Chapter 3

Components of Rainwater Harvesting System

3.1

Roof Catchment

In a rainwater harvesting system, the only area for house owner to harvest rainwater is the
roof. However, if the users want to increase additional capacity, an open barn or rain barn
can be built beside the house roof. Harvested rain water quality can varied according to
different type of roof catchment material, countrys climate, and surrounding
environment (Vasudevan, 2002).

3.1.1

Metal Roof

Smoother surface of roof can enhance the harvesting ability. A common used roofing
material for rainwater harvesting is Galvalume, which consists of 55% aluminum and
45% zinc alloy-coated sheet steel (Texas, 2005).

3.1.2

Clay or Concrete Roof

Clay and concrete tile are porous. These types of materials are suitable for potable system
as well as non-potable system. However, it may cause 10% of runoff loss due to the tiles
texture. The solution is to coat it with sealant to reduce loss. However, sealant may have
chance of toxins leaching even though it can prevent bacterial growth(Texas, 2005).

3.1.3

Roof Area Calculations

The size of roof area has a huge impact on the collection of rainwater for a house or
building. Before calculating the roof area, it is important to determine which parts of roof
can be used for collecting rainwater. Figure 3.1.1 shows three different types of roof
slope along with their formulae for roof area calculations(DID, 2012)

(a) Single Sloping Roof Freely Exposed to the Wind

A c = A h+

Av
2

Eq.

3.1a

(b) Single Sloping Roof Partially Exposed to the Wind

1
A c = A h+ ( A v 2 A v 1 )
2

(c) Two Adjacent Sloping Roofs

Eq. 3.1b

1
A c = A h1 + A h2 + ( A v 2 A v1 )
2

Eq. 3.1c

Figure 3.1.1: Roof Catchment Areas(DID, 2012)

3.2

Gutter and Downpipe

Gutters are used to capture the rainwater running off from the roof and downpipes are
used to deliver the rainwater into the rainwater storage tank.Inadequate number of
downpipes, excessive long roof length, steep roof slopes, and less perform gutter
maintenance, are among the reasons of spillage or overrunning of rainwater. Therefore, it
is advisable to consult the gutter supplier for the best installation.
In allocating potable usewater system, gutter and downpipes cannot use lead
material. This is due to slightly acidic quality of rain could dissolve lead and thus
contaminate the water supply.The most common materials ofgutters for both potable and
non-potable systemsare PVC,vinyl, seamless aluminum and galvanized steel(Georgia,
2009).Figure 3.2.1 shows the typical half round gutters and eaves gutters.

(a) Layout of half round

gutters& downpipes

(b) Eaves Gutters

Figure 3.2.1: Examples of Roof Conveyance System

3.2.1

Roof Catchment Runoff Calculation

The general equation used to calculate the rainwater runoff flow rate on the roof is as
below:
Q (l/s) = catchment area ( m

) x rainfall intensity ( mm/ hr ) x impermeability factor

3600

(Eq. 3.2a)
However, for roof slope greater than 40, the following equation is adopted:
Q(l/s) = catchment area ( m

) x rainfall intensity ( mm/hr ) x (1+ 0.462 tan) x

impermeability factor 3600

(Eq. 3.2b)
Where is the roof pitch in degrees.

3.2.2

Calculations ofGutter and Downpipe Sizes

Equation 3.2c is used to calculate the size of the level half-round gutter based on the
calculated Q by Equation 3.2a or 3.2b:

Q = 2.67 x

105 x

Ag

1.25

l/s

(Eq.

3.2c)

Where

Ag

is cross sectional area of the half-round gutter in mm2.

On the other hand, Equation 3.2d is used to calculate the size of other shapes of level
gutter based on the calculated Q by Equation 3.2a or 3.2b:

Q=

9.67
105

A o3
W

(Eq.

l/s

3.2d)

Where

Ao

is the cross sectional area of flow at gutter outlet in mm2, and W is the width

of water surface.
Note:
For 1:600 gradient of gutter,Qis increased by 40%; while the frictional resistance of
gutter can reduce Q by 10% and each bending can reduce 25% of Q.

Tables 3.2.1a, 3.2.1b, 3.2.2a, 3.2.2b, 3.2.3a and 3.2.3bshowthe sizes of half
round and rectangular gutters with downpipes calculated based on Equations 3.2a3.2dfor various design rainfall intensities of50-mm/h, 100-mm/h and 150-mm/h. The
calculations were based on the assumptions of (i) roof pitch is 30 o; (ii) 1:600 gradient of
gutter and Q is increased by 40%; (iii) the frictional resistance of gutter can reduce Q by
10%; and (iv) no bending gutter. User can select the gutter and downpipe sizes from the
tables according to the roof area (m2), roof catchment runoff rate (L/s), and the shapes of
gutter and downpipe.

Table 3.2.1a:Half round gutters and downpipes for50-mm/h of designrainfall intensity

Roof
Area
(m2)
50
60
70
80
100
120

Roof
Runoff
Rate
(L/s)
0.66
0.79
0.92
1.06
1.32
1.58

Half Round Gutters

(diameter/mm)
End outlet
Center Outlet
Cal. Ava. Cal.
Ava.
Size Size Size
Size
85
174
42.5
174
90
174
45.0
174
95
174
47.5
174
100
174
50.0
174
110
174
55.0
174
120
174
60.0
174

Circular Downpipe *
(diameter/mm)
End outlet
Center Outlet
Cal.
Ava. Cal. Ava.
Size
Size Size
Size
56.0
82
28.0
82
59.5
82
29.5
82
63.0
82
31.5
82
66.0
82
33.0
82
72.5
82
36.5
82
79.0
82
39.5
82

150
200

1.98
2.64

130
145

174
174

65.0
72.5

174
174

86.0
95.5

110
110

43.0
48.0

82
82

*Downpipe size is 66% of gutter width

Table 3.2.1b:Rectangulargutters and downpipes for50-mm/h of design rainfall intensity

Roof
Area
(m2)
50
60
70
80
100
120
150
200

Roof
Runoff
Rate
(L/s)
0.66
0.79
0.92
1.06
1.32
1.58
1.98
2.64

Rectangular/ Eave Gutters

(mm)
Cal. Size
Ava. Size
width
depth
width
depth
37.5
75
190
150
40.0
80
190
150
42.5
85
190
150
45.0
90
190
150
47.5
95
190
150
52.5
105
190
150
57.5
115
190
150
62.5
125
190
150

Rectangular Downpipe *
(mm)
Cal. Size
Ava. Size
width
depth
width
depth
49.5
25.0
100
50
53.0
26.0
100
50
56.0
28.0
100
50
59.5
30.0
100
50
62.5
31.5
100
50
69.5
35.0
100
50
76.0
38.0
100
50
82.5
41.0
100
50

*Downpipe size is 66% of gutter width

Note: Assumedthe depth is half of the width of gutter

Table 3.2.2a:Half round gutters and downpipes for100-mm/h of design rainfall intensity

Roof
Area
(m2)

Roof
Runoff
Rate
(L/s)

Half Round Gutters

(diameter/mm)
End outlet
Center Outlet
Cal. Ava. Cal.
Ava.
Size Size Size
Size

Circular Downpipe *
(diameter/mm)
End outlet
Center Outlet
Cal.
Ava. Cal. Ava.
Size
Size Size
Size

50
60
70
80
100
120
150
200

1.32
1.58
1.85
2.11
2.64
3.17
3.96
5.28

110
120
125
135
145
155
170
195

174
174
174
174
174
174
174
174

55.0
60.0
62.5
67.5
72.5
77.5
85.0
97.5

174
174
174
174
174
174
174
174

72.5
79.0
82.5
89.0
95.5
102.5
112.0
128.5

82
82
82
110
110
110
110
160

36.5
39.5
41.0
44.5
48.0
51.0
56.0
64.5

82
82
82
82
82
82
82
82

*Downpipe size is 66% of gutter width

Table 3.2.2b:Rectangulargutters and downpipes for100-mm/h of design rainfall intensity

Roof
Area
(m2)
50
60
70
80
100
120
150
200

Roof
Runoff
Rate
(L/s)
1.32
1.58
1.85
2.11
2.64
3.17
3.96
5.28

Rectangular/ Eave Gutters

(mm)
Cal. Size
Ava. Size
width
depth
width
depth
47.5
95
190
150
50.0
105
190
150
105.0
110
190
150
57.5
115
190
150
62.5
125
190
150
67.5
135
190
150
75.0
150
190
150
82.5
165
190
150

Rectangular Downpipe *
(mm)
Cal. Size
Ava. Size
width
depth
width
depth
62.5
32
100
50
69.5
35
100
50
72.5
36
100
50
76.0
38
100
50
82.5
41
100
50
89.0
45
100
50
99.0
50
100
50
109.0
55
120
80

*Downpipe size is 66% of gutter width

Note: Assumedthe depth is half of the width of gutter

Table 3.2.3a:Half round gutters and downpipes for150-mm/h of design rainfall intensity
Roof
Area
(m2)

Roof
Runoff
Rate
(L/s)

Half Round Gutters

(diameter/mm)
End outlet
Center Outlet
Cal. Ava. Cal.
Ava.

Circular Downpipe *
(diameter/mm)
End outlet
Center Outlet
Cal.
Ava. Cal. Ava.

50
60
70
80
100

1.98
2.38
2.77
3.17
3.96

Size
130
140
150
160
170

Size
174
174
174
174
174

Size
65
70
75
80
85

Size
174
174
174
174
174

Size
85.8
92.4
99
105.6
112.2

Size
110
110
110
110
110

120
150

4.75
5.94

185
200

174
174

92.5
100

174
174

122.1
132

160
160

200

7.92

225

174

112.5

174

148.5

160

Size
42.9
46.2
49.5
52.8
56.1
61.0
5
66
74.2
5

Size
82
82
82
82
82
82
82
82

*Downpipe size is 66% of gutter width

Table 3.2.3b:Rectangulargutters and downpipes for150-mm/h of design rainfall intensity

Roof
Area
(m2)
50
60
70
80
100
120
150
200

Roof
Runoff
Rate
(L/s)
1.98
2.38
2.77
3.17
3.96
4.75
5.94
7.92

Rectangular/ Eave Gutters

(mm)
Cal. Size
Ava. Size
width
depth
width
depth
57.5
115
190
150
60
120
190
150
65
130
190
150
67.5
135
190
150
75
150
190
150
80
160
190
150
87.5
175
190
150
97.5
195
250
178

Rectangular Downpipe *
(mm)
Cal. Size
Ava. Size
width
depth
width
depth
75.9
38
100
50
79.2
40
100
50
85.8
43
100
50
89.1
45
100
50
99
50
100
50
105.6
53
120
80
115.5
58
120
80
128.7
64
150
75

*Downpipe size is 66% of gutter width

Note: Assumedthe depth is half of the width of gutter

Some local gutter manufacturers also produce gutters and downpipes with
different sizes from those stated in the tables above, such as 4 x 4 and 3 x 6 eave
gutters.

Sample Calculation

Given:
For roof with 15-m of width and 4-m of length, the roof catchment area (ABCK) = 60-m2
Design rainfall = 100 mm/h
Roof pitch 30
Roof permeability factor = 0.95
(i) Roof catchment runoff rate
Based onEquation 3.2a (less than 40 degree of roof pitch), the roof catchment runoff rate
is:
Q = 60 m2 x 100 mm/hr x 1/3600 s/hr x 1/1000 m/mm x 1000/1 l/m x 0.95 = 1.58- l/s

Figure 3.2.2: Roof Catchment Area

(ii) Gutter size

Case I: Circular gutter (end outlet)
Ag

Cross sectional area of circular gutter,

, was calculated using Equation3.2c;

Used1:600gradient of gutter, wheregutter flowrate increased by 40%;

Fictional force reduced gutter flowrate by 10%
Thus,
1.25
5
Q = 1.4 x 0.9 x 2.67 x 10
x Ag
l/s
And
Ag= 5472.07mm2

Width of gutter,
W = (Ag x 8 / )= 118.04-mm (rounded to 120-mm)

For center outlet, adopt a smaller gutter size (half of the size) as it only carries
half the flow load.
Case II: Rectangular gutter (end outlet)
Cross sectional area of rectangular gutter,

Ao

was calculated using

Equation3.2d;
Used1:600gradient of gutter, where gutter flowrate increased by 40%;
Fictional force reduced gutter flow rate by 10%
Thus,

Q = 1.4 x 0.9 x
And

9.67
105

A o3
W

l/s

A o =WD/2

Width of gutter (assumed that the depth is half of the width),

1.5833 = 1.4 x 0.9 x

9.67
105

W 2 D3
= 1.4 x 0.9 x
8

W = 101.56-mm (rounded to 105-mm)

9.67
105

W5
64

(iii)

Downpipe size (for both circular and rectangular gutters)

Assumed to be 66% of gutter width, thus:
Case I:
Circular gutter should adopt 79-mm diameter of downpipe for end outlet design
and 39.5-mm diameter of downpipe for center outlet design;
Case II:
Rectangular gutter should adopt 69.5-mm widthand 35-mm depth of downpipe

3.2.2.1 MSMAs Method for Eave Gutter Design

Table 3.2.4shows the sizes of eave gutters read from Charts 3.2.1 and 3.2.2from a
design rainfall intensity of 100-mm/h.Charts 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 show the relationships
among roof catchment area, design rainfall intensity and cross sectional area of
eavegutter. Finally,Table 3.2.5 shows the respective sizesof downpipes.

Table 3.2.4:Sizes of gutters and downpipes (DID, 2012)

Cross Sectional Area of Eave Gutters (
Roof
Area
( m

50
60
70
80
90
100

Design
Rainfall
Intensity
(mm/h)
100
100
100
100
100
100

mm2 )
Slope 1:500
and steeper
5400
6250
7000
7800
8500
9250

Slope flatter
than 1:500
7200
8250
9400
10400
11250
12400

Chart 3.2.1:Eave Gutter Design Chart for Slope 1:500 and steeper (DID, 2012)

The chart assumes:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

An effective width to depth is a ratio about 2:1:

Gradient of 1:500 or steeper;
Mannings formula with n = 0.016
The least favorable positioning of downpipe and bends within the gutter length;
Cross-section or half round, quad, ogee or square;
The outlet to downpipe is located centrally in the sole of the eaves gutter.

Chart 3.2.2: Eave Gutter Design Chart for Slope flatter than 1:500 (DID, 2012)
The chart assumes:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

An effective width to depth is a ratio about 2:1:

Gradient of flow flatter than 1:500;
Mannings formula with n = 0.016
The least favorable positioning of downpipe and bends within the gutter length;
Cross-section or half round, quad, ogee or square;
The outlet to downpipe is located centrally in the sole of the eaves gutter.

Table 3.2.5: Required Minimal Nominal Size of Downpipe(DID, 2012)

Cross Sectional Area of
2

Eave Gutters ( mm

4000
4200
4600
4800
5900
6400
6600
6700
8200
9600
12,800
16,000
18,400
19,200
20,000
22,000

Minimal Nominal Size of Downpipe (mm)

Circular
Rectangular
65 x 50
75
75 x 50
85
100 x 50
90
75 x 70
100
100 x 75
125
150

100 x 100
125 x 100
150 x 100

Not applicable

125 x 125
150 x 125

3.2.2.2 Method from the Handbook of Rainwater Harvesting forCaribbean

Caribbeans Rainwater Harvesting Handbook(UNEP, 2009)was intended as a practical
guideline to introduce and assist the citizens in the Caribbean region to construct their
rainwater harvesting systems. Thehandbook provides several technical information and
guidelines that are useful for tropical region like Malaysia. The rational method was used
to calculate the roof runoff.
Tables 3.2.6a and 3.2.6b show the recommended runoff coefficients for various
catchment types and the sizes of gutters and downpipes, respectively.Type of gutters
recommended here is PVC gutters since they do not rust and the rainwater quality can be
maintained over a long period. Gutters must slope towards the tank and the gradient must
not more than 1:100.

Table 3.2.6a: Runoff coefficients for various catchment types(UNEP, 2009)

Type of Catchment
Roof catchments
Tiles
Corrugated metal sheets
Ground surface coverings
Concrete
Brick pavement
Untreated ground catchments
Soil on slopes less than 10 percent
Rocky natural catchments

Runoff coefficients
0.8 0.9
0.7 0.9
0.6 0.8
0.5 0.6
1.1 0.3
1.2 0.5

Table 3.2.6b: Gutters and Downpipes sizing for RWH systems in tropical
regions(SOPAC, 2004)
Roof area ( m

served by one gutter

17
25
34
46
66
128
208

3.3

Gutter width (mm)

Minimum diameter of
downpipe (mm)

60
70
80
90
100
125
150

40
50
50
63
63
75
90

Type and Configuration of Rainwater Harvesting Systems

There are three types of rainwater harvesting system for supplying non-potable water for
internal and external uses, which are directly pumped, indirectly pump, and gravity fed
(Leggett et al.,2001).

3.3.1

Indirectly Pumped System

Indirectly pumped system is a system that pumps up water from storage tank to header
tank using water pump. The header tank is usually placed on the roof of building while
the storage tankis being undergrounded. When the storage tank runs out of water, the
primary water supply piping will supply water into header tank. When storage tank is full
with water, an overflow pipe is necessary to prevent storage tank from more than the
normal water level in a tank. The main advantage of indirectly pumped system is the
supply of water will not be cut-off if the water pump is on mechanical or electrical
failure. The water can still be supplied to internal and external uses by the primary water
supply system. The main disadvantage is the water can be delivered slowly due to low
pressure. Thus, it leads to low water pressure when using shower or slow refilling after
flushing the toilet. In addition, there may be insufficient space on the roof to install the
header tank.

Figure 3.3.1 : Indirectly Pumped System

3.3.2

Directly Pumped System

The main difference between indirectly and directly pumped system is the water in
directly pumped system is stored in storage tank and then pumped directly to internal and
external uses in a building. There is no header compared to indirectly pumped system and
the main water supply is direct from the storage tank. The main water supply will not
fully fill the tank but maintain the water on a minimum level for short term demand. The
main advantage of this system is the water is provided on high pressure. The
disadvantage is there will be no water supply if the water pump is experiencing faulty due
to mechanical or electrical failure.

Figure 3.3.2 :Directly Pumped System

3.3.3

Gravity Fed System

The main difference of gravity fed system from directly and indirectly pumped systems is
the storage tank of this system is located on top of the building. Rainwater which is
collected and harvested is directly stored in the storage tank or also known as header
tank. Water is delivered from storage tank by means of gravity to appliances. The main
advantage of the system is water pump or electrical supply to pump water is not required.
Since no pump is required, there is no risk of water pump failure and electrical supply
cut-off. However, the main disadvantage is the low water pressure similar in indirectly
pumped system. For example slow refilling in toilet tank after flushing the toilet.

Figure 3.3.3 :Gravity Fed System

3.3.4

Examples of Rainwater Harvesting System

3.3.4.1 Residential House Bungalow, Semi Detached and Terrace

Figure 3.3.4: Schematic diagram forresidentialhouse

Basic components
Catchment surface, gutters, leaf guarder, downpipes, first flush diverters, storage tanks
(cisterns), overflow pipe
System Procedure:
1) Harvest rainwater from roof;
2) Filter roof dirt throughleaf guarder and first flush diverter;

3) Deliver rainwater using gutter and downpipe;

4) Storing clean rainwater in the storage tanks;
5) In case there is shortage of water or no rainfall, the public water supply is topped
up into the storage tanks.

3.3.4.2 High Rise Building Condominium, Commercial and Office Tower

Figure 3.3.5: Schematic diagram forhigh-rise building

Basic components
Catchment surface, gutters, leaf guarder, downpipes, first flush diverters, storage tanks
(cisterns), pump, elevated rainwater header tank

System Procedure:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Harvest rainwater from roof;

Filter roof dirt through leaf guarder and first flush diverter;
Deliver rainwater using gutter and downpipe;
Collecting the first flush rainwater before water entering the storage tank.
Storing clean rainwater in the on the ground storage tank;
The pump is used to lift the rainwater up to the elevated rainwater header tank

installed on the roof top of the high rise building;

7) In case there is shortage of water or no rainfall, the public water supply is topped
up into the elevated rainwater header tank.

3.4

Pumping System

There are two types of pumping systems, namely pressurized water supply system and
header pressure system. For pressurized system, pressure tank is required to maintain the
pressure throughout the system. Pump is functioning when the pressure is drop. For
header pressure system, water is lifted up by the pump from storage tank to elevated tank,
and the water supplies to devicesby gravity force(UNEP, 2009).

3.4.1

Selection of Pump

To select an appropriate type of pump for a rainwater harvesting system, the following
five steps must be followed(Alberta, 2010):

StepI: Select the appropriate pump

Submersible pump and jet pump are the most common types of pump that used in the
residential house. Submersible pump is located inside the tank and can function properly
even fully submerged inside the water tank; while jet pump is located outside the tank.

Comparisonsamong submersible pump, jet pump and centrifugal pump, and their
advantages and disadvantages, are shown in Table 3.4.1.

Step II: Select the configuration of pump (speed of flow rate)

Two available pump controllers can be selected to configure the rainwater supply system.
(a) Constant speed pump:
Following a large drop in the system pressure, a constant speed pump will activate
and pump water at a fixed rate to replenish the volume of water stored in elevated
tank;
(b) Variable Speed Drive (VSD) / Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) pump:
VSD/VFD pumps can increase or decrease the speed of the pump impeller to
provide more or less water as needed by the pressure system.

Table 3.4.1: Advantages and disadvantages of different types of pump(Alberta, 2010)

Type of Pump

Usage

Advantages

Disadvantages

Submersible pump

Pumping

process
inside water
Can be used
for water
supply,
drainage,
slurry and
sewage
pumping

More efficient have

a longer lifespan
than jet pumps
Reduces the
amount of
equipment and
space needed
outside of the
rainwater tank
Low noise

Jet pump

Use for
well
systems

Pump can be easily

inspected, repaired
and/or replaced
Generally less
expensive than
submersible pumps

Centrifugal Pump

For
domestic
and light
industrial
applications

Quiet operation
and compact
design
Easy installation

Pump must be
physically extracted
from tank to
perform inspection,
repair and/or
replacement
May be more
difficult to detect
pump dry running
(or any malfunction)
as operation of
pump may not be
audible
Pumps generally
designed for vertical
installation, but
must be installed
horizontally as
vertical installation
reduces usable
capacity of cistern
(increases dead
space volume)
More difficult to
commission than
submersible pumps,
as they must be
primed
Pump must be
located in a
temperature
controlled space
(indoors, pump
house, etc.)
Pump operation may
be noisy
Not suitable for
large building like
shopping mall
Unable to provide
constant pressure

Table 3.4.2: Advantages and disadvantages of constant speed and VSD/VFD

pumps(Alberta, 2010)
Pump Controller

Advantages

Disadvantages

Configuration
Constant speed
pump

Variable Speed
Drive (VSD) /
Variable Frequency
Drive (VFD) pump

Generally less expensive than

VSD/VFD pumps
Ideal for applications where
minor variations in water
pressure and flow rate are
acceptable (i.e., refilling toilet
tanks after flushing and
operating a garden hose)
Provide constant pressure to
fixtures, regardless of demand
Use very small pressure tanks,
or micro-pressure tank inside
the pump or control unit
Often have built in low/high
voltage shutoff and dry run
protection
Smaller space requirements in
the building
Lower electricity consumption
than comparable constant
speed pumps.

Pressure tanks can be quite

large for applications requiring
high flow rates
Flow rate and system pressure
may spike when pump
activates, and pressure may
drop if water demands are too
high
Use of smaller pressure tanks
requires a greater number of
pump starts potentially
increasing pump wear
More expensive than constant
speed pump systems

StepIII: Pump Flow Rate

The amount of flow that must be generated by the pump depends on the types and
number of fixtures connected to the distribution system. This means that at here, we must
consider the peak hour flow rate for that particular building before selecting the suitable
pumping system.
StepIV: Pump Head
Determine pump head is an important step especially for high rise building. The pump
pressure not only takes account on lifting up water supply but also along with friction
loss, and various type of minor loss.
StepV: Acceptability of the service

Last issue to consider is that whether usage of pump is acceptable for that building. Some
of the system may interrupted by pump downtime. For small residential housing, several
times of service interruption is acceptable. For multi-residential or commercial buildings,
it is important to avoid pumping service went down at peak hour. The most common way
is to install an elevated tank on top of the building.

3.4.2 AlbertasMethod
Alberta (2010)provides simple way to calculate the required pump capacity. For
estimation of maximum peak demand flow rate, Table 3.4.3 can be used.Table 3.4.4
shows the required system pressurefor different indoor and outdoor fixtures.

Table 3.4.3: Minimum recommended water flow rate for various indoor &
outdoorfixtures(Alberta, 2010)
Indoor
Fixtures

Minimum Flow Rate

(Per Fixture)

Shower or Bathtub

19 LPM
[5 GPM]

Lavatory

1 LPM
[0.3 GPM]

Toilet

2.7 LPM
[0.7 GPM]

Kitchen Sink
Washing Machine
Dishwasher

Outdoor
Fixtures
Garden hose with
13mm[1/2 in.]
supply
Garden hose with
18mm[3/4 in.]
supply
Irrigation system

Maximum Flow Rate

(Per Fixture)
11LPM
[3GPM]
19LPM
[6GPM]
Varies
(Consult supplier/
contractor)

1.6 LPM
[0.4 GPM]
19 LPM
[5 GPM]
7.6 LPM
[2 GPM]

Table 3.4.4: Required minimum pressure for residential home fixture (Georgia, 2009)

Usage

Pressure

Impact Sprinkler
Pressure washer
Toilet
Garden hose nozzle

ft
93
46
46
81

m
28
14
14
25

Pressure
psi
kPa
40
275.8
20
137.9
20
137.9
35
241.32

Flow
GPM
4.5
4.0
6.0
5.0

LPM
17.0
15.1
22.7
18.9

Figure 3.4.1 shows the illustration of different kinds of pump heads such as static
lift, static height and friction loss in a pumping system.

Figure 3.4.1:Illustration for components of pump head

Thepump head can be calculated using following equations:

Eq. 3.4a

Pump Head (m, or ft) = Required System Pressure + Total Dynamic Head

Where the required system pressureis the operating pressure required for rainwater
fixtures (275-415 kPa [~40 60 psi] for typical residential applications). If the final
discharge of a pumping system is into a rainwater header tank, then there will be no
required system pressure or equals to zero.
Eq. 3.4b

Total Dynamic Head = Static Lift + Static Height + Friction Loss

In order to calculate the total dynamic head, the friction head loss must first be
calculated. Friction Loss formula is shown as below:

Friction Loss = [(

LP SE

LF SE

)x

F 100 SE
LP SU
100 m pipe ] + [(

LF SU

F 100SU
100 m pipe ]
Where,
Friction Loss =

Combined Friction losses (m) for the service piping (SE) and
supply piping (SU)

LP

Linear length of pipe (m)

LF

Equivalent length of pipe fittings (m)

F100

Friction loss per 100m of pipe

There are two distinct sections of rainwater pressure piping:

)x

1) Rainwater serviced pipe:The section of pipe from storage tank to a jet pump (or
pressure tank/control unit for submersible pumps)
2) Rainwater supplied pipe:The section of pipe from jet pump (or pressure
tank/control unit for submersible pumps) to permitted fixtures

Table 3.4.5shows the value of friction head losses (m) based on the selected pipe
diameters and pipe flow rates, and Table 3.4.6 shows the equivalent length of pipe for
different fittings.

Table 3.4.5:Friction head losses for SCH40 PCV pipe at various flow rates(Alberta,
2010)
Flow
Rate, Q
(LPM)
8
19
30
38
57
76
113

F100 Friction Head (m / 100m pipe)

13mm
[1/2 in.]
4.8
25.8
63.7
97.5

18mm
[3/4 in.]
1.2
6.3
15.2
26
49.7
86.9

Pipe Diameter
25mm
32mm
[1 in.]
[1 in.]
0.38
0.1
1.9
0.5
4.6
1.2
6.9
1.8
14.6
3.8
25.1
6.4
13.6

38mm
[1 in.]

50mm
[2 in.]

0.2
0.6
0.8
1.7
2.9
6.3

0.2
0.3
0.5
0.9
1.8

Theabove table assumed a SCH40 PVC pipe or similar material such as PE-polyethylene
or PP-polypropylene is utilized.

Table 3.4.6:Equivalent length of pipe for different fittings(Alberta, 2010)

Fitting

90 Elbow
45 Elbow
Gate Valve
(shut-off valve)

13mm
[1/2 in.]
0.5
0.2
0.1

18mm
[3/4 in.]
0.6
0.3
0.2

Equivalent Length of Pipe (m)

Pipe Diameter
25mm
32mm
38mm
[1 in.]
[1 in.] [1 in.]
0.8
1.1
1.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.3

50mm
[2 in.]
1.7
0.8
0.4

75mm
[3 in.]
2.4
1.2
0.5

(Open)
Tee Flow Run
Tee Flow
Branch
In Line Check
Valve (Spring)
or Foot Valve

0.3

0.6

0.6

0.9

0.9

1.2

1.8

1.0

1.4

1.7

2.3

2.7

3.7

5.2

1.2

1.8

2.4

3.7

4.3

5.8

9.8

Sample Calculation
A pumping system is installed at the bottom of a 2-storey house to elevate the water
supply from ground level to the elevated tank, as shown in Figure 3.4.2 below. It is
assumed that there are 3 bathrooms or WCs, and two valves and three 90 bending from
the harvested rainwater tank to the elevated rainwater header tank. Assumed that PVC
pipe is used.

Figure 3.4.2: Typical pumping system for a 2-storey house [Change static height to 8-m;
draw and label the 2 valves; label 2 more bendings]

From Table 3.4.3:

The total toilet flow rate = 3 x 2.7-LPM = 8-LPM

From Table 3.4.5:

For a flow rate of 8-LPMwith rainwater serviced pipe and rainwater supplied pipe sizes
of 25mm [1 inch],
F100SE

= 0.38 m /100 m pipe

F100SU

= 0.38 m /100 m pipe

From Table 3.4.6:

For one (1) 90 bending in rainwater serviced pipe and two (2) 90 bending in rainwater
supplied pipe,
Serviced pipe with one 90 bending,

LF SE

= 0.8 m

Supplied pipe with two 90 bending,

LF SU

= 0.8 x 2 =1.6m

And,
Serviced pipe gate valve,

LF SE=

0.2m

Supplied pipe gate valve,

LF SU =

0.2m

Thus,
Friction Loss = [(
LF SU

)x

LP SE

LF SE

)x

F 100 SE
LP SU
100 m pipe ] + [(

F 100SU
100 m pipe ]

= [(2+(0.8+0.2)) x

0.38
100 m pipe ] + [(9+(1.6+0.2)) x

0.38
100 m pipe ]
= 0.052-m
Then,
Total Dynamic Head = Static Lift + Static Height + Friction Loss
= 2 + 8 + 0.05244
= 10.052-m

3.4.3

Pump head

The required pump heads (in kPa and horsepower) for different flow rates and pipe sizes
calculated for a typical rainwater harvesting system, as shown in Figure 3.4.2, are shown
in Tables 3.4.7, 3.4.8 and 3.4.9.

Table 3.4.7: The required pump heads for 3/4-inch pipe size
Min
Flow
Rate,
L/m
8
19
30
38
57
76

Static
Lift,
m

Static
Height,
m

Friction
Loss,
m

(A)
2
2
2
2
2
2

(B)
8
8
8
8
8
8

(C)
0.158
0.832
2.006
4.264
6.560
11.471

Total
* Cal.
#Req.
* Cal.
# Req.
Dynamic Pump
Pump
Pump
Pump
Head,
Head,
Head,
horse
horse
m
kPa
kPa
power
power
(A+B+C)
(D)
(D) / 0.7
(E)
(E) / 0.7
10.158
100
142
0.014
0.0098
10.832
106
152
0.037
0.0259
12.006
118
168
0.066
0.0462
14.264
140
200
0.102
0.0714
16.560
162
232
0.181
0.1267
21.471
211
301
0.324
0.2268
* Direct discharge to rainwater header tank
# Assumed 70% of pump efficiency

Table 3.4.8: The required pump heads for 1-inch pipe size
Min
Flow
Rate,
L/m

8
19
30
38
57
76

Stati
c
Lift,
m
(A)
2
2
2
2
2
2

Static
Height
,m

Frictio
n Loss,
m

(B)

(C)

8
8
8
8
8
8

0.052
0.262
0.635
0.952
2.015
3.464

Total
* Cal.
#Req.
* Cal.
# Req.
Dynamic Pump
Pump
Pump
Pump
Head,
Head,
Head,
horse
horse
m
kPa
kPa
power
power
(A+B+C
(D)
(D) / 0.7
(E)
(E) / 0.7
)
10.052
99
141
0.01
0.007
10.262
101
144
0.03
0.021
10.635
104
149
0.04
0.028
10.952
107
153
0.06
0.042
12.015
118
168
0.09
0.063
13.464
132
189
0.14
0.098
* Direct discharge to rainwater header tank
# Assumed 70% of pump efficiency

Table 3.4.9: The required pump heads for 1 1/4 -inch pipe size
Min
Flow
Rate,
L/m
8
19
30
38
57
76
113

Static
Lift,
m

Static
Height,
m

Friction
Loss,
m

(A)
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

(B)
8
8
8
8
8
8
8

(C)
0.015
0.074
0.176
0.380
0.559
0.941
2.000

Total
* Cal.
#Req.
* Cal.
# Req.
Dynamic Pump
Pump
Pump
Pump
Head,
Head,
Head,
horse
horse
m
kPa
kPa
power
power
(A+B+C)
(D)
(D) / 0.7
(E)
(E) / 0.7
10.015
98
140
0.01
0.007
10.074
99
141
0.03
0.021
10.176
100
143
0.05
0.035
10.380
102
145
0.07
0.049
10.559
104
148
0.11
0.077
10.941
107
153
0.15
0.105
12.000
118
168
0.25
0.175
* Direct discharge to rainwater header tank
# Assumed 70% of pump efficiency

3.4.4Loading Unit Method

Flow rate can also be estimated using the loading unit method. Table 3.4.10 shows the
loading unit rating for different types of appliances. After calculating the total loading
unit for a rainwater supply system, the rainwater flow rate can be read from Chart 3.4.1.

Table 3.4.10:Loading Unit Rating for Various Applications(DID, 2012)

Type of Appliance
Dwelling andFlats
W.C. Flushing Cistern
Wash Basin
Bath
Sink
Offices
W.C Flushing Cistern
Wash Basin (Distributed Use)
Wash Basin (Concentrated Use)
School and Industrial Buildings
W.C Flushing Cistern
Wash Basin
Shower (with Nozzle)
Public Bath

Loading Unit Rating

2
1.5
10
3-5
2
1.5
3
2
3
3
22

Chart 3.4.1: Design Flow Rate (L/s) versus Loading Units (DID, 2012)

Sample Calculation
For a 10-storey tower, it is assumed that every floor consists of 10 units and each of the
unit has 2 bathrooms or WCs. The design flow rate is equal to:

From Table 3.4.10, the loading unit for W.C Flushing Cistern is 2 units.
Total loading units = Loading Unit for 1 unit x No. of units per floor x Total floor
= (2 x 2) x 10 x 10
= 400-units
From Chart 3.4.1:
3
Q = 3.51-l/s = 0.00351- m /s

3.5 Top-up System

There is always a time when there is insufficient of rainwater to meet the demand. In this
situation, it is necessary to have another alternative water supply for the water supply
system. Top-up devicecan be used to solve this problem. When the water level inside the
rainwater tank is getting lower, the top up system will start filling up the rainwater tank
by transferring water from the public water supply.
Rainwater must notflow into the public water supply system. Water from the
public water supply can flow into the rainwater tank subjected to it being equipped with a
one-way non return valve, or the overflow pipe in the rainwater tank is located at least
225-mm lower from the inlet pipe to the rainwater tank(Selangor, 2012).

3.5.1

Types of Top-up System

There are various types of top-up system available for the rainwater supply system. It is
advisable to select the top-up system wisely to avoid overflow, storage run down or extra
expense for unnecessary system. Basically, there are two types of top-up systems namely

automatic top-up system and manual top-up system. Table 3.5.1 shows the advantages
and disadvantages of automatic top-up system and manual top-up system.

Table 3.5.1:Advantages and disadvantages of top-up systems (Canada, 2012)

Make-up water
method

Advantages

Disadvantages

Simplest method to design and May result in service interruptions

install due to reduced control
(for example, no water for
equipment requirements
flushing toilets) if tank not
Lowest cost alternative
topped up prior to going dry
Manual top-up
Requires homeowner to monitor
volume of stored rainwater in
tank and top up pre-emptively if
low
Reduces the number of service Improper design or installation of
interruptions by
control equipment may cause
automatically filling tank
insufficient or excessive top-up
before it runs dry
volumes to be dispensed by the
Automatic top-up
Make-up system operates
make-up system
Service interruption during power
without the need for
monitoring or intervention by
failure
the homeowner

3.5.2

Automatic Top-up System (with electronic device)

There are two types of automatic top-up system, with electronic device and without
electronic device. The planning stages for the layout of the automatic top-up system (with
electronic device) are:
i.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

As shown in Figure 3.5.1, a top-up system consists of the following components:

Water level sensors located in the rainwater storage tank;
A solenoid valve located in the rainwater storage tank;
An air gap;
Top-up drainage conveying make-up water to the rainwater storage tank;
Electrical conduits containing wiring from water level sensors and pumps.

Figure 3.5.1: Schematic diagram of top-up system for rainwater supply system
(Alberta, 2010)

ii.
iii.
iv.

Determine the location of solenoid valve and air gap;

Plan route of top-up drainage;
Plan route of electrical solenoid valve and power supply to the tank;

v.

Contact municipality and other service providers to ensure that the planning
layout do not conflict with the current building systems like sewerage, piping,
electricity, building structures, etc.

3.5.2.1 Control Equipment

The control equipment is shown in Table 3.5.2 below:
Table 3.5.2:Control equipment(Canada, 2012)
Control
Description
Devices/options available
equipment
Water level sensor A device inside the tank is used Float switch
Ultrasonic level sensor
to sense water level
Liquid levels switch (Float
Can control (turn on or off)
switch is typically used for
warning lights, solenoid
residential applications).
valves and/or pumps, based
on water level
Shut-off valve
A device that is manually
Types: ball valves, gate
opened (or closed) to permit
valves
(or prevent) the flow of water
Integrated into the RWH
Shut-off valves selected must be
pressure system to manage
approved for handling water
water flow and isolate
under pressure.
components of the makeup
system (for example,
solenoid valves and backflow
preventers)
Solenoid valve
A valve that activates (opens or Come in a variety of
(automated shutcloses) automatically when
configurations
off valve)
turned on
Connected to water level sensor The solenoid valves selected
to activate make-up water
must be approved for handling
system
water under pressure

3.5.2.2 Installation Procedures

The installation procedures are as follow:

Step 1: Set suitable type of water level sensors for RWH system
Float switches:
Float switches is installed in the water tank so that it can be used to sense the water
level, then controlling the pump and top-up water. Generally, normally close (N/C)
float switch is used for top-up systems, and normally open (N/O) float switch is
used for pumping system.
*(N/O) float switch: Supply power (turn on) when switch is down
*(N/C) float switch: Supply power (turn off) when switch is in
up
Other water level sensors should be selected properly and installation procedure should
be handled carefully with applicable codes & regulations.

Step 2: Installation of solenoid valves and shut-off valves

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Select suitable valves type

Valve size must be the same size as piping system.
Top-up systems use an (N/C) solenoid valve.
Solenoid valve should be installed on the top of the air gap and soft close/slow

close solenoid is recommended.

(e) Solenoid valves must be wired into a power supply in conjunction with water
level sensor.
(f) Must be installed by a licensed plumber or technician.
(g) If soft/slow close valve is not used, a water hammer arrester shall be installed
on public water supply piping upstream.
(h) All procedure should handle with care with applicable codes & regulations.

Step 3: Installation of Air Gap

i.
ii.
iii.

Air gap is required to prevent backflow. It needs to be noted that rainwater cannot be
mixed with the public water supply)
(a) The air gap height must be at least 25-mm, 1-inch or twice the diameter of
water pipe.
(b) To prevent splash and water damage:
install flow restrictor at upstream of valve
install aerator at place public water supply terminate
extend length of pipe and cut an angle no less than 45 at end pipe
(c) All procedure should handle with care with applicable codes & regulations

3.5.3Automatic Top-up System (without electronic device)

Top-up valve, as shown in Figure 3.5.2, can effectively maintain supply when demand
exceeds the rainwater supply and it does not require electricity supply or complex float
switch devices.
3.5.3.1 OperatingPrinciple
Under normal conditions, rainwater will fill the tank. If the rainwater level drops below a
pre-set level, the top-up system valve will open to maintain the water level using the
mains water supply.
3.5.3.2 Installation Procedures
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Valve must be installed horizontally;

Do NOT install on an angle;
Do NOT restrict inlet water flow;
NOT to be modified;
NOT to be used in dual purpose tanks used for stormwater detention.

Figure 3.5.2: Schematic Diagram of Top-up Valve

3.6

Leaf Guarder

Leaf guarder, which is also known as leaf screen or gutter guarder, fit along the length of
the gutter. It is one of the filter components at the pre-treatment stage of the rainwater
harvesting system. It is usually a -inch mesh screens in wire frames. They do come in
aluminium, plastics and vinyl for users requirement.
Purpose of installing leaf guarder is to separate the leaves and other debris those
are washed down from the roof catchment surface. The leaf guarder is said to be the first
stage filtration that screen out the large particles such as leaves, bloom and twigs in the
collected rainwater. Through removing the large particles, the subsequent components
and devices in the rainwater harvesting system are said to be protected as accumulation of
the large particles in the system may deteriorate the quality of the rainwater. Simple
maintenance is required to clean the leaf guarder regularly. Decomposition of the leaves
and other debris may expand the bacteria activities and cause harmful consequences to
the rainwater collected. Maintenance may be operated weekly or monthly depend on the
debris accumulation speed.
In Malaysia, according to KPKT (2009), an ordinary net mesh or stainless mesh
can be used at roof drain and gutter. It is suggested by the manual that installation of the
leaf guarder shall adopt a net or screen mesh of 2 to 10-mm is satisfactory, as shown in
Figure 3.6.1.

Figure 3.6.1: Net of gutter(KPKT, 2009)

3.6.1

Types of Leaf Guarder

There are numerous types of leaf guarders available in the local and overseas market. It is
noted that installation of gutter leaf guarder depends on the size of the gutter.Figure3.6.2
shows someexamples of leaf guarderavailable in local and overseas.
Some of the available materials include powder coated steel, Stainless steel, black
rubberized vinyl, industrial strength nylon, High Density Industrial Strength Polyethylene
(HDPE) and aluminum.

Figure 3.6.2: Types of leaf guarder

3.6.2

Advantages and Disadvantages

There are pros and cons for installing leaf guarders to the rain gutters. Installation of leaf
guarder ensures that the collected rainwater will be free from large particles that are

undesirable. As mentioned previously in the introduction, leaf guarders do eliminates the

risk of clogging of large particles for the subsequent components of the rainwater
harvesting system. Therefore, safeguard the quality of the rainwater from debris at the
first stage of the filtration.
However, installing a leaf guarder requires periodically checking and
maintenance. As large particles and debris accumulated to a certain amount that may clog
the leaf guarder if no maintenance. There are numerous types of leaf guarders available in
the market currently, as shown in Figure 3.6.2, which can overcome these disadvantages.

3.7

First Flush System

Rainwater is one of the purest forms of water and is initially clean to be used. When it
rains, rainwater wash down from roof where contamination occurs. The rainwater may
collect certain amount of undesirable matters from the roof such as fecal matter, dead
animal bodies, chemical residues, sediments, bacteria and etc. This rainwater is also
known as first flush water. Therefore, a first flush diverter is necessary to carry out this
first stage filtration. When the first flush water is removed, bacterial activities from fecal
bacteria and other water borne bacteria would be greatly reduced. Therefore rainwater
harvested in the system is generally cleaner and safer to be used.

3.7.1

Typical Design of First Flush Diverter

Figure 3.7.1 illustrates the typical type of T-junction type first flush diverter for normal
residential buildings. The device is usually placed at in between the installation of gutter
system and storage tank. When rainwater is flushed down from the roof, gutters and
downpipes will divert the contaminated first flush water into the first flush diverter as
shown in the illustration. Once the contaminated first flush water has filled up the device,
the following rainwater will flow into the storage tank through pipe system. Typically a
floating ball valve or sealing ball is installed in the device to prevent the contaminated
first flush water from washing back out and flow into the storage tank. A small opening
valve is provided at the end of the device to ensure that the device can slowly drain the
water out and reset to accommodate the first flush of next rainfall. Installation of a screw
cap before the opening of the device allows periodically cleaning of debris.

Figure 3.7.1: Typical First Flush Diverter(Rain Harvest, 2013)

3.7.2

Types of First Flush Diverters

There are various types of first flush diverters with different installation methods and
locations available in the market. They are available in diverse material and sizes depend
on the requirement of the users and the connections to the whole rainwater harvesting
system. Basically, common examples of the device are downpipe first flush diverters,
post/wall stand water diverters, commercial diverters and in-ground diverters.
Figure3.7.2 shows a brief introduction of the different types of first flush diverters and
their mechanisms (Rain Harvest, 2013).

Types of first flush

Downpipe first flush diverters

Mechanism

Post/wall stand water diverters

In ground diverter

Figure 3.7.2: Types of first flush diverters and the mechanisms (Rain Harvest, 2013)
3.7.3

NAHRIMs First Flush Diverter

Fitting an appropriately sized First Flush Water Diverter is critical to achieve good
quality water. Water Diverters improve water quality, reduce tank maintenance and
protect pumps by preventing the first flush of water, which may contain contaminants
from the roof, from entering the tank. When it rains, instead of flowing to the rainwater
storage tank directly, the first flush of water from the roof that may contain amounts of
bacteria from decomposed insects, bird and animal droppings and concentrated tannic
acid, is diverted into the chamber of the first flush water diverter. Figure 3.7.3a shows
the illustration of NAHRIMs First Flush Diverter and Figure 3.7.3b shows the detailed
components of the diverter.

Figure 3.7.3a:Illustration of NAHRIMs First Flush Diverter

This water diverter utilises a dependable ball and seat system, which is a simple
automatic system. As the water level rises in the chamber, the ball floats. Once the
chamber is full, the ball rests on a seat inside the chamber preventing any further water
entering the chamber. The subsequent of fresh water is then channeled into the rainwater
storage tank through an insect screen. A slow release valve ensures the chamber empties
itself after rain and resets automatically.

Figure 3.7.3b: The detailed components of the diverter

3.7.4

Volume of First Flush Diverter

Users could also design the volumes of their first flush diverters. A minimum design
criterion is that the first flush device should divert the first 0.5-mm (or, 1.0-mm) of the
rainfall (first flush depth). To calculate the volume of rainwater needed to be diverted,
multiplies the length and width of the roof by the first flush depth.
Required volume of diverted water (m3) = roof length (m) * roof width (m) * first flush depth (m)
Eq. 3.7a

For example, a house with 10-m long by 5-m wide would need to divert at least
0.025-m3 (or, 0.05-m3 if 1.0-mm of first flush depth is used) of first flush. This is the
amount of first flushthat a simple-pipe first flush device would have to divert. By
dividing the required volume of first flushwith the cross sectional area of the pipe (r2),

the necessary pipe length for the simple-pipe first flush device can be calculated from the
following equation:
Pipe length (m) = Required volume of diverted water (m 3) / r2
Eq. 3.7b

A first flush downpipe of 200 mm diameter (100 mm radius) would need to be at

least 0.8-m (1.6-m if1.0-mm of first flush depthis used) long.

3.7.5

The Malaysians Condition

3.7.5.1 KPKT
According to KPKT (2009), the dimension of the first flush device to be adopted is with
minimum diameter of 100-mm and the layout of design is shown in Figure 3.7.4 below.
Figures 3.7.5a and 3.7.5b show the types of first flush diverter suggested by KPKT.

Figure 3.7.4: Device to separate first flush rainwater(KPKT, 2009)

Figure 3.7.5a: Standpipe First Flush Diverter(KPKT, 2009)

Figure 3.7.5b: Standpipe with Ball Valve(KPKT, 2009)

3.7.5.2 DID
The Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia (DID, 2011)gives the requirements
for designing a first flush system in Tables 3.7.1 and 3.7.2.

Table 3.7.1: Guidelines for residential first flush quantities (DID, 2011)
Rooftops of 100m2 or smaller
Rooftops of 100m2 or larger

25-50 liters
50 liters per 100m2

Table 3.7.2: Guidelines for surface catchments or for very large rooftops(DID, 2011)
Rooftops or surface catchments of 4,356m2 or larger

3.7.5.3 SIRIM Berhad

2,500 liters

InSIRIM (2013), it is stated that the first flush system installed in the buildings shall be
able to cater a volume equivalent to 0.5mm of rainfall before the consequent rainwater
entering the storage tank. Table 3.7.3 shows the first flush requirement according to the
roof areas of buildings.

Table 3.7.3: First flush requirement according to roof area(SIRIM, 2013)

Roof area ( m

First flush volume( m

<100

0.025 to 0.05

100 to 4356
>4356

0.05 to 2.5
2.5

3
NOTE. Adopt first flush of 5 m if surface contains excessive soil, dust or

debris.

3.7.5.4 NAHRIM
NAHRIM (2013)stated that the first 1-mm of rainwater from the rooftop is normally
contaminated with undesired particles. All the rainwater harvesting systems installed by
NAHRIM followed this design criterion to ensure good quality of rainwater.

3.7.6

Advantages

It is noted that the first flush diverter is operating automatically, which is simple and user
friendly. Most of the first flush diverter is simple and easy to be installed. It does not
require manual intervention and is almost maintenance free.

The device could safeguard the quality of the rainwater through prevention of
undesirable matters and pollutants from entering the storage tank at the first stage of
rainwater harvesting. Therefore, the rainwater collected could be directly used for nonpotable purpose without further complicated treatments. Besides, without accumulation
of the undesirable contaminants allows protection to the subsequent system. Also, no
power is required to operate a first flush diverter. The technology is a low-tech and lowcost demand to improve the rainwater quality in ease.