials are being used?
2. What are they used for?
3. Are there any alternatives to these materials?
4. How much low-level nuclear waste is generated on your campus?
5. Where is this waste eventually taken?

Student
See above
Instructions:
Specific
Suggestions:

None

Objectives:

Describe non-energy and non-weapon uses of nuclear materials.

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Instructor Notes for In-Class Activity 4

Title:

Nuclear Energy in the News

Time:
Materials:
Handouts:

5 20 minutes prep; full class session

None
None

Procedures:

Have the students check news articles, internet information and television
ads and observe:
1. What nuclear energy issues are being presented
2. Are the issues relevant to their area
3. Are the issues accurate
4. What can they as students do about these issues
5. Are they increasing or decreasing
After about a week of observance, have the students get together and
discuss their finding.
You can limit or expand the search to the United States, different
countries, the world or just the state the student represent, depending on
the amount of information gathered.

Student
See above
Instructions:
Specific
Suggestions:

None

Objectives:

Discuss nuclear energy and how it pertains to the individual and their
need for energy.
Discuss the safety issues with nuclear energy.

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Instructor Notes for In-Class Activity 5

Title:

Nuclear Energy in the Cartoons

Time:
Materials:
Handouts:

5 20 minutes prep; full class session

None
None

Procedures:

Have the students go out and bring in at least 5 cartoons dealing with
nuclear energy. Share the cartoons with the class. How do they portray
nuclear energy?

Student
See above
Instructions:
Specific
Suggestions:

None

Objectives:

Identify ways nuclear energy is perceived by the public.

Identify controversial topics when dealing with nuclear energy.

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Answers to Thinking About the Environment

End of Chapter Questions:
1. What is nuclear fission? How does fission differ from fusion?
Ans: In fission, the process nuclear power plants use, larger atoms of certain elements are split
into two smaller atoms of different elements. In fusion, the process that powers the sun and other
stars, two smaller atoms are combined to make one larger atom of a different element. In both
fission and fusion, the mass of the end product(s) is less than the mass of the starting material(s)
because a small quantity of the starting material is converted to energy.
2. What are the main steps in the nuclear fuel cycle? Is it a true cycle? Explain your answer.
Ans: The nuclear fuel cycle is all the processes involved in producing the fuel used in nuclear
reactors and in disposing of radioactive wastes (or nuclear wastes). The steps include: mining,
enrichment, fission reaction, and disposal. It is not a true cycle because nuclear energy is not a
renewable resource.
3. What are the safety features of a pressurized water reactor?
Ans: A huge, steel reactor vessel surrounds the reactor core where fission occurs. The reactor
vessel is a safety feature designed to prevent the accidental release of radiation into the
environment. The reactor vessel and the steam generator are placed in a containment building, an
additional line of defense against accidental radiation leaks. Containment buildings have steelreinforced concrete walls.
4. What might resolve the conflict between the public view of the nuclear power industry and
regulators with the industry and regulators view of the public.
Ans: Unfortunately, the driving forces behind the distrust is difficult to resolve. Nuclear power
proponents, believing that the public are uninformed, react with campaigns explaining how
safe a proposal is. The public feel insulted, which leads to further distrust, and dismissal of
expert argumentswhich the experts again misinterpret as irrationality and anti-scientific
attitudes. This distrust is amplified by interactions with experts, who often have little
understanding of the nature of public resistance or training in effective risk communication.
Experts who encounter this distrust misinterpret it as irrationality, emotion or ignorance. It will
take education of both parties to resolve this conflict.
5. How is breeder nuclear fission different from conventional nuclear fission?
Ans: In breeder nuclear fission, U-238 is converted to plutonium, Pu-239, a human-made isotope
that is fissionable. Some of the neutrons emitted in breeder nuclear fission produce additional
plutonium from U-238. A breeder reactor thus makes more fissionable fuel than it uses. The fuel
is then reprocessed to concentrate the Pu-239 for use as fuel.
Because it can use U-238, plutonium-based breeder fission can generate much larger quantities
of energy from uranium ore than nuclear fission using U-235.

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6. Breeder reactors produce more fuel than they consume. Does this mean that if we use breeder
reactors, we will have a perpetual supply of plutonium for breeder fission? Why or why not?
Ans: No, because the fuel must still be reprocessed to concentrate the Pu-239 for use as fuel.
7. What is spent fuel?
Ans: Spent fuel is the used fuel elements that were irradiated in a nuclear reactor.
8. Can we prevent catastrophic accidents at nuclear power plants in the future? Why or why not?
Ans: Answers will vary.
9. How does the disposal of radioactive wastes pose technical problems? political problems?
Ans: Many technical challenges exist in transporting waste safely, solidifying liquid waste and
securing waste sites. Everyone agrees we need safe long term storage of nuclear waste, but when
it comes to identifying a specific location for the waste, there is opposition, since people oppose
having transportation or storage near where they work and live. There is political opposition for
storage sites to be in anyones backyard.
10. What happens to the radioactive waste when a nuclear power plant is decommissioned?
Ans: Workers dismantle the plant wearing protective clothing and masks. Some portions of the
plant are too hot (radioactive) for workers to safely dismantle, although advances in robotics
may make it feasible to tear down these sections. As the plant is torn down, small sections of it
are transported to a permanent storage site.
11. What is plasma? How is it related to the development of fusion as a practical source of
energy?
Ans: At extremely high temperatures, a gas separates into negative electrons and positive nuclei.
This superheated, ionized gas, called plasma, has a tendency to expand. Confinement of the
plasma is necessary so that the nuclei are close enough to one another to fuse, but a regular
container does not work because as soon as the nuclei hit the container walls, they lose so much
energy they cannot fuse. Several technological approaches to confine plasma are under
investigation.
12. What are the main arguments for and against the United States developing additional nuclear
power plants to provide us with electricity over the next several decades? Which perspective do
you find most convincing?
Ans: In an effort to promote nuclear energy, nuclear and utility executives have developed a plan
that addresses the safety and economic issues associated with nuclear power. They envision
building a series of new generation nuclear reactors designed to be 10 times safer than current

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reactors. Costs could be held in line by standardizing nuclear power plants rather than custombuilding each one. The new generation of nuclear power plants, though smaller, simpler in
design, less expensive to build, and safer to operate, will still produce high-level radioactive
wastes and have a potential link to nuclear weapons. Because of this there we always be
opposition to nuclear power.
13. Why is it important to think about energy from a systems perspective when deciding the role
of nuclear power in reducing climate change?
Ans: The narrow conception of either nuclear power or climate change fails to take a systems
perspective, and so may lead us to miss better alternatives. A systems thinker would ask what
are the tradeoffs we make between energy generation, environmental damage, and human
health. Systems thinking would probably lead to some increase in nuclear, but would also assess
other options to reduce energy use, increase efficiency, explore alternative energy sources, and
reduce carbon emissions from fossil fuels.

Answers to Review Questions

Introduction to Nuclear Processes (p. 261)
1. What is the difference between chemical energy and nuclear energy?
Ans: The energy released in combustion and other chemical reactions comes from changes in the
chemical bonds that hold the atoms together. Chemical bonds are associations between electrons,
and ordinary chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of electrons. In contrast, nuclear
energy involves changes in the nuclei of atoms; small amounts of matter from the nucleus are
converted into large amounts of energy.
2. What is radioactive decay?
Ans: Radioactive decay is the emission of energetic particles or rays from unstable atomic
nuclei; includes positively charged alpha particles, negatively charged beta particles, and highenergy, electromagnetic gamma rays.
Nuclear Fission (p. 265)
1. What is the nuclear fuel cycle?
Ans: The nuclear fuel cycle is the processes involved in producing the fuel used in nuclear
reactors and in disposing of radioactive (nuclear) wastes.

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2. How does a nuclear reactor produce electricity?
Ans: In nuclear fission, U-235 is bombarded with neutrons. When the nucleus of an atom of U235 is struck by and absorbs a neutron, it becomes unstable and splits into two smaller atoms,
each approximately half the size of the original uranium atom. In the fission process, two or three
neutrons are also ejected from the uranium atom. They collide with other U-235 atoms,
generating a chain reaction as those atoms are split and more neutrons are released to collide
with additional U-235 atoms. The fission of U-235 releases an enormous amount of heat, used to
transform water into steam. The steam, in turn, is used to generate electricity.
3. What is breeder nuclear fission?
Ans: Uranium ore is mostly U-238, which is not fissionable and is a waste product of
conventional nuclear fission. In breeder nuclear fission however, U-238 is converted to
plutonium, Pu-239, a human-made isotope that is fissionable.
4. What is Mixed Oxide Fuel?
Ans: Mixed Oxide Fuel is a reactor fuel that contains a combination of uranium oxide and
plutonium oxide. The plutonium can come from reprocessed spent fuel or from other plutonium
stockpiles, including dismantled weapons.
Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy (p. 268)
1. In generating electricity, how do the environmental effects of coal combustion and
conventional nuclear fission compare?
Ans: Nuclear energy is a carbon-free source of electricity-that is, it provides power without
producing the climate-warming gas, carbon dioxide. Combustion of coal to generate electricity is
responsible for more than one-third of the air pollution in the United States. Coal is an extremely
dirty fuel, especially because we have used up most of our reserves of cleaner-burning coal.
Today most coal-burning power plants burn soft coal that produces sulfur-containing emissions
that interact with moisture in the atmosphere to form acid precipitation. In addition, the
combustion of coal releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that traps solar heat in our
atmosphere contributes to global warming. In comparison, nuclear energy emits few pollutants
into the atmosphere. However, nuclear energy generates radioactive waste, such as spent fuel.
The extreme health and environmental hazards caused by this waste require special measures for
its storage and disposal
2. Is electricity produced by nuclear energy inexpensive? Explain your answer.
Ans: It is more expensive to produce electricity from nuclear power than from coal,
hydroelectric, and natural gas. The true costs of nuclear energy, like those of coal and other fossil
fuels, are not always obvious in utility bills. Energy analysts estimate that U.S. tax dollars
provide about $9.6 billion in nuclear energy subsidies annually. In an increasingly competitive

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power market, the generation of electricity using nuclear energy is expensive when all costs,
including those subsidized by the government, are taken into account.
3. Would expanding nuclear power in the United States reduce greenhouse gasses and / or
decrease reliance on oil?
Ans: Nuclear power is not climate neutral, since a number of steps along the way, from mining to
processing to disposal, require substantial amounts of gasoline and diesel. This means that
nuclear energy indirectly contributes to the greenhouse effect-about 2 to 6 grams of carbon per
kilowatt hour, about two orders of magnitude lower than fossil fuels. Some supporters of nuclear
energy assert that our dependence on foreign oil would lessen if all oil-burning power plants
were converted to nuclear plants. This claim is not as convincing as it seems because oil
generates only about 3% of the electricity in the United States; we rely on oil primarily for
transportation, heavy machinery and for heating buildings. Thus, replacing electricity generated
by oil with electricity generated by nuclear energy would do little to lessen our dependence on
foreign oil because nuclear cannot currently replace oil-intensive uses.
Safety Issues in Nuclear Power Plants (p. 272)
1. What caused the nuclear power plant accident at Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania?
Ans: The accident was a result of the intersection of human and design errors that causes a 50%
meltdown of the reactor core.
2. What were some of the short-term effects of the nuclear power plant accident at Chornobyl in
Ukraine? What are some long-term effects?
Ans: The greatest initial damaged was caused by the explosion and fire. Local firefighters, many
of whom later died from exposure to the high levels of radiation, battled courageously to contain
the fire. Once the danger from the explosion and fire had passed, the radioactivity at the power
station had to be cleaned up and contained so that it would not spread. Dressed in protective
clothing, workers were transported to the site in radiation-proof vehicles; initially the
radioactivity was so high they could stay in the area for only a few minutes at a time. Thousands
of people were forced to abandon their homes. The people in Ukraine face many long-term
problems; much of the farmland and forests are so contaminated they cannot be used. Inhabitants
in many areas of Ukraine still cannot drink the water or consume locally produced milk, meat,
fish, fruits, or vegetables. Mothers do not nurse their babies because their milk is contaminated
by radioactivity. The Ukrainian Scientific Center for Radiation Medicine has continually
monitored the health of approximately 80,000 Chornobyl patients. Cancer rates are expected to
increase in the following twenty years.
3. What is the link between nuclear energy that produces electricity and nuclear weapons?
Ans: Fission is involved in both the production of electricity by nuclear energy and the
destructive power of nuclear weapons. Uranium-235 and plutonium-239 are the two fuels

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commonly used in atomic fission weapons. Plutonium is intentionally produced in breeder
reactors, and can be extracted from the spent fuel from conventional fission reactors.
Proliferation concerns cause many people and countries to shun nuclear energy, particularly
breeder fission, and to seek alternatives that are not so intimately connected with nuclear
weapons.
Radio Active Wastes (p. 278)
1. What is low-level radioactive waste, and how is it disposed? What is high-level radioactive
waste, and how is it currently stored?
Ans: Low-level radioactive wastes are radioactive solids, liquids, or gasses that give off small
amounts of ionizing radiation. All states are responsible for the waste they generate, however,
three sites currently accept waste for the entire country-in Washington State, South Carolina, and
Utah. New technologies to compact low-level radioactive waste have dramatically reduced the
volume being disposed of in these nuclear dumps. High-level radioactive wastes are radioactive
solids, liquids, or gasses that give off large amounts of ionizing radiation. In 2000 the United
States had 42,710 metric tons of spent fuel stored temporarily at more than 100 nuclear power
plants around the country.
2. What are some of the advantages of storing high-level radioactive waste at Yucca Mountain?
What are some of the disadvantages?
Ans: Congress has identified Yucca Mountain in Nevada as the only candidate for a permanent
underground storage site for 70,000 tons of high-level radioactive wastes from commercially
operated power plants. The Yucca Mountain site, some 145 km (90 mi) northwest of Las Vegas,
is controversial in part because it is near a volcano and active earthquake fault lines. Transporting
high-level wastes from nuclear reactors and weapons sites by truck, rail, or air is a major concern
of opponents of the Yucca Mountain site. The typical shipment would travel an average of 2300
miles, and 43 states would have these dangerous materials passing through on their way to Yucca
Mountain.
3. Why is decommissioning nuclear power plants such a major task?
Ans: At the end of their operational usefulness, nuclear power plants are not simply abandoned
or demolished because many parts have become contaminated with radioactivity. The workers
who dismantle the plant must wear protective clothing and masks. Some portions of the plant are
too hot (radioactive) for workers to safely dismantle. As the plant is torn down, small sections
of it are transported to a permanent storage site.

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Fusion: Nuclear Energy for the Future? (p. 279)
1. What are two major hurdles that must be overcome before fusion becomes a practical source
of energy?
Ans: It takes phenomenally high temperatures (millions of degrees) to make atoms fuse. To date,
the best fusion experiments generate about one-third of the energy used to heat the fuel. Another
challenge is confining the fuel. At extremely high temperatures, a gas separates into negative
electrons and positive nuclei. This superheated, ionized gas, called plasma, has a tendency to
expand. Confinement of the plasma is necessary so that the nuclei are close enough to one
another to fuse, but a regular container does not work because as soon as the nuclei hit the
container walls, they lose so much energy they cannot fuse.
The Future of Nuclear Power (p. 280)
1. If nuclear power is to become a major energy player in the 21st century, what major problems
must be addressed?
Ans: The two major issues that need to be addressed are safety and economics of nuclear power.
Nuclear power plants must be safer and more cost effective to build.

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