Translated by Li En & Chan Ying Kit

Preface
Literature is a language-based art form, which
includes operas, poems, novels and prose
works all of which are important expressions of
culture. Chinese literature can be said to contain
the essence of the wisdom and creativity of the
Chinese. A cultural treasure, Chinese literature
has been constant and vital; from ancient myths
to pre-Qin prose, from Tang poems and Song
lyrics to Yuan arias, and from Ming-Qing novels
to contemporary literature, Chinese literature has
been like a beautiful flower blooming radiantly. It
is said that talent emerges in every generation;
Chinas great writers are numerous, and their works
have indeed been passed down from generation to
generation.
The Chinese poet Qu Yuan sang: The road is
long and winding, and I shall seek it high and low.
What kind of world are we living in? The famous
politician and Chinese literary figure Fan Zhongyan
said, First and foremost, be concerned with the
affairs of the world; put aside the pleasures of the
world. One should be responsible for the world,
and the happiness and sufferings of the people
should always be kept in mind. As the modern
literary figure Lu Xun put it: I will spill my blood
for the Yellow Emperor. The sounds of ringing
instruments create harmony between the sun and
moon in the sky.
Literature brings cohesion to human thought and
culture, and gathers the thoughts which literary
figures have had on life, society and time. Despite
its long existence, it still maintains an everlasting
charm. Literature purifies the soul, cultivates the
personality and improves linguistic skills. Learning
1,000 songs means later generations can hear
them; viewing 1,000 swords allows one to identify
weapons. Continue to practise the six arts and
keep turning the pages of the Hundred Schools
of Thought, and you will be able to speak with
wisdom and write with grace.

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In todays world, many people lead hectic lives

and usually have little time to appreciate literature.
Not knowing that the gentleman is already gone,
the moon still shines on the windowsill. Bright
city lights have blotted out the moon. Little do we
realise that, with a civilization that has lasted for
5,000 years, literature is like a gleaming pearl on
a civilized river. Five thousand years of Chinese
history has also helped establish the foundation of
Chinese culture, the fertile soil for the cultivation
of new writings to nourish the thoughts of the
Chinese.
Societal advances, changing times, intense
competition and increased stress have all caused
people to change their reading objectives from
gaining huge volume of information to knowing just
the salient points. In order to read effectively, they
need highly-concise reading materials. This book
can be considered a summary of Chinese literature,
in which the reader can find information about
the various works created during the past 5,000
years and come to understand the development
of Chinese literature as well as the thoughts and
styles of Chinas great literary figures.
Great effort has been made to select those
classical examples that have contributed much
to the development of Chinese literature over the
last 5,000 years. Exquisite pictures have also been
included so that the book may be visually pleasant
and easy to understand.

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Contents
Pre-Qin Literature
Classic of Mountains and Seas

Book of Songs

Confucius and The Analects

Zhuangzi and the Zhuangzi

Han Feizi and the Han Feizi

10

Qu Yuan and The Sorrow of Parting

12

Songs of Chu

14

Chronicle of Zuo

16

Discourses of the States

18

Strategies of the Warring States

20

Literature of the Han Dynasty

Jia Yi

24

Mei Cheng and Seven Stimuli

26

Sima Xiangru

28

Huainanzi
Sima Qian and Records of the Grand
Historian
Yang Xiong

30
32

34

Ban Gu and Book of the Former Han

Dynasty
Zhang Heng

36

38

Spring and Autumn of Wu and Yue

40

Nineteen Old Poems

42

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Literature of the Wei, Jin and Northern and

Southern Dynasties
Three Caos of Jianan Literature

46

Seven Scholars of Jianan

Cai Wenji
Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove

48
50
52

Chen Shou and Records of the Three

Kingdoms
Lu Ji
Records of Searching for the Supernatural
Tao Yuanming
Yan Yanzhi
Xie Lingyun
Bao Zhao
Poem of Mulan
The Peacock Flies Southeast
A New Account of Tales of the World
The Literary Mind and the Carving of
Dragons
A Commentary on the Classic of Rivers
A Selection of Essays
New Songs from a Jade Terrace
Foreword to the Orchid Pavilion Collection

54

56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74

76
78
80
82

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Literature of the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties

The Four Great Poets of the Early Tang

Dynasty
Chen Ziang
Meng Haoran
Wang Changling
Gao and Cens Poems on the Frontiers
Li Bai
Wang Wei
Du Fu
Han Yu
The Four Great Female Poets of the Tang
Dynasty
Bai Juyi
Liu Yuxi
Liu Zongyuan

86

88
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
104

106
108
110

Yuan Zhen

112

The Deep Emotions of Li Shangyin

114

Wen Tingyun

116

Pi Rixiu

118

Tang Mythological Tales

120

Literature of the Song Dynasty

Liu Yong
The Yan Father and Son
Ouyang Xiu

124
126
128

The Three Sus

Sima Guang
Zeng Gong
Wang Anshi
Collection of Music Bureau Ballads
Li Qingzhao
Lu You
Xin Qiji

130
132
134
136
138
140
142
144

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Literature of the Liao, Jin and Yuan Dynasties

Xiao Guanyin
Yuan Haowen
Guan Hanqing
Bai Pu
Ma Zhiyuan
Zheng Guangzu
Wang Shifu and Romance of the Western
Chamber
Gao Ming and Story of the Pipa

148
150
152
154
156
158
160

162

Literature of the Ming Dynasty

Water Margin
Romance of the Three Kingdoms

166
168

Journey to the West

Tang Xianzus Peony Pavilion
Plum in the Golden Vase
Feng Menglong and Three Tales
Ling Mengchu and Two Beats
The Three Great Marvel Tales of Ming
Drama

170
172
174
176
178
180

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Literature of the Qing Dynasty

Pu Songling and Strange Tales of Liaozhai
Palace of Everlasting Life
The Historical Drama Peach Blossom Fan

184
186
188

Wu Jingzis The Scholars

Dream of the Red Chamber
Destinies of Flowers in the Mirror
An Overview of Ancient Literature
The Four Great Condemnatory Novels of
the Late Qing Dynasty

190
192
194
196
198

Modern Literature
Lu Xun
Guo Moruo
Ye Shengtao

202
204
206

Lin Yutang
Mao Dun
Xu Zhimo
Zhang Henshui
Zhu Ziqing
Lao She
Bin Xin
Shen Congwen and The Border City
Ding Ling
Ba Jin
Ai Qing
Qian Zhongshu
Xiao Hong
Yang Mo and Song of Youth
The Enigmatic Eileen Chang
Jin Yong
Gu Long
Chiung Yao (Qiong Yao)
The Eternal San Mao

208
210
212
214
216
218
220
222
224
226
228
230
232
234
236
238
240
242
244

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Pre-Qin Literature

Classic of Mountains
and Seas

he Classic of Mountains
and Seas is the greatest

collection of Chinese
mythical legends. It was
written between the
beginning of the Warring
States period and the early
Han period. The Classic
is believed to have been
written down according to
legends passed on by the
wizards and alchemists
(who later evolved into
Taoist priests) of the
different periods. It can
be considered as a classic
text of folk and primitive
religion in China.

Classic of Mountains and Seas

A Treasury of Chinese Fables

The Classic of Mountains and Seas can be divided

into The Classic of the Mountains (five volumes), The
Classic of the Regions beyond the Seas (five volumes), The
Classic of the Regions within the Seas (five volumes) and
the Classic of the Great Wilderness (four volumes). Rich
and varied in content, the Classic contains many mythical
legends and religious rituals, as well as records of ancient
Chinese geography, literature, people, living things, minerals
and medicine. Other ancient sources esteem it highly.
The Chinese myth can be considered the Mother
of Literature, and the relationship between the two can
be likened to the relationship between the creator of the
Universe (Pan Gu) and the sun, the moon and the seas. It is
said that when Pan Gu died, his head was transformed into
the four sacred mountains, his eyes became the sun and the
moon, his blood became the rivers and seas, and his hair
became the bushes and forests. People believed that even
though Pan Gu is dead, there are traces of him everywhere
in the sun, moon, rivers, seas and living things. As legends
evolve into other forms of literature, they often lose their
mythical significance, but their imaginative nature and
variety continue to have an impact on literature.
The Chinese poet Tao Yuanmings Poem of Reading
the Classic of Mountains and Seas arises from the Classic of
Mountains and Seas. The famous poet Li Bai, known for his
romanticism, wrote the poems Dream of a Visit to Mount
Tianmu and Difficulties Faced at Shudao, which also
refer to the Classic of Mountains and Seas. Many of Li Hes
poems and other lyrical works are derived from the Classic.
Li Shangyin made great use of the Classics mythical and
metaphorical characteristics. Su Dongpo, a famous poet
of the Northern Song Dynasty, wrote the poem A Temple
Tablet of Duke Wen of Han from Chaozhou; the sacrificial
song depicted in the poem, which mentions the singing and

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CHINESE LITERATURE

commanding sorcerer, riding the dragon, passes the White

Cloud Village, where the descendants of heaven are knitting
cotton garments originates from the Classic as well.
In addition, Gan Baos Story of the Search for the
Gods and the Tang Dynasty supernatural tale Biography
of Liu Yi also originate from the Classic. Works of other
literary genres that emerged later, such as the Yuan drama
The Injustice to Douer, the Ming novel Romance of the
Investiture of the Gods, and the Qing novel Strange Tales
of Liaozhai by Pu Songling all have links to the Classic.
Characters in the popular novel Journey to the West (written
by Wu Chengen of the Ming Dynasty), such as Sun
Wukong, Pigsy and other half-human, half-beast creatures
are believed to have been adapted from the Classic. Operas
like The Cowherd and the Weaving Maid, The Legend of
the White Snake and Changer flies to the Moon are also
linked to the Classic.
Many works of different literary genres, such as
poems, lyrics, novels, and drama, have adapted tales from
the Classic of Mountains and Seas. Modern Chinese writers,
including Yang Mu, Yu Guangzhong, Guo Moruo, Tan Zihao
and Wu Yingtao have also done the same. Mythical legends
have been liberally used as metaphors in these works.
In summary, the Classic of Mountains and Seas
introduces many motifs that are widely used in Chinese
literature. Mythical legends and Chinese literature are like
two sides of the same coin: both belong to a literary genre
that is symbolic, imaginative, narrative and energetic.
Although the ancient legends portrayed in the Classic may
pale in comparison to their Western counterparts, they are
nevertheless a treasure of Chinese literature. In the Classic,
one gets a glimpse of the activities of sorcerers, and one
can also learn about the religion and beliefs of the ancient
Chinese. There are many records of mythical animals,
including birds, beasts, dragons, and snakes, which are
portrayed as possessing mythical powers or are possibly
related to ancestor (totem) worship. The Classic can be
regarded as a treasury of ancient Chinese legends, and is of
great significance. It also preserves many ancient historical
sources that can be used by later generations to study
Chinese history.

Portrait of Pan Gu

The Author of the Classic of

Mountains and Seas
Ancient scholars often believed
that the Classic was written
by Xia Yu () or Bo Yi (
), but this sounds absurd in
modern times. Judging from the
contents and the discrepancy
of dates, it is quite certain that
the Classic was not written by
a single author, but is instead
a collection of the works of
different authors. Due to
difficulties faced in transport
and communications across
different localities, information
might have been passed
down orally among sorcerers
and was later collected
and edited into a single
work after the unification of
China. The responsibilities of
early Chinese sorcerers had
likely influenced the fields
within their cultural sphere,
which includes astronomy,
geography, history, religion,
the study of living things,
medicine, the genealogies
of emperors and kings, and
major ancient inventions in
the Classic.

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Book of Songs
A Canon of Poems

he Book of Songs
(Shijing) started the

trend towards realism

in China and initiated
the long tradition of
Chinese poetry. It has had
a profound impact on
Chinese literature and has
even spread to different
parts of the world. The
Book of Songs is regarded
as Chinas first collection of
poems and comprises 305
poems collected from the
beginning of the Western
Zhou Dynasty to the middle
of the Spring and Autumn
Period, spanning more
than 500 years of Chinese
history.

The Book of Songsis divided into three sections: folk

songs, festive songs, and hymns. The section on folk songs
comprises 160 poems, including Fifteen Folk Songs of the
States . The festive songs are divided into the categories of
major and minor festive songs, and consist of 105 poems.
The hymns are divided into the categories of Sacrificial
Hymns of Zhou, Praise Hymns of Lu and Sacrificial
Hymns of Shang. This section is made up of 40 poems.
The Book of Songs was widely disseminated in the
Spring and Autumn Period. There are several views about
the authorship of the Book of Songs. One view believes that
the book was edited by the Chinese philosopher Confucius,
but this is not accurate. The Book of Songs was in fact edited
after a long period of compilation, and published in the
middle of the sixth century BC before Confucius was born.
In the classic Analects, Confucius mentioned the 300
poems several times, which means that the version he saw
was similar to the Book of Songs we have today.
According to some records of the Qin and Han
dynasties, the Book of Songs mainly originated from two
sources. First, officials were employed at the Zhou court to
collect folk songs. They went around interviewing people
and collecting songs, and also gathered information about
political gains and losses and the beliefs of the people. As
various states assisted in the collection of these songs, the
ensuing anthology was able to include a wide range of folk
songs from different states. Second, the Zhou Dynasty also
had a system of presenting poems, in which the officials
and literati would present poems to the King on certain
occasions. Many of the festive songs collected in the Book of
Songs were collected in this manner.
Initially, the Book of Songs consisted of lyrics with
musical accompaniment and the combination of ancient
poems, songs and dances was preserved. According

Book of Songs

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CHINESE LITERATURE

to the chapter Gong Meng of the Mozi, there are 300

chants, 300 songs, 300 chords and 300 dances. The Book
of Etiquette and Rites, the Rites of Zhou, the Book of Rites
and the Discourses of the States also note that the Book of
Songs could be performed with musical instruments like
the flute and other wind instruments. The musicians of Lu
also performed some of the poems in the Book of Songs
for Ji Pu. This indicates that ancient music and dance were
closely linked in the Book of Songs. However, due to major
social changes during the Spring and Autumn and Warring
States periods, many musical scores and information on the
dances were lost. Only the lyrics survive today.
The 15 Folk Songs of the States mainly deal with
themes like love and marriage. Work songs are also
featured, such as the song Plantain Seeds in Southern Zhou
which women would sing while gathering plantain seeds.
Though simple in language and rhythm, these work songs
portray the happiness of those singing while at work.
A portion of the section on festive songs is dedicated
to songs used by the royal family during ceremonial rituals.
For instance, minor festive songs such as the Puncture
Vine, Sacrificial Ceremonies at South Mountain, Barren
Field, and Big Field are songs that people sang to pray
for good harvest. Major festive songs, like Cotton, The
Masses, Gong Liu, The Emperor and The Gods, were
used to praise the ancestors for their efforts in establishing
the Zhou kingdom and King Wus efforts to overthrow the
Shang Dynasty.
The impact of the Book of Songs has spread beyond
China to other parts of the world. Chinese versions of the
work has been available in Japan, Korea and Vietnam from
an early period. Since the beginning of the 18th century, the
work has also been available in French, German, English,
and Russian, and it remains well-liked to this day.

Depiction inspired by Book of Songs

Musical Poems in the Book

of Songs
The Hymns of Zhou were
dance poems used by the
Zhou kings during sacrificial
ceremonies at the beginning
of the Western Zhou period.
The Hymns of Lu were also
musical poems used by the
royal family in their ancestral
temples.
The Hymns of Shang were
used by the royal family of
the state of Song, during
sacrificial ceremonies for their
ancestors and for the Shang
kings.

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Confucius and
The Analects

onfucius was born

during the Western

Zhou period, when the

political system based on
lineage was collapsing and
a community based on
common cultural interests
was taking shape. Given
this background, Confucius
gradually became an iconic
figure who represented
the people and established
a philosophical school
of thought during the
Warring States period. The
Analects, believed to be a
compilation of the sayings
of Confucius, is one of the
Confucian classics.

Originally from the Lu state of Zouyi (present-day Qubu in

Shandong), Confucius (, 551 479 BC) was also named
Qiu () and Zhongni (). He was a thinker, educator,
and man of letters during the end of the Spring and Autumn
Period. He was also the founder of Confucianism.
Since his youth, Confucius was brilliant and eager to
learn. By the age of 20, he had already accumulated much
knowledge and was regarded by the people of his time as a
man of talent. Confucius wanted to enter officialdom, and
was concerned with the affairs of the country. He would
frequently ponder questions and share his views on the
problems faced by rulers in managing the country. However,
Confucius upright character meant that his desire to enter
politics did not last long. After leaving officialdom, he and
his disciples travelled from state to state, but eventually he
returned to Lu where he focused on teaching. Confucius
pioneered the first private education system in China and
had over 3,000 disciples. Seventy-two of these emerged as
sages, while others became senior officials in various states.
His more outstanding students included Yan Hui, Zi Lu,
Zigong and Zai Yu.
The teachings of Confucius had a profound impact
on later generations. Although his teachings were passed
on verbally, he was reputed to be a sage with god-given
wisdom, an educator from Heaven and an ancient sage
in his own time. He was regarded as highly knowledgeable.
When he passed away, later generations continued to give
Confucius other honorific titles such as Greatest Sage and
Model Teacher for All Eras. He was believed to have edited
Chinese classics like the Book of History, compiled the Book
of Rites and the Classic of Music, written the foreword for
the Yijing (, also known as the Changes of the Zhou), and
authored the Spring and Autumn Annals.

Portrait of Confucius

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CHINESE LITERATURE

The Analects is a classic work of Confucianism,

and was compiled by Confucius disciples and their own
disciples in turn. The Analects is mostly made up of quotes
and dialogues which record the actions and words of
Confucius and his disciples. It is a detailed representation
of Confucius political views, philosophical thoughts,
moral views, and educational principles. The Analects, The
Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean and Mencius, are
regarded as the Four Books of Confucianism. The Analects
itself is made up of 20 chapters.
The Analects pioneered the quotation style in Chinese
literature and is regarded as a remarkable work of prose.
The language used is brief and straightforward; it is simple
yet meaningful. Many of its quotes are still relevant and
meaningful today. The Analects records the inspirational
teachings of Confucius; many of the dialogues collected
are simple and straightforward, while others are thoughtprovoking and complex. The Analects is highly varied
in content, but it centres on the social and day-to-day
problems of human society. It has had a profound impact
on the mindset and values of the Chinese people. Besides
narrating the manners and actions of Confucius, The
Analects also portrays the personality and disposition of
the Sage. Even though Confucius is the main character
portrayed in The Analects, the work also vividly depicts
some of his disciples. For example, Zi Lu is known for
his frank yet reckless character; Yan Yuan is refined and
virtuous; Zigong is brilliant and eloquent; and Zeng Xi is
uninhibited and outstanding. Their distinct personalities all
leave a deep impression on the reader.
The thoughts and teachings of Confucius have had a
long-lasting impact on later generations. The American poet
and philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson regarded Confucius
as the glory of all the ethnic groups in the world. In 1988,
75 Nobel Prize winners made a joint declaration: In order
for human beings of the 21st century to survive, they must
learn from the wisdom of Confucius 2,000 years ago. Dr.
Marina Carnogurska-Ferancova of the Slovak Republic
once said: There is no one who can surpass the great
teacher Confucius in creating a harmonious and moral
society.

The Analects

Three Buildings Dedicated

to Confucius
The temple of Confucius,
Confucius residence and
Confucius grave are all
known internationally.
Devotees worship Confucius
in the temple, which was
established in 478 BC. The
Confucian temple was small
in scale when it was first built
in Confucius hometown;
however, from the Western
Han dynasty onwards titles
were consistently bestowed
on Confucius by various
emperors and the temple
gradually expanded.
Confucius residence is made
up of a big compound. It
is not the actual home of
the Sage, but is actually the
residence of the descendants
of Confucius. The grave,
measuring 200 hectares,
is where Confucius and his
family are buried.

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Zhuangzi and the

Zhuangzi

huangzi was an
astounding philosopher

and a talented literary

figure. The Zhuangzi,
authored by him, began
to have a profound impact
from the third to the fifth
century during the Wei
and Jin Dynasties. The
Zhuangzi, the Yijing and the
Laozi are together known
as the Three Mysteries.
The Zhuangzi became the
official classic of Taoism
during the Tang Dynasty.

Portrait of Zhuangzi

Zhuangzi (, 369 286 BC) was named Zhou (), and

came from Meng of the Song state (present-day Meng
in Anhui). He was a thinker and philosopher during the
Warring States period. The Zhuangzi, which bears his name,
has had great value as a work of philosophy and literature.
Famous chapters like Wandering Beyond, A Discussion
on Smoothing Things Out as well as The Principle of
Nurturing Life have been passed down till today.
According to the Records of the Grand Historian and
the Zhuangzi itself, Zhuangzi was a low-ranking
official in Guanqiyuan, his hometown (between present-day
Henan and Anxi). Zhuangzi quit not long after, and was so
poor that he had no rice to eat. He had to resort to making
shoes to survive.
Zhuangzi was often seen in shabby clothes and did
not bother to tidy himself when the Wei King summoned
him. Even though some of his friends such as Hui Shi (who
had once been the Premier of Wei) invited him to return,
Zhuangzi refused. Zhuangzi even ridiculed those who had
received rewards for their efforts in assisting the rulers,
calling them bootlickers and refusing to befriend such
people.
A trader surnamed Cao from the Song state once went
on a diplomatic mission to Qin, and the King rewarded
him with hundreds of chariots. The trader showed off his
chariots, but Zhuangzi mocked him: The Qin King is sick
and has to call for a doctor. Those with ulcers and pestilence
get one chariot, but bootlickers get five chariots. The more
people are treated, the more chariots are gained.
One day, Zhuangzi was fishing by a pool when two
senior officials sent by the Chu King expressed a wish to
invite him to the imperial court. They said: Our King has
long heard of your fame and has been recently bothered
by state affairs. We hope that the Master will leave the

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CHINESE LITERATURE

mountains now in order to assist the King and bless t h e

p e o p l e . Without moving his fishing rod, Zhuangzi
ignored the officials request and replied: I have heard that
there is a celestial tortoise in Chu state that was killed at the
age of 3,000 years. The Chu King kept the dead tortoise in a
bamboo box wrapped in brocade and worshipped it in the
temple. I would like to ask the officials whether they think
the tortoise would prefer to be treasured after death, or to
live a carefree life dragging its tail in the muddy water?
The two officials replied, It would of course prefer
to live in muddy water, shaking its tail. Zhuangzi said to
them, Please go! I too, like the tortoise, prefer to drag my
tail in the muddy water. Preferring to lead a carefree life
as a recluse, Zhuangzi was not satisfied with the world and
refused to cooperate with the ruling elite.
Zhuangzi lived in an era filled with turmoil. In his
book, he made use of humorous and strange allegorical
tales to narrate his thoughts. The use of allegory means
that Zhuangzis thoughts and imagination possess a certain
unity. The use of carefree language with a clear intent,
combined with a great imagination and a broad-minded
temperament, all give the reader a refined and lofty feeling.
The essays written by Zhuangzi have a special
structure. Even though their contents and structure change
from line to line, they are interconnected in terms of their
thought. Meticulous in its narration and unsymmetrical in
its rhyme, the Zhuangzi is an expressive and unique piece of
work.
Because of his contributions to philosophy, language
and literature, Zhuangzi has left an enduring legacy as a
philosopher and a writer. The emergence of the Zhuangzi
meant that Chinese philosophy, language and literature had
reached a high standard during the Warring States period. It
is a treasure among the ancient Chinese classics.

The Zhuangzi classic

The Story behind Travelling

10,000 Miles
The Chinese idiom travelling
10,000 miles (),
which means to have a bright
future, is derived from the
chapter titled Wandering
Beyond. There was once
a legendary fish measuring
thousands of li (). This
fish later transformed into
a gigantic bird whose body
also measured thousands of
li. When the bird spread its
wings, it was likened to clouds
blocking the sky and the sun.
Once, this bird was heading
towards the southern seas;
by the time it swept across
the water with its wings, it
had already travelled 3,000
li. When it soared into the
sky, the winds from the sea
propelled it to fly. The gigantic
bird usually had to rest for half
a year before returning home
again. Soaring with its back to
the sky, there was nothing to
obstruct it. Not understanding
why the gigantic bird could
fly so high, a little bird poked
fun at it: When birds fly up,
the highest we go is above the
trees and eventually we return
to land. Why do you need to
soar 90,000 li?

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