DESIGN FIRES FOR COMMERCIAL

PREMISES

Dr. Ehab Zalok

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Carleton University

Background
Codes are moving from traditionally prescriptive
building codes towards performance-based codes.
Canada: NBC05 and NFC05

Increase in the use of engineering solutions and

approaches in the design of fire safety in buildings.
Performance-based designs are done by
considering how the building and its fire protection
systems perform in the event of a fire.
Building performance is evaluated following a fire
hazard analysis procedure.
CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

2/24

Define project scope

Engineering Approach
Performancebased Fire Protection

Identify goals
Define stakeholder and
design objectives
Develop performance
criteria

Engineering flowchart
of Performance
based Fire Protection
SFPE 2000.

Develop fire protection

engineering design brief

Develop design fire

scenarios
Develop trial designs
Evaluate trial designs

Selected design meets

performance criteria?
No
Yes

Modify design or
objectives

Select the final design

Performancebased
design report

Prepare design
documentation

Specification, drawings,
and operational and
maintenance manual
CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

3/24

Performancebased Fire Protection

Challenges - Opportunities
Demands a better understanding of the fire hazards of
materials and the dynamics of design fires.
Quantitatively measure fundamental properties to evaluate
the expected performance of a material, product, or
assembly
Data could be used with appropriate analytical or computational
models

Require accurate calculations methods to justify the

performance to the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ)
Data for the fire properties can be obtained from New or
Modified standard test methods
Index-based, pass-fail fire test methods (prescriptive-based)
Performance (performance-based)
CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

4/24

Fire Scenarios and Design Fires

Fire hazard analysis requires the identification of:
Fire scenarios that may occur in the building (Qualitative)
Design fires that should be considered (Quantitative)

Design fires
Fire Resistance Tests
CAN/ULC S101 & ASTM E119 & ISO 834-1

t-squared fires
HRR
1
= (t t i )2
Design fire curves
Ignition growth flashover - fully developed - decay

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

5/24

Process for Developing Design Fires

Identification of design fires

Fire loads
Type of combustibles
Arrangement of combustibles
Building characteristics

Quantification of design fires

Heat release rate (HRR)
Production rate of toxic gases

1. Fire load surveys of

real buildings
2. Literature
3. Statistics

1. Testing
2. Computer modeling

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

6/24

(1) Design Fires Project

Objectives
Develop appropriate design fires representing fires in
commercial buildings.
1. Define fire loads and fuel packages representing the
types of combustibles in commercial buildings.
2. Produce experimental data showing the burning
characteristics of the fuel packages.
3. Develop input data files to be used in fire models (FDS) to
represent the fuel packages in commercial premises.
4. Use the input data files developed in Step 3 to model the
burning characteristics in real-size stores.

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

7/24

Research Methods
Assessment of the Fire Load
(Fire load survey+literature+Statistics)
Design fuel Packages
Conduct Phase I tests, ISO room

Predict burning characteristics

Phase I modeling (FDS)

No

Select fuel Packages for Phase II

Conduct Phase II tests,
Post-flashover

Yes
Predict burning characteristics

Phase II modeling (FDS)

No
Yes

Define appropriate design fires

(HRR, hot layer temperature, and CO
and CO2 production rates)

Define appropriate input file in FDS to

predict fire characteristics in real-size
stores
CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

8/24

Discrete FLD Values and PDF of the

Lognormal Distribution

f ( x) =

1
x 2

1 ln x 2
(
)
2

= population mean
= standard deviation

Q = ki mi hci

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

9/24

Combustibles Contribution to the FLD

100

96

90

% Contribution

80
70
60
50

59

60

47

40

41

41

Food

Misc.

30
20
10

18
8.3

0
Textiles

Plastics

Wood/Paper

Mean (), 95th percentile (-)

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

10/24

Fuel Packages Used in Design Fires for

Medium/Large-Scale Tests

Computer store

Storage area

Toy Store

Bookstore

Clothing store

Clothing store

Shoe store

Fast Food
CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

11/24

Fuel Packages Used in Design Fires for

Medium/Large-Scale Tests
Textiles
FLD
(MJ/m2)
812
3.08

Test Title

ID

Computer store

CMP-I

Storage area

SA-I

Clothing store

CLS-I

661

Clothing store

CLW-I

661

Clothing store

CLC-I

661

86.0

2320

5.60

% of fire load
Plastics Wood/ Rubber/
Food
paper leather products
50.6
46.3
0.00
0.00
31.1

49.1

8.50

5.70

55.0

6.00

37.0

2.00

0.00

23.0

1.00

76.0

0.00

0.00

2.00

12.0

0.00

0.00

Toy store

TOY-I

1223

6.59

18.6

74.8

0.00

0.00

Shoe store

SHO-I

4900

1.00

0.00

34.0

65.0

0.00

Bookstore

BK-I

5305

0.40

0.00

99.6

0.00

0.00

Fast-food outlet

FF-I

881

0.30

19.3

38.9

0.00

41.5

Each fuel package (1.0 m2) represents the fire load density, method of display, and
combustible products in the proportions determined in the survey
CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

12/24

Experimental Set-up

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

13/24

Heat Release per Unit Mass of Oxygen

Constant net amount of heat is released per unit
mass of oxygen consumed for complete combustion
(Thornton 1917)

Heat released has a value of 13.1 MJ/kg of O2

Organic solids/liquids and gases (Huggett 1980)

Example: hexane (complete combustion):

C6H14 + 9.5(O2 + 3.76N2) 6CO2 + 7H2O + 35.72N2

Oxygen Depletion Method (Janssens 1991)

A

M O2
o
m& e
1 CO
Q& = E ( ECO E )
(1 oH 2O ) OA2
A
2 O2 1 + ( 1) M a

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

14/24

Heat Release Rate (HRR)

3000
BK-II
CLC-II
CMP-II
FF-II
SA-II
SHO-II
TOY-II
Slow t-squared
Medium t-squared
Fast t-squared

Test ID
CMP-II
SA-II
CLC-II
TOY-II
SHO-II
BK-II
FF-II

1000
500
0
0

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

Growth rate

1500

Time1 (Min)

2000

Heat release data

4:10
2:45
3:30
4:15
4:00
2:50
6:15

M-F
F
M-F
F
M-F
S-M
S-M

Peak (kW)

Heat Release Rate (KW)

2500

2475
2385
2660
2570
2555
2375
2700

Time (s)

15/24

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

CO & CO2
14

BK-II

CLC-II

CMP-II

SA-II

SHO-II

TOY-II

140

FF-II

120
CO2 Production (mg/kJ)

CO Production (mg/kJ)

12
10
8
6
4
2

BK-II

CLC-II

CMP-II

SA-II

SHO-II

TOY-II

FF-II

100
80
60
40
20

600

1200

1800

2400

Time (s)

CO production rates (mg/kJ)

3000

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

Time (s)

CO2 production rates (mg/kJ)

Growth / fuel-controlled flaming conditions (early decay), lowest of all phases.

Ventilation-controlled, highest of all phases. (peak = 2-4 times the average)
Smouldering > growth / fuel-controlled flaming conditions
(combustion occurring at low temperature)
Visibility and Tenability limits
CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

16/24

Comparisons Between One and Two

Packages (Experiments SA-I and SA-II)
140

14

120

SA-I
CO2 Production (mg/kJ)

CO Production (mg/kJ)

SA-II

SA-II

12
10
8
6
4

SA-I

100
80
60
40
20

0
0

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

600

1200

SA-II
Heat Release Rate (KW)

2500

HRR (KW)

2400

3000

CO2 production

3000

CO production

1800
Time (s)

Time (s)

SA-I

2000
1500
1000
500
0
0

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

Time (s)

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

17/24

Modeling Objectives
Develop a simple input data file that generates the same fire
characteristics as in Phases I and II, in details:
1.

Model the fuel packages

(material properties and ideal stoichiometric coefficients)

2.

Simulate the burning characteristics of Phase I and II tests

(HRR, hot layer temperature, CO and CO2 total production )

3.

Assess the simulation capability to predict the burning

characteristic of real-size stores

Modeling was conducted using the (CFD) model,

Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) by (NIST)
CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

18/24

Modelling & Simulation

Challenges:
Grid resolution
Material density (kg/m3)
Heat of vaporization (kJ/kg)
Heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
Ignition temperature (C)
CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

19/24

Sensitivity Analysis
2000

2000
1800

PMMA, original

1600
PMMA, 25% decrease in density

1400
1200
1000
800
600

Heat Release Rate (KW)

Heat Release Rate (KW)

1800

PMMA, original

1600

PMMA, 25% decrease in HoV

1400
1200
1000
800
600

400

400

200

200
0

0
0

600

1200

1800

600

1800

2000

2000
1800

PMMA, original

1600

PMMA, 25% decrease in HC

1400
1200
1000
800
600

Heat Release Rate (KW)

Heat Release Rate (KW)

1200
Time (s)

Time (s)

1800

PMMA, original

1600

PMMA, 25% decrease in

ignition temperature

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400

400

200

200

0
0

600

1200
Time (s)

1800

600

1200

1800

Time (s)

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

20/24

10

Modeling vs. Experimental Results

3000
FF-II
1000

FF-II
FDS-II

2500

FDS-II

Heat Release Rate (KW)

800
600
400

FF-I
FDS-I

2000
1500
1000
500

200

0
0

0
0

600

1200

600

1800

Hot layer temperature (C)

1200

1800

Time (s)

Time (s)

Heat release rate (kW)

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

21/24

Modelling vs. Experimental Results

(Total CO and CO2 produced)

T est

C o m p u te r s to re
S to ra g e a r e a
C lo t h in g s t o r e
T o y s to re
S h oe store
B o o k s to re

T e s t ID

C M P -II
F D S - II
S A -I I
F D S - II
C L C -II
F D S - II
T O Y -I I
F D S - II
S H O - II
F D S - II
B K -I I
F D S - II

6 .0 9
6 .4 5
5 .7 4
6 .1 2
2 .1 1
1 .9 1
4 .0 4
4 .4 5
8 .0 5
8 .4 9
6 .0 1
6 .4 0

Total CO2 (kg)

G as data
Total CO (kg)

TC Temperature @ 2.1-m high ( C)

1200

1 0 9 .3 0
1 1 2 .3 0
2 3 0 .3 0
2 3 9 .4 1
1 0 1 .8 0
1 0 7 .1 8
1 7 4 .7 0
1 8 0 .7 9
3 1 1 .2 0
3 1 5 .6 1
4 0 9 .4 0
4 1 5 .8 0

CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

22/24

11

Fire in a 10 x 10 x 2.6-m Store

with two 6 x 2.6-m doors

Modelling and simulation provide a cost-effective mean to

examine how the system works
CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

23/24

1400

60

1200

50
Heat release rate (MW)

Hot layer temperature ( C)

Modeling 10 x 10-m Toy Store

1000
800
600
400

Theoretical peak
51.5 (MW)

40
30
20
10

200

0
0

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

600

Hot layer temperature (C)

1200

1800

2400

3000

Time (s)

Time (s)

Heat release rate (MW)

Temperature ranges from 700 to 1200C in an enclosure

during the fully-developed fire (Karlsson and Quintiere,2000)
Absolute peak HRR (MW) = 1.518 Ao Ho
CIB-W014 Fire, Ottawa, 2008

24/24

12