Structures. UpTech3

Module 3
Upper Primary Technology

Structures
Science, Technology and Mathematics Modules

for Upper Primary and Junior Secondary School Teachers
of Science, Technology and Mathematics by Distance
in the Southern African Development Community (SADC)
Developed by
The Southern African Development Community (SADC)
Ministries of Education in:
Botswana
Malawi
Mozambique
Namibia
South Africa
Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
In partnership with The Commonwealth of Learning
COPYRIGHT STATEMENT
The Commonwealth of Learning, October 2001
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the permission in writing of the publishers.
The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the opinions or policies of
The Commonwealth of Learning or SADC Ministries of Education.
The module authors have attempted to ensure that all copyright clearances have been
obtained. Copyright clearances have been the responsibility of each country using the
modules. Any omissions should be brought to their attention.
Published jointly by The Commonwealth of Learning and the SADC Ministries of
Education.
Residents of the eight countries listed above may obtain modules from their respective
Ministries of Education. The Commonwealth of Learning will consider requests for modules
from residents of other countries.
ISBN 1-895369-71-1
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND MATHEMATICS MODULES

This module is one of a series prepared under the auspices of the participating Southern
African Development Community (SADC) and The Commonwealth of Learning as part of
the Training of Upper Primary and Junior Secondary Science, Technology and Mathematics
Teachers in Africa by Distance. These modules enable teachers to enhance their professional
skills through distance and open learning. Many individuals and groups have been involved
in writing and producing these modules. We trust that these modules will benefit not only
the teachers who use them, but also, ultimately, their students and the communities and
nations in which they live.
The twenty-eight Science, Technology and Mathematics modules are as follows:
Upper Primary Science

Module 1: My Built Environment
Module 2: Materials in my
Environment
Module 3: My Health
Module 4: My Natural Environment
Junior Secondary Science

Module 1: Energy and Energy Transfer
Module 2: Energy Use in Electronic
Communication
Module 3: Living Organisms
Environment and Resources
Module 4: Scientific Processes

Module 1: Teaching Technology in the
Primary School
Module 2: Making Things Move
Module 3: Structures
Module 4: Materials
Module 5: Processing
Junior Secondary Technology

Module 1: Introduction to Teaching
Technology
Module 2: Systems and Controls
Module 3: Tools and Materials
Upper Primary Mathematics

Module 1: Number and Numeration
Module 2: Fractions
Module 3: Measures
Module 4: Social Arithmetic
Module 5: Geometry
Junior Secondary Mathematics

Module 1: Number Systems
Module 2: Number Operations
Module 3: Shapes and Sizes
Module 4: Algebraic Processes
Module 5: Solving Equations
Module 6: Data Handling
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A MESSAGE FROM THE COMMONWEALTH OF LEARNING

The Commonwealth of Learning is grateful for the generous contribution of the
participating Ministries of Education. The Permanent Secretaries for Education
played an important role in facilitating the implementation of the 1998-2000
project work plan by releasing officers to take part in workshops and meetings and
by funding some aspects of in-country and regional workshops. The Commonwealth of
Learning is also grateful for the support that it received from the British Council (Botswana
and Zambia offices), the Open University (UK), Northern College (Scotland), CfBT
Education Services (UK), the Commonwealth Secretariat (London), the South Africa
College for Teacher Education (South Africa), the Netherlands Government (Zimbabwe
office), the British Department for International Development (DFID) (Zimbabwe office),
and Grant MacEwan College (Canada).
The Commonwealth of Learning would like to acknowledge the excellent technical advice
and management of the project provided by the strategic contact persons, the broad
curriculum team leaders, the writing team leaders, the workshop development team leaders,
and the regional monitoring team members. The materials development would not have been
possible without the commitment and dedication of all the course writers, the in-country
reviewers and the secretaries who provided the support services for the in-country and
regional workshops.
Finally, The Commonwealth of Learning is grateful for the instructional design and review
carried out by teams and individual consultants as follows:
Grant MacEwan College (Alberta, Canada):
General Education Courses
Open Learning Agency (British Columbia, Canada):
Science, Technology and Mathematics
Technology for Allcc. (Durban, South Africa):
Hands-on Management Services (British Columbia, Canada):
Junior Secondary Technology
Dato Professor Gajaraj Dhanarajan

President and Chief Executive Officer
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Technology Modules for Upper Primary and Junior Secondary Teachers in the Southern
Africa Development Community (SADC) were written and reviewed by teams from the
participating SADC Ministries of Education with the assistance of The Commonwealth of
Learning.
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CONTACTS FOR THE PROGRAMME

The Commonwealth of Learning
1285 West Broadway, Suite 600
Vancouver, BC V6H 3X8
Canada
National Ministry of Education

Private Bag X603
Pretoria 0001
South Africa
Ministry of Education
Private Bag 005
Gaborone
Botswana
Ministry of Education and Culture

P.O. Box 9121
Dar es Salaam
Tanzania
Private Bag 328
Capital City
Lilongwe 3
Malawi
P.O. Box 50093
Lusaka
Zambia
Ministrio da Eduao
Avenida 24 de Julho No 167, 8
Caixa Postal 34
Maputo
Mozambique
Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture

P.O. Box CY 121
Causeway
Harare
Zimbabwe
Ministry of Basic Education,

Sports and Culture
Private Bag 13186
Windhoek
Namibia
iv
MODULE WRITERS
R.F. Sherwood:
Technology for All

Kloof, South Africa
V. Lehlekane:
Senior Lecturer
Rubisane College of Education
Eastern Cape, South Africa
H.H. Johnstone:
Technology for All

Kloof, South Africa
K.J. Ter-Morshuizen:
Technology for All

Kloof, South Africa
FACILITATORS/RESOURCE PERSONS
Dr. Peter Craig:
Education Consultant
Northern College
Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
PROJECT MANAGEMENT & DESIGN

Ms. Kgomotso Motlotle:
Education Specialist, Teacher Training

The Commonwealth of Learning (COL)
Vancouver, BC, Canada
Mr. David Rogers:
Post-production editing
Co-ordinator of Instructional Development
Open Learning Agency
Victoria, BC, Canada
Ms. Lee McKenzie McAnally:
Post-production editing
Open Learning Agency
Ms. Sandy Reber:
Graphics & desktop publishing

Reber Creative
UPPER PRIMARY TECHNOLOGY PROGRAMME

Introduction
Welcome to the programme in Teaching Upper Primary Technology. This series of five
modules is designed to help you strengthen your knowledge of technology topics and
acquire more instructional strategies for teaching technology in the classroom.
Each of the five modules in the technology series provides an opportunity to apply theory to
practice. Learning about technology entails the development of practical skills as well as
theoretical knowledge. Each technology topic includes an explanation of the theory behind
the technology, examples of how the technology is used in practice, and suggestions for
classroom activities that allow students to explore the technology for themselves.
Each module explores several instructional strategies that can be used in the technology
classroom and provides you with an opportunity to apply these strategies in practical
classroom activities. Each module examines the reasons for using a particular strategy in the
classroom and provides a guide for the best use of each strategy, given the topic, context,
and goals.
The guiding principles of these modules are to help make the connection between theory
and practice, apply instructional theory to practice in the classroom situation, and support
you, as you in turn help your students to apply technology theory to practical classroom
work.
Programme Goals
This programme is designed to help you to:
strengthen your understanding of technology topics
expand the range of instructional strategies that you can use in the technology classroom
Programme Objectives
By the time you have completed this programme, you should be able to:
guide students as they work in teams on practical projects in technology, and help them
to work effectively as a member of a group
use questioning and explanation strategies to help students learn new concepts and to
support students in their problem solving activities
guide students in the use of investigative strategies to learn more about particular
technologies, and to find out how tools and materials are used in technology
prepare your own portfolio about your teaching activities
guide students as they prepare their portfolios about their project activities
vi
The relationship between this programme and the technology curriculum

The technology content presented in these modules includes some of the topics most
commonly covered in the technology curricula in southern African countries. However,
it is not intended to comprehensively cover all topics in any one countrys technology
curriculum. For this, you will need to consult your national or regional curriculum guide.
The curriculum content that is presented in these modules is intended to:
provide an overview of the content in order to support the development of appropriate

teaching strategies
use selected parts of the curriculum to develop specific teaching strategies
explain those elements of the curriculum that provide essential background knowledge,
or that address particularly complex or specialised concepts
provide directions to additional resources on the curriculum content
How to Work on this Programme

As is indicated in the programme goals and objectives, this programme allows you to
participate actively in each module by applying instructional strategies when exploring
technology with your students and by reflecting on that experience. As outlined in Module
One, there are several ways to do this:
working through the programme on your own
working through the programme with colleagues
asking colleagues to provide feedback and act as resource persons
working through the programme with the support of a mentor
Using a Learning Journal

Whether you work on your own or with a group, it is strongly recommended that you use a
learning journal. You can divide your learning journal into compartments so it
accommodates a number of purposes. Think of your journal as a place where you can
think out loud by writing down your ideas and thoughts, and this place has several
rooms.
In one part of your journal, keep notes and about what you read in each unit, write down
your ideas, and note questions about the content or anything with which you disagree,
record general ideas about how to use some of the content and strategies in the classroom,
and keep notes on your readings from other books and articles.
Set aside a section of your learning journal to work on an activity for each unit. At the start
of each unit, consider which activity you will choose, and develop your ideas as you go
along. Each activity will have specific guidelines.
Create a section for observations and reflections. Record observations about classroom
experiences, how students tackle various situations, and how each instructional strategy
works in practice. This is the place to record notes after you implement the unit activity
what you feel worked well and what could be improved. If you are part of a group, keep
your notes about good practice and effective group dynamics, based on the group
experience, in this section.
vii
Resources Available to You

Although these modules can be completed without referring to additional resource materials,
your experience and that of your students can be enriched if you use other resources as well.
From locally available materials, you might identify resources to enhance the teaching/
learning experience. These could include:
working examples of energy use in electronic communication or of materials or tools

that are available in your environment for scientific inquiries related to these examples
magazines that have articles about technology topics, with the emphasis on the subject
of this module
books and other resources about technology that are in your school or community library
internet resources (if applicable)
When reviewing materials to see if they will help you with the module, consider:
Which module topics does the material address?
Are the ideas in this material transferable to the technology classroom?
Are the ideas in this material transferable to the technologies included in the module?
viii
ICONS
Throughout each module, you will find some or all of the following icons or symbols that
alert you to a change in activity within the module.
Read the following explanations to discover what each icon prompts you to do.
Introduction
Rationale or overview for this part of the course.
Learning Objectives
What you should be able to do after completing

this module or unit.
Text or Reading Material
Course content for you to study.
ImportantTake Note!
Something to study carefully, or a possibly

harmful action/substance.
Individual Activity
An exercise or project for you to try by yourself

and demonstrate your own grasp of the content.
Classroom Activity
An exercise or project for you to do with or

assign to your students.
Reflection
A question or project for yourself for deeper

understanding of this concept, or of your use of it
when teaching.
Summary
Unit or Module
Assignment
Exercise to assess your understanding of all the

unit or module topics.
Suggested Answers to
Activities
Equipment
List or description of any apparatus or tools that

this activity requires
ix
CONTENTS
Module 3 Overview .......................................................................................................... 2

Unit 1 The Basic Function of Structures ........................................................................ 3
Unit 2 Beams and Frame Structures ............................................................................ 23
Module 3
Structures
Module Introduction
Pupils will all have some knowledge of structures since they encounter them
in many different forms in their daily lives. This module gives them some
elementary understanding of structures. It is hoped that with this
understanding they will be able to make sense of the structures they see
around them. It is hoped that they will build on this understanding through
their own observations and critically evaluate the structures they observe.
Outline
Unit One:
The Basics of Structures
Designing and Making a Structure to Contain Food
Bridge Structures
Unit Two:
Beam Profiles
Forces in Beams
Frame Structures
Teaching strategies and methodology
The approach in this module continues to be that of teaching content to you
and then offering a method for teaching it to upper primary pupils. As you
plan lessons for each part, try to choose appropriate teaching methods. After
you teach the lesson, continue the practice of reflecting on the effectiveness
of your teaching and finding ways to improve.
Terminology
A short list of words appears at the beginning of each section. These terms
will probably be new to your pupils and, in some cases, even to you. By the
time the module has been completed, both you and your pupils should know
the meanings of these words.
Module 3
Structures
Unit 1: The Basic Functions of Structures

Learning Outcomes for this Unit
On completion of this unit you should:
know the three basic functions of structures
identify some types of bridges and identify the needs they meet
be able to cut, score, fold, and form a package from card
be able to plan and teach the content of this unit on structures to a Senior
Primary class
be able to organise an activity for your pupils in which they will design
and make packaging for a grocery item, as an example of a structure that
contains
The Basics of Structures

Words used in this section:
Load, score, broken line.

We are surrounded by structures that play a necessary and important part in
our lives. At the beginning of this study, you need to understand what is
meant by the term structure. The meaning is better understood if you see
examples of structures and understand their function, rather than be given a
one or two sentence definition. This unit begins with a case study on the
function of a variety of structures.
Case Study: What functions do structures perform?
Structures perform three different basic functionsproviding protection or
shelter, serving as a container for other materials, or providing support. Some
structures only perform one function while others perform two or even all
three.
Module 3: Unit 1
Basic Functions of Structures
Some structures provide protection or shelter
In nature, the shell of a snail is a small yet interesting example of a natural

structure that provides shelter and protection for the animal. A house is an
example of a fabricated equivalent to the shell of a snail.
From what does the shell of a

snail protect the animal?
From what does the house

protect the occupants?
The body work of a motor vehicle is a structure designed to protect the

occupants from such factors as sun, weather, crashes, and interference by
people outside.
Some structures contain other materials
Below are four different structures whose main purpose is to contain some
substance.
Module 3: Unit 1
Margarine tub
Grain silo
Dam
Road tanker
What types of liquids are transported in road tankers?
What are the dangers of transporting some of these liquids by road tanker?
Some pupils might ask what is the difference between a structure that
contains and one that shelters. Doesnt a hut that is for shelter, also contain
the people in it? The answer is found in asking what would happen if the
structure were to tear open? The contents (water, grain, etc.) of a containment
structure would spill out. On the other hand, the occupants of a shelter
structure would not spill out of the doors or windows.
Some structures support loads
The load on a structure is a force or weight that pushes or pulls on it.
The load on this bridge is the weight of a car.
The load on this crane is the weight of a large container.
Module 3: Unit 1
A spider web is an example of a natural structure. The purpose is to trap

insect prey such as flies. The load it must support is the weight of the spider
and the prey.
Our skeleton is a natural structure with several functions. One of the

functions is to carry loads. Most of the time this load is just our own
weightour brain, other organs, muscles, and some fat (some of us support
more fat than we would like to!). Although supporting loads is an important
function of our skeleton, can you identify those parts of our skeleton that
also:
a) protect
b) contain
Module 3: Unit 1
The frame of a bicycle is a manufactured structure that supports the load of a

rider.
Assessment Task
Use this task to assess your understanding of the content thus far. Later, you
can use it to test your pupils knowledge and understanding of what you have
taught. To assess your students, you might want to add a second page of
pictures that you have selected.
You have already learned that technology is concerned with meeting human
needs. In this assessment activity, you are reminded of this.
Write next to the illustration of each structure:
a) what need(s) the structure meets
b) the function(s) it performs (does it protect/shelter, contain, support
loads?)
A
Module 3: Unit 1
How would you teach what you have learned so far?

In your learning journal, list the key concepts that you need to teach this part
of the unit.
Always be careful to teach only one concept at a time. Use teaching
methods based on the unique methodology of Technology Education.
Having completed Modules 1 and 2, you should be more familiar with that
methodology. The methodology uses case studies, resource tasks, and
capability tasks.
The three activities in the following case study are intended to help you teach
the concept of structure to your pupils. As you plan a lesson, try to think of
other ways to conduct a case study.
Activity One
1. Ask each pupil to bring a picture of a structure. They should bring
pictures or photographs cut out from newspapers or magazines. Impress
on them that they should not cut a picture from a book. Make a note of
the kinds of pictures your pupils choose. Their concept of structures
might be limited to things like bridges, buildings, and towers, and might
not include bottles, car bodies, and chairs. By referring to the three basic
functions of structures, discuss with the class which pictures illustrate
structures and which do not.
2. To broaden your pupils understanding of the concept of structures, follow
up the class discussion of these pictures by showing the examples given
in this unit (snail shell, hut, skeleton, etc.) As you discuss these examples,
classify them as natural or fabricated structures.
3. Prepare a list of questions that will encourage your pupils to analyse the
three basic functions of structures.
4. Discuss with them the need each structure fulfils. For example, if a cool
drink can is being discussed they will most likely analyse the functions
as:
contain the cool drink
support the load of other cans
when it is stacked
They should also be able to tell you that
the needs met by the can are:
Module 3: Unit 1
storing the cool drink

a means of transporting the cool drink
something convenient from which to
drink the cool drink
prevention of contamination of the cool drink
Activity Two
Ask pupils to take this table home and list all the structures they can find in
their kitchen. Next to each one, they must write which of the three basic
functions it performs.
Structure
e.g., bottle
Functions
contains
Review the pupils lists at the beginning of the next lesson, then have them do
Activity Three.
Reflect on your teaching of this introduction to structures.
Remember that central to the methodology of Technology Education are
capability tasks. In Part 2 your pupils will undertake a capability task that
will provide them with an opportunity to creatively apply knowledge and
skills they have learned. Through the Case Study 1 and Activities 1 and 2,
they have acquired some knowledge of structures. Through the resource task
they do next, they will learn some skills that will be useful in carrying out the
capability task. First carry out this resource task yourself to acquire those
skills.
Resource Task: To Develop Skills in Working with Card

You need :
A4 size sheet of card
scissors
ruler
empty ball point pen
Trace the outline of the shape on the next page onto a sheet of card. Be sure
to trace all the solid lines and broken lines. Instead of tracing you might
prefer to paste the sheet onto the card, but you should make copies of the
page before you do this.
Module 3: Unit 1
Module 3: Unit 1
10
1. Cut the shape from the card by cutting along the solid lines.
solid line
broken line
2. The card must be scored along the broken lines so that when it is bent or
folded along these lines, it does so in neat, straight lines. The ball point
pen can be used to score. Score by placing the ruler along the broken line
and pressing the pen along the line as if you were drawing the line.
3. Fold the card along all the scored lines.
4. Fold the shape along the broken lines so it forms a cube.
5. Open the cube, and spread glue on the seven tabs.

6. Fold the card into a cube again, using the glued tabs to hold the sides in
place.
The skills learned in this resource task will be used in making a package in
the capability task that is to follow.
Module 3: Unit 1
11
When the pupils have completed this resource task, you will have progressed
another step in applying the methodology of Technology Education? They
will have:
acquired conceptual knowledge through a case study and activities
learned the skills of tracing, cutting, scoring, and folding card through a
resource task
Designing and Making a Container for Food

Tab, design criteria, investigation, evaluation.

This part consists of a case study that leads to a capability task. You need to
read the case study and do the capability task before you ask your pupils to
do so. This will help you plan an effective lesson.
Although your pupils have acquired useful knowledge and skills for the
capability task, they need a context to give it relevance. They need also to
identify the particular problem which must be solved through the capability
task. A second case study meets both these needs.
Case Study: Providing a Context for a Capability Task
Ms. Lena Mabasa is one of those people who has not been able to find
employment for some time. However, she is a resourceful person and tries
to generate some income by various means. Her latest effort is a little
business in which she bakes and sells biscuits.
She puts all the biscuits she bakes each day in a cardboard box without a
lid and places it on a small table, where potential customers can see them.
She sells the biscuits in batches of six. As people buy them, she counts
and wraps the six biscuits in brown paper. It surprises Lena that more
people do not buy her biscuits. She knows that when people buy her
biscuits they enjoy eating them.
One day as a woman was looking at her biscuits she said to Lena that she
wasnt going to buy any of them because they were not in a packet.
Describe the technology problem Lena is facing.
What need or needs does Lena have because of this problem?
Module 3: Unit 1
12
Capability Task
The following is your brief (a brief states what you have to do). Apply your
technological capability to help Lena by designing and making a package to
contain batches of six biscuits. The biscuits she bakes are round in shape and
between 65 mm and 75 mm in diameter.
As this task is carried out, you, and later your pupils, will follow the steps of
the technological process that you learned about at the beginning of this
course. Are you able to write down the steps in that process?
The design process

As a designer, the first thing you require is some direction for your thinking
as you consider possible solutions to Lenas problem. That direction is in the
form of design criteria. Later when you have made the biscuit package, the
design criteria will be used in the evaluation of the package, to see if and how
well the criteria solves the problem and how well it solves the problem.
An example of a design criterion is: the package must be large enough to
hold six biscuits of the size given in the brief (between 65 mm and 75 mm in
diameter).
So before you start thinking about designs for the biscuit package, you need
to compile a list of other design criteria. Remember, these will be used in the
evaluation of the finished package. It is advisable not to have too many
criteria.
Write your design criteria here:
1
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Some things you should consider as you design the package are:
Lena needs packaging that is inexpensive
the package must be easy to make without special tools or equipment
customers must be able to see the biscuits but not touch them
the package must make the biscuits look inviting so people will want to
buy them
Look carefully at this list of considerations. Did you include any of them in
your list of design criteria? Do you want to add any of them to your list?
When you finally decide on your criteria, write them in the first column of
the table that follows. You will fill in the other two columns later.
Module 3: Unit 1
13
Design Criteria
Self evaluation
(0 - 4)
Peer evaluation
(0 - 4)
Preparing a list of design criteria is the first step in the design process. It is
usually necessary to do some investigation as a second step. You might want
to do the following investigation before you design the biscuit package. It
will save you re-inventing a suitable package if there is already one in use.
Investigative activity
Start with an investigation in your own kitchen.
Take out of your cupboards all packages containing biscuits and other dry
foods such as cereals. Unfold some of the more suitable packages and see
how they were cut and folded.
Draw the outlines on paper and use broken lines to show where they were
folded. You might find something that is nearly suitable. Perhaps the
existing design needs only minor modifications to adapt it to Lenas
needs.
Continue your investigation at a shop or supermarket. Draw examples of

packages that you think might make the biscuits look attractive.
Develop and draw a design based on what you have seen. You will probably
have to make two or three attempts before you are happy with your design.
Decide on a final design. Does it meet the design criteria?
Module 3: Unit 1
14
Making the package

You should be ready now to draw your design on a sheet of card. Cut, score,
fold, and glue your package. Make it pretty by decorating it with coloured
pens, paint, or in some other way. This is where you can be creative.
Do you like your design? Does it meet your design criteria? If there is
something not quite right about it, try another design. It is often necessary to
try several designs before arriving at one that is satisfactory.
Evaluation of your product (the package)
When you finally have a package that satisfies you, use the design criteria in
the table on the previous page to evaluate it. The table has a column for a
self-evaluation. Once you have completed your evaluation, ask one or more
colleagues to evaluate your design. Let them do this on a separate page so
they do not see your self-evaluation. Record their evaluation in the table.
The following four-point scale can be used to evaluate each design criterion:
0 does not meet the criterion
1 partly meets the criterion
2 meets the criterion
3 exceeds the criterion
Compare your colleagues evaluation to yours. Are you satisfied with the
evaluations? If you were to make another package, would you change
anything? What would you change? These questions are asked whenever
technological products are designed and made.
Planning the capability task for your pupils
Before your pupils engage in a practical activity, your planning needs to
ensure that pupils understand:
1) The briefthey must know what they have to do.
2) The steps in the technological process.
Decide whether they will work individually or in small groups. The resources
required for this task should be easy to obtain so it is possible and preferable
that they work on their own.
Materials and tools
You will need to complete the previous capability task before you assign it to
your pupils. For this task, there are few requirements. Keep in mind, however,
that pupils ability to design and create a product depends on the availability
of materials and tools. Compile a list of materials and tools that you will
make available to the pupils, bearing in mind that since they are designing
their own products, they might need other materials than those you choose.
Module 3: Unit 1
15
Assessment
Unit 1 has been completed and it is time to reflect on your teaching of it.
Write down what went well with your teaching.
Note any changes you would make to the methods you used and the planning
of the lessons.
Bridge structures
Span, beam bridge, arch bridge, suspension bridge, anchor, cantilever.

The last section was about very simple and uncomplicated packaging
structures. In this section, pupils do a very brief case study of large and
impressive bridge structures. They will:
learn to classify and identify types of bridges

understand the needs met by bridges
identify the factors that determine the type of bridge being built
Introduce the topic of bridges to your class by showing pictures or drawings

of the different types of bridges and asking your pupils the kinds of questions
asked in this study. Encourage them to ask questions until they understand
the concepts.
The study ends with an assessment task that you can use to test your pupils
understanding of bridge types and the needs they meet.
Case Study: Types of Bridges
The beam bridge is the simplest type of bridge. This is probably the type of
bridge used by early humans who would have used a tree trunk as a beam.
You can see from the pictures that it is a straight structure that rests on
supports at each end.
What would be the advantage of a beam bridge over other types of bridges?
Module 3: Unit 1
16
The arch bridge has an appealing symmetry. Many were built in the past
before the invention of reinforced concrete structures. Why would arch
bridges have been built rather than beam bridges?
Carry out this short resource task with the class to show how the arch bridge
functions.
Resource Task
Use a piece of card about 80 mm wide and 300 mm long as a beam bridge
between two blocks or bricks. Use it to support a pen as a load.
Does the bridge support the pen?

Use a second piece of card the same length and width as the first to form an
arch under the first piece of card.
Does this arch bridge support the pen?
Module 3: Unit 1
17
On this page are further examples of arch bridges, some old and some new.
The distance between the supports of a bridge is known as the span of the
bridge.
Module 3: Unit 1
18
The suspension bridge. Some of the largest bridges in the world are of this
type. It consists of a cable stretched from one side over two or more towers to
the other side. The traffic (trains, motor vehicles, or people) move on a deck
that is suspended by other cables from the main cables. Suspension bridges
also support pipelines for water, oil, etc.
A question to ask is why this type of bridge is used for large bridges instead
of beam or arch bridges? There is probably more than one reason.
load of books
rope
When you teach this part, let the children make their own simple model of a
suspension bridge. As you can see it is made from a piece of rope, two chairs,
and two children.
Ask the pupils to identify the three components of a suspension bridge.
(Answer: towers, supporting cable or rope, cable anchors)
Ask them what represents each of these three components in the model.
(Answer: towers = chairs; cable = rope; cable anchors = two children)
Module 3: Unit 1
19
The cantilever bridge
What is a cantilever? It is a horizontal structure that is supported at one end

only and can carry load anywhere along the length.
This clock in Canterbury England is supported by a short cantilever beam.
Double cantilever
bridge
This bridge consists of two cantilevers supporting a middle section.
Module 3: Unit 1
20
Assessment Task
Use this task to test your own understanding and later use it to assess that of
the pupils. It tests:
the ability to identify bridge types
the ability to identify needs met by constructing bridges
It will enhance the value of the assessment if you are able to include some
additional pictures of bridges from your region.
On this page and the next are examples of bridge structures. In each case:
identify the type of bridge
write the needs you think are met by the bridge
Bridge A
Type of bridge __________________________________________________
Needs met ____________________________________________________
Bridge B
Type of bridge __________________________________________________
Needs met ____________________________________________________
Bridge C
Type of bridge __________________________________________________
Needs met ____________________________________________________
Module 3: Unit 1
21
Bridge D
Type of bridge __________________________________________________
Needs met ____________________________________________________
Module 3: Unit 1
22
Unit 2: Beams and Frame Structures

Learning Outcomes for this Unit
On completion of this unit you should:
know which way a beam must be placed so it doesnt sag
be able to make and test beams made from card
know which way the forces act in a beam that is carrying a load
know how reinforcing is used in concrete beams
How will you study this Unit?

This unit is in three parts.
Beam profiles
Forces in beams
Framework structures
The method used in the first part is similar to that used in Unit 1. Part 1 has
been written as a learning programme for your pupils. Follow the programme
yourself first. Carry out each of the practical activities and do all the written
responses. When you have completed it, then teach it to your pupils following
the methods indicated in the programme. If you do it that way you will learn
the content and at the same time you will become familiar with what has to
be taught. As you learn each section of content, you will be given methods
for teaching it.
Beam profiles
Beam, kitchen scale, span, sag, flimsy, rigid, corrugated, beam profile.
In this section you will learn about the type of structure known as a beam.
You will come across new words or new meanings given to words you
already know. Make sure that by the time you have completed this part, you
understand what each of the words means.
In Unit 1 you learned that this is called a beam bridge, because it is made of
simple structures called beams. In this unit you will learn about beams.
Module 3: Unit 1
23
Beams and Frame Structures
beam
In this wall, a beam is being used to support the brickwork above a long
window.
You are going to learn about beams by making and testing some. The test
equipment consists of:
Module 3: Unit 2
a two-litre plastic cool drink bottle without a lid and with a piece of string
(about 400 mm long) tied tightly around the neck
a jug to fill the bottle with water
a kitchen scale to weigh the bottle with water in it
24
A beam is tested by:
hanging the bottle from the centre of it
pouring water in the bottle
weighing the bottle plus water
Resource Task: Investigate the way a beam should be placed

under a load
The class will carry out this simple investigation working in pairs.
For this investigation you need:
bottle and jug from the test equipment
30 cm plastic ruler
The ruler is to be used as a beam. It is to be tested in three different ways.

Draw a table like this and record what you observe in each of the three tests.
Test No.
Observation
1
2
3
Module 3: Unit 2
25
Test 1
Rest the ruler between two desks placed 250 mm apart.
Half fill the test bottle with water and hang it from the centre of the ruler.
Record in the table what happens to the ruler. Does it bend? Does it bend
severely?
Test 2
Hang the half-filled bottle from the centre of the ruler while you and your
partner pull on the ruler as hard as you can, in opposite directions.
Position the ruler with its wide side up.
Module 3: Unit 2
Record in the table whether the ruler bends severely or not.
26
Test 3
Place the ruler between the two desks that are 250 mm apart. The wide
side of the ruler must be vertical.
You and your partner must hold the ruler firmly and hang the bottle with
water from it.
Record what happens to the ruler.
When every group in the class is finished, have the students discuss what they
observed. Most probably found that:
Test 1: The ruler bent a lot. When something like the ruler bends we say it
sags.
Test 2: The ruler bent slightly. The harder it was pulled the less it sagged.
Test 3: The ruler did not seem to sag at all. It remained rigid.
A beam must remain rigid under a load to be suitable as part of a structure. A
beam that sags severely is said to have failed, even if did not break. How can
this be applied to the use of beams in structures?
Beam
Load
1. A beam must not be laid flat.
Module 3: Unit 2
27
Beam
Load
2. A beam must be placed with the thin edge up, so it remains rigid when
supporting a load.
Look at houses and other buildings around you. Look for wooden and
concrete beams. You will see they are placed like the beam in the second
sketch.
Resource Task: Testing Beams of Different Shapes
In this resource task, students will find out what happens to beams when they
carry a load. In class, it is not possible to test large wooden, steel, or concrete
beams, so your students will make beams from A4 size card and test them.
Students should work in groups of three.
To
carry out this task each group needs:

test equipment (cool drink bottle, jug, kitchen scale)
four pieces of A4 size card
scissors
30 cm ruler
pencil
piece of stiff corrugated cardboard cut from a box
sticky tape or glue
This is how to test a card beam:

place the beam between two desks that are 250 mm apart
cut out a piece of stiff corrugated cardboard (30 mm the width of the
beam)
place the piece of cardboard on the centre of the beam
hang the test bottle from the beam so that the string rests on the piece of
stiff cardboard
pour water into the bottle until the beam collapses (one of your group
must be ready to catch the bottle as the beam collapses)
weigh the bottle and water to obtain the maximum load that the beam was
able to carry
Module 3: Unit 2
28
Beam 1 is a flat sheet of card.

Place the sheet of card across the gap between the two desks. Card is very
flimsy, which means it bends easily. You should find that it sags and falls
between the desks even before being loaded.
You have just seen how flimsy card is. Is it possible to make a rigid beam
from a flimsy sheet of card that can carry a load?
Beam 2 is a corrugated card beam. The beam looks like this.
To make the corrugated beam:

Draw lines 15 mm apart, parallel to the long edges of the sheet of card
used as BEAM 1.
Module 3: Unit 2
With the back edge of the scissors (or a ball point pen), score along each
of these lines. Rememberyou learned how to do this in Unit 1.
29
Fold the card along the scored lines to form a corrugated beam that is
about 30 mm wide.
Test the beam.
What load was needed to collapse the beam?
Have each group of students prepare a table to record the results of the
tests on Beams 1 and 2.
Beam No.
Profile
Flat
Corrugated
Load on Collapse
3
4
5
The middle column of the table is headed Profile. This refers to the shape of
the beam.
Beam 3
Have each group of students design, build, and test a beam.
1. The students should design a beam that will be strong and rigid, and carry
a load.
2. They should make the beam from card, using sticky tape or glue if
necessary.
3. After they test the beam, they should record the results in the table.
Module 3: Unit 2
30
Assessment
Observe and give marks to students for:
their construction of Beam 3

how they conducted the test of Beam 3
for reading the weight correctly on the kitchen scale
for the strength and rigidity of the beam
Beams 4 and 5
Have your students make and test two of the following profiles, as long as
neither is the same as Beam 3.
Sides: 20 mm or
30 mm or
40 mm
Diameter:
15 mm or
25 mm or
35 mm
The groups should make different sizes of the same profile (different
dimensions listed above). This way, the class as a whole can determine if
the size of the profile affects the rigidity and strength of the beam.
Beam 4 should be made using the profile not used in Beam 3 (triangular
or circular) and Beam 5 should be made with a rectangular profile.
When they test the rectangular profile beam, remind your students to decide
how the beam should be placed to be most rigid and strong.
this way?
or
this way
When the groups have finished building and testing five beams, have the class
compare and discuss the results. These are some of the questions that should
be answered during the class discussion:
Module 3: Unit 2
Which beam profile did the test results of your group show is the
strongest?
Did all groups get the same results?
Apart from the flat sheet, which profile was the weakest?
Did the size of the profile make a difference to the strength of the beam?
31
The test results should show that:
even a flimsy sheet of card can be made into a beam that can carry a
heavy load by shaping it into an appropriate profile
some profiles are more rigid and stronger than others
Self Assessment
Use the following questions to reflect on your teaching of Part 1.
Did your pupils find the lessons interesting? Experience has shown that
pupils usually enjoy making and testing card beams.
Did your pupils understand the instructions?
Were they able to score and fold the card into the required profiles?
Were they able to read the weight correctly on the kitchen scale?
Did they record their results accurately?
In group and class discussions, did pupils use new terminology correctly?
Did all three members of each group take an active part in the task?
How well did group members cooperate with each other?
Forces in Beams
Force, compressive, tensile, reinforced, concrete, lintel.

Remember in the introduction to this unit it was said that the method used in
Part 2 is to integrate content with teaching method. Much of Part 2 is the
acquisition of factual knowledge. In teaching this type of content, lessons can
easily become tedious lectures. Avoid this by including visual aids and other
methods. For example:
Use as many illustrations as possible. Many are included with the text.
Use any other suitable pictures and models you are able to find.
Ask questions to encourage your pupils to supply much of the

information themselves.
Allow plenty of time for discussion.
In Part 2 pupils will learn:
Module 3: Unit 2
about the two types of force on beams
why steel is used to reinforce concrete beams
the usefulness of concrete as a structural material
32
The first concern in teaching this section is to be sure your pupils are familiar
with the concept of force. This will depend on the grade they are in. If they
are unfamiliar with force, then you need to introduce it. Do this by describing
it as:
Force is something that pulls or pushes.
Module 3: Unit 2
To demonstrate force to the rest of the class, have two students stand at
the front of the room and pull and push on each other to feel force. Ask
the class where the forces are acting and how many forces there are.
Use the fishing diagram as an example of a force. Explain that there are
two forces on the fishing line because the fish and the man are pulling in
different directions.
Give the example of a person pushing a car that wont start. Explain that
the man exerts a force on the car as he pushes it.
33
The second thing pupils need to know is the effect force has on an object:
An object that is standing still will only begin to move
when a force pulls or pushes it.
Let pupils hold their rulers above the floor. Ask them why the ruler falls
when they let it go. They should know it is because the force of the earth
(force of gravity) pulls it.
. Refer to the example of the person pushing the car. The car only moves
when the person applies force to it.
Module 3: Unit 2
Explain that an object does not move every time a force pushes or pulls
on it.
Have pupils place their ruler on the desk. Ask if there is a force pulling
on the ruler. They should understand that the force of gravity is acting on
the ruler all the time, but the ruler does not move because the desk
pushes backin other words, it exerts an equal opposing force.
Use this example of a bucket filled with water pushing down on a ladder
with a strong force, but the ladder doesnt move.
34
Once you are satisfied that your pupils understand the concepts of force and
movement being a result of force, continue the study of force on beams. Do
this through a simple demonstration.
Demonstration of a beam
This demonstration requires a beam made from the sponge-like, elastic type
of plastic foam that is used in the seats of couch cushions and mattresses.
You can buy the foam and have it cut at a shop that sells foam. If there is no
such shop in your area, find an old couch or mattress. Cut it to the
dimensions shown here. It does not need to be exactly these dimensions.
Draw six vertical lines 20 mm apart on one side of the foam beam.
60
mm
80 mm
m
400 m
Place the ends of the beam on two desks that are 350 mm apart.
What happens to the lines if someone presses on the centre of the beam
with their hand? The two possibilities are shown in sketches A and B. In
A, the lines are everywhere 20 mm apart. In B, the lines at the top are less
than 20 mm apart.
A
or
Carry out this simple demonstration before you teach the lesson to satisfy
yourself that sketch B is correct.
Module 3: Unit 2
Start the demonstration by drawing the two sketches on the chalkboard

for the class and ask them which of the two they think is correct.
Before demonstrating what happens, ask several pupils to measure the

distance between the lines. Use this as an exercise of their measuring
skills.
35
While a pupil presses at the centre of the beam, ask other pupils to
measure the distance between the lines at the top and bottom edges of the
beam. Have them describe what they see.
They should say that:
on the top half of the beam, the lines move closer together
on the bottom half, they move further apart
the change in line separation is gradual or taperedthe distance between
lines increases steadily from top to bottom
sketch B shows this
From what you taught them about force, pupils should realise that the
movement of the foam means that force is pushing or pulling it. The force on
the top half of the beam is squeezing the beam together. The force on the
bottom half of the beam is stretching it.
Load
Compressive
Force
Tensile
Force
The squeezing force is called compressive force.

The stretching force is called tensile force.
Force on top
half of beam
Force on bottom
half of beam
This drawing shows what happens inside a rectangular beam when it

carries a load. Ask the class to look carefully at the drawing and say
where there is:
the greatest compressive force

the greatest tensile pulling force
Did any students notice there is no force on the middle of the beam?
Designing beams
This knowledge of force on beams is very useful in the design of beams. The
other important factor in the design of beams is the material the beams are
made of. It makes a difference to the design whether a beam is made of
wood, steel, or concrete.
Module 3: Unit 2
36
Show pupils each of the following drawings, one at a time, and ask them
what particular knowledge they think was used to design the shape of the
beam. An answer is given to each question to help you and to ensure that
the correct information is given to the pupils. Only give these if the
students are unable to provide correct answers.
Why are beams usually made thicker at the top and bottom?
Why do some steel beams have a profile like a capital I? They are called
I-beams.
Why do some steel I-beams even have large holes cut out of the middle?
Why do wooden beams always have a rectangular profile?
Why do concrete beams have rods of steel inside them?
Try to answer these questions yourself before reading the explanation that
follows. When you come to teach this, organise it as a small group activity.
Let the learners discuss the answers in their groups. Are any of them able to
provide a reasoned explanation? How does your explanation, and theirs,
compare with that given here?
The explanation begins with knowing about the strengths of steel and
concrete. Materials like steel and concrete are tested for two strengths.
Module 3: Unit 2
37
1. Compressive strength
This is the strength the steel or concrete has when a load squeezes or
compresses it, in other words, when a compressive force pushes on it.
2. Tensile strength
This is the strength the steel or concrete has when it is stretched, or when a
tensile force pulls on it.
How strong are steel and concrete?
There are different types of steel. The strengths
given here are for a type of steel called mild steel.
To compare the strengths of steel and concrete
in each of the following situations, imagine a
rectangular shaped piece of each material that is
100 mm 100 mm.
100 100
Compressive strengths
Steel is very strong!
It would take the weight of more than 500 tonnes
pressing down on a rectangular piece of steel
before it broke. That is the weight of about one
hundred adult elephants
Concrete is quite strong.
Concrete, because it is similar to rock, is quite
strong when compressed. The piece of concrete
would need a weight of about 25 tonnes before it
cracked and crumbled.
The tensile strengths

Steel is very strong!
It would take 400 tonnes or the weight of about
eighty adult elephants to tear the piece of steel.
Concrete is very weak!

It would take only 1.8 tonnes to tear the piece
of concrete. It could not support the weight
of even one elephant.
Module 3: Unit 2
38
Present this information to the class in the way it has been described and
summarise it for them by means of this table.
Strengths (in tonnes)
of rectangular pieces
100 mm x 100 mm
Steel
Concrete
Compressive
500
25
Tensile
400
1.8
How does this information help you to understand why steel rods are placed
in the bottom half of concrete beams? Remember also what you have learned
about the forces on a beam.
1
The force in the top half of a beam is compressive. You have now learned
that concrete has good compressive strength and can withstand this force.
The force on the bottom half of a beam is tensile. Concrete has very little
tensile strength and will easily tear at the bottom of the beam. On the
other hand, steel is very strong and can easily withstand the tensile forces.
The steel is placed at the bottom to withstand the tensile force. The steel
reinforces the concrete. The beam is called a reinforced concrete beam.
concrete
Reinforced concrete beam
steel bar
Concrete is a useful building and structural material. It will be valuable for

pupils to know more about it so that they can appreciate its usefulness.
The usefulness of concrete in buildings and structures
Concrete can be made into practically any shape without expensive and
complicated tools or equipment. This is unlike steel, which can be difficult
and time consuming to work with.
Module 3: Unit 2
39
Engineers and designers have shaped concrete into beautiful bridges,

buildings, and other structures.
Concrete is useful not only in large structures. It can also be used to make
several items for use in and around the house:
brick wall
floor
concrete
foundation
Foundations for huts and houses
Module 3: Unit 2
40
Paving blocks for pathways
lintil
Lintels to support brickwork above windows and doors
Steps
For your pupils to understand the properties of a concrete beam, it will be
helpful if they know how concrete is made. Ask the class:
What is concrete made of?
How is concrete made?
Did any pupils know that concrete is made of four ingredients:
stone
Module 3: Unit 2
sand
cement
41
water
concrete
Did any pupils know it is made quite simply by mixing the solid ingredients
first then adding the water. It can be mixed by hand using a spade or with a
machine called a concrete mixer.
Mixed concrete is like porridge. It is poured into a mould of the shape

required and hardens within several hours, although it is not strong at that
stage. It gradually gets stronger day by day. It takes twenty-eight days to
reach maximum strength. It then becomes as hard as rock. It becomes harder
concrete if during the time it is hardening it is kept wet.
Frame structures
Bradawl, pin joint, triangulation, redundant.

In this section you are going to teach your pupils about structures that
are frames. They will:
learn how to make a frame rigid
learn how to identify frames that are rigid and those that are not
Module 3: Unit 2
design and make a model framework bridge
42
Resource Task:
Assemble a Framework and Make it Rigid
It is preferable that pupils work individually on this task.
They will each need:
six ice cream sticks
six paper fasteners (split pins)
A5 (half A4) size very stiff cardboard
ruler
pencil
glue
They can share the use of:
bradawl or a 50 mm nail with a sharp point
This is a bradawl.
If there are insufficient or no ice cream sticks available, very stiff cardboard
can be used instead. Six strips must be cut from the cardboard sheet. These
should be more or less the same size as ice cream sticks.
Instruct the pupils to:
1. Use the pencil to mark the positions for holes at each end of the ice
cream sticks. The distance between the holes must be at exactly the same
location on each stick. This will require pupils to exercise accurate
measuring skills.
Module 3: Unit 2
43
2. Use the bradawl to make the holes in the sticks.
3. Assemble this simple rectangular frame. Use split pins to join the sticks
to each other.
The pupils should observe that the frame is not rigid. When asked why, they
should be able to give as a reason the freedom of movement that the pin
joints allow.
Pin joints hold the parts together but allow them to rotate freely.
Students must find a way to make the frame rigid, using only what they have
been given for this task. They may not use the glue to fix the joints.
To solve the problem did some do this?
Module 3: Unit 2
44
Did others do this?
Did any do this?
Have a class discussion on these and any other solutions produced by

members of the class. In the discussion, the sorts of questions they should be
trying to answer are:
How many different successful solutions to the problem were there?

Do all three of the above arrangements make the frame rigid?
In the third solution, two additional strips were added to the frame to
make it rigid. Are both strips necessary?
Is there something similar about the three solutions?
The following points need to be made if they do not emerge clearly during
the discussion:
The successful solutions either made the frame into triangles or used a
triangular shaped piece of card. This is called triangulation.
The solution that added two strips to the frame only needed to add one.
Adding a second is a waste of time and material. The extra strip is called
a redundant strip.
The triangular shaped piece of card glued to the frame in Solution 2 is
called a gusset. Only one is necessary on this frame to make it rigid.
Triangulation is a very commonly used means of making frame structures

rigid as shown by these examples. Any pin-jointed frame structure must be
triangulated to make it rigid.
Module 3: Unit 2
45
The pupil should be able to give several examples of triangulation on

structures they have observed. Here are a few:
Bicyle frame
Roof truss
Roadway
Truss
Abutment
Pier
Bridge
Large crane
Module 3: Unit 2
46
Assessment
The following two exercises can be used to assess a pupils understanding of
triangulation of frame structures. Both exercises should be done individually.
Exercise 1
This is a diagram of the basic structure of a framework bridge in which all
joints are pin points. Draw on the diagram additional members that are
necessary to make the whole bridge rigid.
Exercise 2
Complete this table
Frame
Module 3: Unit 2
Is the frame
in the left
hand column
rigid?
(yes or no)
47
If the frame is not rigid, redraw

the frame in this column and
add the minimum number of
members necessary
to make it rigid.
The technological process and pupil capability

Remember that technology is concerned with meeting human needs and
solving problems by designing and making things. To do this, the
technological process uses:
1. relevant knowledge to arrive at possible solutions
2. acquired skills to design and build the solution
Through your teaching of this course, you are giving your pupils appropriate
knowledge and skills from selected content areas of technology. By following
the technological process, they will develop problem solving capabilities in
those content areas.
In Unit 2, pupils have:
completed a number of resource tasks in which they learned specific
knowledge and skills related to testing model beams
conducted a case study of the strength of steel and concrete beams, and
how steel is used to reinforce concrete beams
learned the skill of making frame structures rigid by means of

triangulation
Case Study
The following case study provides an opportunity to apply their capability in
the area of beams and frame structures to solving a problem.
In the rural areas of our continent, travel to and from school is problematic
for many pupils. If you teach in a rural school, many of your pupils might
experience this problem.
Module 3: Unit 2
Organise the class into discussion groups of six to eight students and ask
them to identify the travel problems of pupils in rural areas. Remind them
to discuss the possible negative effects on the performance of the pupils
and their ability to cope with schooling.
Remind students of the group of the discussion rules that you apply in
your class. They need to appoint a discussion leader and a spokesperson
who will make notes and report back to a plenary session of the whole
class. Allow 15 to 20 minutes for group discussion.
Have each groups spokesperson provide the class with a summary of the
group discussion. Hopefully at least one group mentions the need of some
pupils to have to cross streams or rivers to get to and from school. If it is
not mentioned, then you will need to do so as this is the particular
problem that pupils are going to be required to solve as a capability task.
Tell the class the tragic case of several pupils from a rural area of the
Kwazulu-Natal province of South Africa, who drowned while attempting
to cross a flooded river. Has there been a similar tragedy in your region?
48
The discussions have provided a context for the capability task. Pupils should
work on this task in small groups. The resources needed to carry out the task
are inexpensive and easily obtainable so if possible let them work in pairs.
This will ensure that all are actively involved in the task. It will also make it
easier for you to assess pupil capability on an individual basis.
Capability Task
In a rural area many pupils need to cross a river. The bed of the river is full of
rocks that make it difficult to cross. People in this poor community have
always been concerned about their children crossing the river each day.
During a recent flood, a pupil drowned when she slipped while crossing and
was carried into deeper water downstream. This shocked the community and
they have decided to build some form of bridge over the river with the limited
resources available to them.
There are bushes of wattle and gum trees of various heights in the area. The
community can raise enough money to purchase large nails, bolts, nuts, and
washers to join the parts of a bridge together.
Design and make a model of a bridge that the community could build
over the river.
The model must be able to span 300 mm.
The load the model must be able to support is a one-litre cool drink
bottle full of water, suspended by a piece of string from the centre.
Supply pupils with this drawing of the terrain across which the bridge is
to be built. Key dimensions have been included on the drawing.
30 metre
6 metre
pathway
rocky river bed
pathway
Your pupils will need the following materials and tools.
Module 3: Unit 2
wooden skewers, or plastic drinking straws, or macaroni (one of these is

for use as bridge material)
glue gun and glue stick (if not available, use contact adhesive, however,
contact glue takes longer to harden and will slow the construction time)
craft knife or scissors
ruler
49
Before your pupils begin the project, give them the following assessment
guidelines:
group members will be individually assessed on how they participate in
the task
each groups model will be evaluated by the rest of the class
Brainstorm with the class to get ideas for criteria for evaluation of the
models. Collate their ideas into not more than five criteria that the students
can then include in their design. Two necessary criteria are:
1. The model bridge must support the weight of the one-litre cool drink
bottle full of water.
2. It must span a gap of 300 mm between two desks.
Module 3: Unit 2
50
Module Summary
For some students, a hands-on exploration of structures may be a door that
beckons them to a career in civil engineering. Developing countries need
large numbers of engineers, and in fact most societies have more openings for
engineers than for scientists. To make such a goal seem reachable for your
students, consider having a practising engineer visit your class and describe
projects he or she is working on. Remember an increasing proportion of
engineers are women.
Another possibility is to have the class visit some nearby large structure, and
look at its construction for examples of what the students have learned in
class. This project could be as simple as looking at your own school building!
The key to teaching technology, as these modules often reiterate, is to get the
students involved with real technology examples.
Module 3
51
Module Summary

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Module 3

Upper Primary Technology

Science, Technology and Mathematics Modules

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND MATHEMATICS MODULES

Upper Primary Science

Junior Secondary Science

Upper Primary Technology

Junior Secondary Technology

Upper Primary Mathematics

Junior Secondary Mathematics

A MESSAGE FROM THE COMMONWEALTH OF LEARNING

Dato Professor Gajaraj Dhanarajan

CONTACTS FOR THE PROGRAMME

National Ministry of Education

Ministry of Education and Culture

Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture

Ministry of Basic Education,

Technology for All

Technology for All

Technology for All

PROJECT MANAGEMENT & DESIGN

Education Specialist, Teacher Training

Mr. David Rogers:

Ms. Lee McKenzie McAnally:

Ms. Sandy Reber:

Graphics & desktop publishing

UPPER PRIMARY TECHNOLOGY PROGRAMME

strengthen your understanding of technology topics

prepare your own portfolio about your teaching activities

The relationship between this programme and the technology curriculum

provide an overview of the content in order to support the development of appropriate

use selected parts of the curriculum to develop specific teaching strategies

provide directions to additional resources on the curriculum content

How to Work on this Programme

working through the programme on your own

working through the programme with colleagues

asking colleagues to provide feedback and act as resource persons

working through the programme with the support of a mentor

Using a Learning Journal

Resources Available to You

working examples of energy use in electronic communication or of materials or tools

internet resources (if applicable)

Which module topics does the material address?

Are the ideas in this material transferable to the technology classroom?

Rationale or overview for this part of the course.

What you should be able to do after completing

Text or Reading Material

Course content for you to study.

Something to study carefully, or a possibly

An exercise or project for you to try by yourself

An exercise or project for you to do with or

A question or project for yourself for deeper

Exercise to assess your understanding of all the

List or description of any apparatus or tools that

Module 3 Overview .......................................................................................................... 2

Unit 1: The Basic Functions of Structures

know the three basic functions of structures

be able to cut, score, fold, and form a package from card

The Basics of Structures

Load, score, broken line.

Basic Functions of Structures

Some structures provide protection or shelter

In nature, the shell of a snail is a small yet interesting example of a natural

From what does the shell of a