NONLINEAR MAGNETIC SWITCHES FOR PULSE GENERATION

by
SUSAN E. BLACK, B.S. in E.E.

A THESIS
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted to the Graduate .FacuIiy

of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfi IIment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

^ppr:ov^d

Accepted

May, 1980

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Dr. T. R. Burkes
for his invaluable guidance in this project and resulting thesis. I
would like to thank Dr. John P. Craig and Dr. Wayne T. Ford for their
helpful comments while serving on my committee.

Finally, I would like

to extend my appreciation to Greg Hill for his suggestion concerning the

use of saturable inductors and to my fellow graduate students at the
High Voltage/Pulsed Power Lab for their help and support.

II

TABLE OF CONTENTS
I I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
NTRODUCTION
SWITCHING PERFORMANCE OF SATURABLE INDUCTORS
II I
IV

V
VI

MAGNETIC CORE RESET

17

GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS

34

INDUCTOR LOSSES

64

MAGNETIC MATERIALS

"79

MAGNETIC SWITCH DESIGN

88

LIST OF REFERENCES

103

I I I

LIST OF TABLES

Table
VI-1

A Comparison of the Various Characteristics of

Magnetic Materials Suitable for Use in
Saturable Inductors

IV

84

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure
1-1

1-2

I 1-1

11-2

11-3

11-4

I I 1-1

I I 1-2

I I 1-3

I I 1-4

A Block Diagram for a Typical Pulsed Power Network

Shown with the Circuit Energy Flow vs. Time

A Typical B-H Curve for a Magnetic Material Suitable

for Use in Saturable Inductors

A Simple L-R Circuit Illustrating the Switching Action

of a Saturable Inductor with the Voltage and Current for
the Inductor Shown vs. Time

"7

A B-H Curve Used to Illustrate the Need for Magnetic

Core Reset

A Charge Delay Utilizing a Saturable Inductor With

Inductor and PFN Voltage and Current Shown vs. Time

12

A Circuit Utilizing a Saturable Inductor as Discharge

Switch Shown with Inductor Voltage and Current vs. Time.
An Alternative Placement of the Saturable Inductor
is Also Shown in (c)

14

The Hysteresis Characteristic for a Ferromagnetic Material

Indicating the Approximate Change in Induction Available
for a Given Pre-Switch Condition

18

A B-H Curve Used to I I lustrate the Effect of dc Bias

on Switching Action

24

For an L-C Circuit, the Effect of Bias on the Inductor

Voltage and Current Is Shown on Varying Time
Sea I es

26

A Circuit Realization of a dc Constant Current

Supply for Reset Purposes

31

A Circuit Providing a Reset Current Pulse After Energy

Transfer with the Effect of the Reset Pulse on the
Inductor, PFN, Reset Resistor, and Diode Voltage
Current Shown vs. Time

32

IV-1

Two Typical Core Forms Used In Saturable Inductors

36

IV-2

The Cross-Section of an Inductor with one Winding

Shown with the Radial Dependence of the Magnetic
Intensity in the Core and Winding shown for (b)
a solenoid and (c) a toroid

39

I I 1-5

Figure
IV-3

IV-4

IV-5

IV-6

IV-7

IV-8

The Inductive Geometry Factor for a Solenoidal Core

vs. Winding Thickness for Various Core Radii

42

The Inductive Geometry Factor for a Toroidal Core

vs. Winding Thickness for Various Core Radii

43

The Cross-Section of a Saturable Inductor Shown with

the Magnetic Intensity vs. Radius for the Bias
Winding

45

The Coefficient of Coupling for a C-Core Inductor vs.

Winding Thickness for Various Core Radii

49

The Coefficient of Coupling for a Toroidal Inductor vs.

Winding Thickness for Various Core Radii

50

Saturated Inductance for a Toroidal Inductor vs.

Winding Thickness for Various Core Radii

55

IV-9

A Representative Function for the Number of Turns

Scaled with Stand-off Voltage, E, and rms Conduction
Current, I
, for a limited Range of Applicability . . . . 59

IV-10

A Representative Function for the Saturated Inductance

Scaled with Stand-off Voltage, E, and rms current,
rms

IV-11

IV-12

V-1

V-2

V-3

V-4

A Representative Function for dl/dt based on Saturated

Inductance Scaled with Stand-off Voltage, E, and rms
Current, I
rms
Core Volume Scaled with the Stand-off Voltage, E, and
rms Conduction Current, I
rms
A B-H Curve Illustrating Core Losses with Respect
to Switch Operation

60

61

62

66

A Typical Lamination in a Laminated Core with Width

w and Thickness d Shown with the Effect of the Eddy
Current Magnetic Intensity on the Exciting Magnetic
Intensity and Magnetizing Magnetic Intensity

69

The Hysteresis Function vs. the Ratio of the Pulse

Duration, t. Over the Lamination Time Constant,!

75

The Eddy Current Loss Function vs. the Ratio of the

Pulse Duration, t, over the Lamination Time
Constant, T

76

Figure
VI-1

A B-H Curve Illustrating Characteristics of a Magnetic

Material That May Be Used In Comparison of Core
Materials for Use in Saturable Inductors

31

The Design Circuit Utilizing a Saturable Inductor

as Switch Delay

89

VI 1-2

The dc B-H Curve for Silicon Steel

93

VI1-3

Oscillograms Showing the PFN Voltage and Inductor

Current for a Saturable Inductor Used as Charge
Delay Designed to Delay 40 ysec at 3 kV. The Standoff voltages applied to the Inductor are (a) 3 kV,
(b) 2 kV, (c) 1 kV

99

VI1-1

VI

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

The power requirements of some electrically "pulsed" systems

such as radars and lasers involve the delivery of large amounts of
energy in short pulses.

The general method of achieving this pulsed

power is by slowly storing energy in a storage element and then switching the stored energy to the load so that a short, high power pulse
Is obtained.

A block diagram for a typical pulsed power network is

shown in Figure l-la; indicated In Figure l-lb is the energy flow with
respect to time for this network.
Any nonlinear electrical element which exhibits a drastic change
in impedance may be loosely considered as a switch.

Switches appli-

cable to a pulse form of energy transfer must close quickly and conduct
large amounts of current with reliable pulse-to-pulse repeatability.
Typical discharge or "closing" switches used in pulsed power applications are thyratrons and spark gaps; the "closing" action of these
devices may be characterized as a transition from a high to low Impedance,

in the open state, these switches withstand or "hold off" large

static voltages; closure is obtained on command with a trigger pulse.

Inductors utilizing the nonlinear properties of ferromagnetic
materials may also be made to perform as switches.

These switches offer

several advantages in certain applications over the classical switch.

The nonlinear Inductor is rugged, has a long lifetime, and Is comparatively inexpensive.
Nonlinear inductors achieve their switching action by changing
from a high to a low inductance as the ferromagnetic core of the

STORAtit
ELEMENT
CHARGING

SWITCH

> LOAD

SYSTEM

(a)

(b)

Figure 1-1

A Block Diagram for a Typical Pulsed Power Network

Shown with the Circuit Energy Flow vs. Time

inductor saturates; thus the nonlinear inductor is commonly called a

saturable inductor or magnetic switch.

The high unsaturated Induc-

tance of a saturable inductor corresponds to an open switch while the

low saturated inductance corresponds to the closed condition.

The

hysteresis characteristic of a ferromagnetic material is shown in

Figure 1-2 where induction, B, is a function of magnetic intensity, H.
The B-H curve of Figure 1-2 indicates that the operation of the Inductor core Is cyclic and that the switching action of the saturable inductor is dynamic in that the transition to a closed state Is accompllshed by the inductor and not by a trigger pulse.

This implies that

the switching action of a saturable inductor Is that of a delayed switch

rather than that of a triggered switch.
The use of a saturable Inductor imposes several design considerations and operational constraints necessary for satisfactory performance as a switch for pulse power applications.

Reliable pulse-to-

pulse repeatability requires that the magnetic core be In the same

pre-pulse state before each application of voltage to the inductor.
This Initial conditioning is achieved by magnetically resetting the
core to a point such as (a) In Figure 1-2.

In addition to the switch-

ing winding, an auxiliary winding may be added to the Inductor for reset purposes.
A detailed description of the operation of saturable Inductors
Is provided in Chapter II along with design considerations and several
basic applications suited to saturable inductors.
the magnetic core are examined in Chapter III.

Methods for resetting

The effect of physical

geometry on the Inductive switch and optimizations of these geometries

saturated region
Cow inductance)

Figure

,-2

A T y p i c a l B-H Curve f o r
a Magnetic Mater \a\
S u i t a b l e f o r Usf

'n Saturable

Inducto

rs

5
are presented In Chapter IV along with the effects of scaling for high
power handling capabilities based on geometry and volume constraints.
Chapter V presents a detailed description of inductor losses Including
eddy current and hysteresis losses in the core.

Ferromagnetic materials

suitable for use in saturable Inductors are examined in Chapter VI with

design constraints based on available materials.

Chapter VII presents

a practical application of a saturable inductor with the design procedure and experimental results of the operation of this design.

A sum-

marization of the theory of saturable Inductors and conclusions are

presented in Chapter V I M .

CHAPTER I I
SWITCHING PERFORMANCE OF SATURABLE INDUCTORS

The switching action of a saturable Inductor Is achieved by utilizing the noni inearity of the hysteresis characteristic of ferromagnetic
materials.

This nonI inearity leads to two sets of equations describing

the inductive switch.

One set pertains to the unsaturated, open switch

operation of the inductor while the other set describes the saturated,
closed switch operation.
As a result of the hysteresis effects, the inductor switch Inherently operates in three modes:

switch delay, energy transfer, and reset.

These modes may be Illustrated with the circuit of Figure 11-1,

The

hysteresis curve for a ferromagnetic material Is shown in Figure 11-2,

where the pre-switch condition for the Inductor is assumed at point (a).
At time t = 0, the stepped dc supply voltage drops across the saturable
inductor so that the inductor operates in the switch delay mode, which
corresponds to the high permeability region of the B-H curve.

The high

permeability provides a high Inductance for low power during the switch
delay period.

Upon application of the supply voltage to the Inductor,

the change in flux density in the magnetic core is given by:

t
r
V dt

(11-1)

where A is the cross section of the magnetic core, N Is the number of

turns in the inductor winding, and V is the voltage applied to the inductor.

When the flux density in the magnetic core reaches the satura-

tion value, B , the permeability of the core rapidly approaches that of

saturable
inductor

jy/r^
^

t=0
V . = .
R

(a)

saturable
inductor

Figure 11-1 A Simple L-R CIrcuit I 11ustratlng the Switching

Action of a Saturable Inductor with the Voltage
and Current for the Inductor Shown vs. Time

Figure II-2 A R-w r,

^BHC..veUse.toM,ust.3tet.eNeed
Por Magnetic Core Reset

air and switching action is Initiated.

The saturated inductance is

typically two to three orders of magnitude lower than the unsaturated

inductance under pulsed conditions.
During saturation, the magnetic core operates In the energy transfer mode, characterized by low permeability and low inductance.
low inductance is necessary for fast energy transfer.

The

Once saturation

occurs, the magnetic intensity, H, of the magnetic core begins to increase with the Increase in current that accompanies energy transfer.
After the energy transfer is complete, the current in the inductor and
H in the core go to zero;
In Figure 11-2.

the magnetic core then operates at point (b)

In order to recover the switching ability of the induc-

tor, the magnetic core must be reset to the pre-switch condition (point
(a). Figure 11-2).

Reset may be achieved by inducing a negative magne-

tic intensity (reverse current) In the inductor, or may be induced

through the use of a "bias" winding. A saturable Inductor used as a
switch might then include a reset or bias winding as well as the switching winding, similar to a two-winding transformer.
A given but arbitrary switching delay, t,, may be achieved through
the saturable inductor design.

If the voltage applied to the Inductor

is constant for the duration of the switch delay, typically the case in
most pulsed power applications, then the relationship between time delay and stand-off voltage is approximately

t =^^^^
^d
V.

where V

(11-2)

is the voltage applied to the inductor and AB Is the change in

Induction required by the core material t o achieve s a t u r a t i o n .

In

10
Equation (I 1-2), It is assumed that the switching winding is wound
tightly to the Inductor core so that the inductor area. A, corresponds
to the cross-sectional area of the magnetic core.
The magnetic core is sometimes laminated to limit eddy current losses (see Chapter V).

The effective cross-sectional area of the ferro-

magnetic material is reduced due to spaces between the laminations.

Therefore, the magnetic core area becomes

A = A'S

(11-3)

where A Is the magnetic area. A' is the gross core area, and S Is the
stacking factor.

The stacking factor accounts for area reduction due

to laminating the core.

The unsaturated inductance may be determined as:

N^y
L

u A
^r-2-

where y

(11-4)

X,

is the relative permeability of the unsaturated core, y

is

the permeability of air, and I is the magnetic length of the core.

Is assumed in Equation 11-4 that y

It

is large enough that most of the

flux density produced by the switching winding is contained in the magnetic core.

Upon saturation, the inductance of the switch becomes

N^y

. =

sat

where y

AG

V ^

(11-5)

36

is the saturated permeability and G Is a multiplying factor due

s

to winding geometry.
characteristic, y

For a magnetic core with a relatively square B-H

Is approximately equal to unity.

This implies that

11
the inductor behaves as an air core inductor and the assumption that all
of the flux is concentrated in the magnetic core may no longer hold.
The inductance due to the flux in the winding and the core may be greater than the inductance due to just the flux in the saturated magnetic
core.

The factor, G, accounts for the discrepancy in Inductance and

is discussed in detail in Chapter IV.

Initial conditioning of the magnetic core, or reset, is achieved
by applying a negative flux to the core.

The negative flux is produced

by a negative current in either the switching winding or the bias winding.

The amount of current required to reset the core may be deter-

mined as:
I =
r

H
- ^
N

(11-6)

where H

refers to the magnetic intensity of the pre-switch initial con-

dition.

Depending on the magnetic material and application, H

may

differ from the coercive force, H , of the material, indicated in Figure

11-2.

The effect of core reset on switching action, applications of

saturable inductors requiring reset of the magnetic core, and methods

to achieve reset are discussed In Chapter M l .
The performance of a saturable inductor may be illustrated by analyzing its response in several typical applications.

Two applications

that may be used as examples that Involve saturable inductors are charge
delay and discharge delay.
The saturable inductor used as charge delay is shown in Figure 11-3.
As described in reference [1], the purpose of the charge delay is to act
as command charge and allow the discharge switch adequate recovery time

12

PFN

jyyr\^1
V :^

Switch

rrrry

(a)

(b)

Z'

PFN

/
/
/
/
/

(0
Figure 11-3 A Charge Delay Utilizing a Saturable Inductor with
Inductor and PFN Voltage and Current Shown vs. Time

13
before application of the charging voltage to the pulse forming network,
PFN.

The saturable inductor voltage and current as functions of time

are shown in Figure ll-3b.

the saturable inductor.

The charging voltage initially drops across

The inductor withstands the voltage for a time,

then saturates, allowing the PFN to resonantly charge.

The amount of

time the inductor withstands the voltage before saturating is the delay
time of the inductor, t .

In this application, the delay time should

correspond to the amount of time required by the discharge switch to recover.

The effect of the switching action of the saturable inductor on

the PFN charging voltage and current is shown in Figure Il-3c.

As indi-

cated, the switch by the Inductor to a lower inductance allows faster

charging and consequently higher pulse repetition rates than conventional
inductive charging while still allowing the discharge switch adequate
recovery time.
Core reset for the saturable inductor used as a charge delay may
be achieved through two methods.

The first method allows the reverse

bias current from the diode of the circuit in Figure I I-3a to reset the
core.

This method works well for designs using a core with a very low

coercive force, H , so that a smaI I reverse current will reset the core.
' c'
For cores requiring larger bias currents, application of the reset current through a bias winding provides the necessary negative flux bias.
The use of a bias winding also provides more control over the exact
pre-switch condition of the magnetic core, thus reducing variation in
switch delay, commonly referred to as jitter.
A saturable inductor used as discharge delay is shown in Figure
ll-4a.

This application of a saturable inductor allows a slight delay

14

PFN

mm

j>[.

R
L

t r i gger
pulse

(a)

V.

(b)

V
^ ^

L^

PFN

jrYY\^

i\

(c)

Figure 11-4 A Circuit Utilizing a Saturable Inductor as Discharge

Switch Shown with Inductor Voltage and Current vs. Time,
An Alternative Placement of the Saturable Inductor is
Also Shown In (c)

15

before application of the current pulse to the triggered or main switch

[2].

This delay reduces anode heating for a gaseous discharge type of

switch and increases di/dt capabilities for most solid state switches.
The inductor voltage and current as functions of time are shown in
Figure ll-4b.

When the main discharge switch is closed, the PFN begins

to discharge.

The voltage of the discharge pulse initially drops across

the saturable inductor, maintaining a low Initial current through the

main switch.

After the time delay, the inductor saturates, the switch

conducts the current pulse, and the energy stored in the PFN is transferred to the load.

This application requires a very low saturated in-

ductance to keep the inductive effect on the discharge pulse to a minimum.

Core reset for a discharge delay may be achieved through a bias

winding.

Reset automatically occurs when the Inductor is placed in the

circuit so that the PFN charging current resets the core, as shown in
Figure Il-4c.
The illustrations of a saturable inductor as charge delay or discharge delay involve the use of one inductive switch stage per application.

The cascading of these saturable inductors in parallel or series

combinations may be utilized to achieve pulse compression.

The design

of multiple stages of saturable inductors is discussed by Busch, et.al.

[3], Coates and Swain [4], and Melville [5], along with several other
applications involving saturable inductors.
Therefore, a saturable inductor may be utilized in systems which
require or allow a switch delay.

From a desired switch delay and "hold-

off" voltage, the number of turns in the inductor may be specified for
a given core and core material as in Equation ( 11-2). The characteristics

16
of the core material and the number of turns may be used to determine
the unsaturated and saturated inductances in Equations (M-4) and (11-5)
The amount of reset current required may be determined from the number
of turns and the characteristics of the magnetic core.

These design

values and constraints determine the overall electrical performance of

the saturable inductor.

CHAPTER I I I
MAGNETIC CORE RESET

The need for pulse-to-pulse repeatability in an inductive switch

requires that the inductor core be reset to the same pre-switch condition before each application of voltage to the inductor.
achieved by applying a negative flux to the core.

Reset is

The reset flux may

be produced by a reverse current flowing in either the switching winding

or an auxi Ilarybias winding.

If a bias winding is used for core reset,

then the presence of the winding and the negative bias of the core wiI I
affect the switching action of the saturable inductor.

For instance,

variations from pulse-to-pulse in the pre-switch condition achieved by

the bias current will result in jitter.
The length of the switch delay may be varied by varying the amount
of bias flux applied to the core, as illustrated in Figure lll-l.
out the aid of reset, the core wi M

relax to point 1.

With-

If a magnetic

intensity of -H^ is applied to the core, the magnetic core will reset
to point 2, allowing a switching time delay of

AB^

where V Is the voltage applied to the inductor during switch delay and
AB

refers to the positive change in flux density experienced by the

magnetic core before saturating, as indicated in Figure 111-1.

In

order to provide maximum switch delay, a reset magnetic intensity of

-H

should be induced in the core, allowing the magnetic core to cycle

over the entire hysteresis loop.

17

18

Figure lll-l

The Hysteresis Characteristic for a Ferromagnetic Materia

Indicating the Approximate Change in Induction Available
for a Given Pre-SwItch Condition

19
The dependence of the switch delay, t , on the pre-switch condition
of the magnetic core may be determined in general by examining Figure 1.
Switch delay as a function of change in induction, AB, may be expressed
as:
N AAB
^ ^

t^-

where N

(111-2)

is the number of turns in the switching winding and A Is the

cross-sectional area of the magnetic core. The change in induction may

also be expressed as:
AB = yH .
^ r
Th e reset magnetic intensity of -H

(II1-3)

is produced by the reset current.

Ir ; i.e.,
*
N I
= - ^

H
r

(111-4)

where 2. is the magnetic length of the core and N^ refers to the number
of turns on the winding providing the reset current. This winding may
be either the switching winding or an auxiliary bias winding. Therefore,
N sAy oyr N rI r

*d =

vl

/ ,, cv

"""5'

It should be noted that the maximum delay of a saturable inductor is

limited by the magnetic characteristics of the core such that
N A2B
t^ < _s
m
V

(I 11-6)

20
where B

Is the maximum induction of the magnetic material that may be

achieved before saturation.

Core reset may be achieved either with a constant dc bias current
or with a reverse current pulse that occurs after the energy transfer
is complete.
ployed.

Switch operation is influenced by the method of reset em-

Reset achieved by a reverse current pulse might induce a pre-

switch condition corresponding to point (4) in Figure lll-l, while a

constant dc current could maintain a pre-switch condition of point (3).
Assume a constant dc current is applied to the bias winding continuously.

Before application of voltage to the inductor, the initial

condition of the core corresponds to the magnetic intensity produced by

the constant dc current, as indicated in Equation II 1-4.

Upon applica-

tion of voltage to the switching inductor, positive current begins to

flow in the

switching winding.

The Induced switching flux counteracts

the bias flux, allowing positive magnetic intensity to build up in the

magnetic core as the flux density in the core increases.

When the flux

density in the magnetic core reaches B , the core saturates and energy
is transferred to the load.

As the current begins to decrease In the

switching winding, the magnetic intensity in the core begins to decrease

and point (1) on the B-H curve of Figure lll-l is approached.

At this

point, the magnetic intensity induced by the switching current cancels

the magnetic intensity induced by the bias current for a net H of zero
in the core.

As the switching current decreases further, a net negative

magnetic intensity is induced in the core so that the core begins to

reset.

The pre-switch condition of point (3) is achieved when the

switching current goes to zero.

21
Core reset occurs simultaneously with the cessation of current in
the switching winding if the dc bias current is provided by a constant
current supply.

A constant current supply may be simulated by a dc

voltage supply In series with a large inductance.

This configuration

allows a large voltage spike to be induced across the bias winding when
the current in the switching winding ceases, resetting the core.
Reset may also be achieved by the application of a reverse flux
pulse to the core after energy transfer is complete.

In this case,

the pre-switch magnetic intensity is zero so that the pre-switch condition of the magnetic core might correspond to point (4) In Figure lll-l.
As before, voltage is applied to the inductor, the inductor saturates,
and energy is transferred to the load.

When the current in the switch-

ing winding ceases after the energy transfer, the magnetic intensity in
the core goes to zero so that the core operates at point CI) on the B-H
curve.

If the voltage is reapplied to the inductor while the magnetic

core is operating at point CI), no switch delay would occur; instead,

the core would saturate immediately.

To reset the core for switching

operation, a negative magnetic intensity should be induced in the core.

Core reset in the instance of a reverse current pulse after energy
transfer is similar to the switch delay.

Initially, the inductor re-

ceives a current pulse; the di/dt of the current pulse induces a negative voltage across the inductor.

This negative voltage Induces a

decrease in flux density while the current pulse induces a negative magnetic intensity resetting the core.

This form of core reset inherently

creates a reset time delay; this time delay may be determined by recognizing that:

22
I(t) = ^ i ^
r

(111-7)

so that

H I
i(t^) = - ^

(111-8)
r

where t

is the reset time and i(t) is the instantaneous current that

>.r

produces the reset magnetic intensity.

The presence of the bias winding has several effects.

The addition

of a bias winding increases the size and weight of the saturable inductor.

For high voltage applications, the need for an insulation layer

between the bias and switching winding also increases the winding size
of the saturable inductor.

The Inclusion of the bias winding and insu-

lation layer decreases the maximum amount of core window area that may
be filled by the switching winding.

The effects influence the size of

the core chosen for use In a saturable inductor.

Because the switching and bias windings are magnetically coupled,
the saturable inductor behaves as a transformer.

It is desirable to

minimize the transfer of energy to the bias winding for efficient switching.

This implies that the coefficient of coupling between the bias and

switching windings should be small during energy transfer.

During satu-

ration, the core permeability approaches the permeability of air, automatically reducing the coupling between the switching windings.

Methods

for reducing the coefficient of coupling to lower values are discussed

in Chapter IV along with the effect of the bias winding on core size
and geometry.

23
The pre-switch magnetic intensity affects the initial delay characteristics of the inductive switch by affecting the initial permeability
of the magnetic core.

For a pre-switch magnetic force of H , shown in

Figure I I 1-2, the permeability of the magnetic core will remain constant
during the switch delay.

This implies that the delay inductance will

remain constant so that the Inductor voltage and current during switch
delay wi II be as shown In Figure I Il-3b for the cIrcuit of Figure II I-3a.
The permeability of the core does not remain constant for a pre-switch
magnetic intensity of H^,

In this case, the pre-switch magnetic perme-

ability remains low until H = H . At this point, the core "unsaturates",

y reverts to its unsaturated value, and the switch becomes capable of
withstanding voltage. The change in switch inductance corresponds to
the change in permeability; i.e., the inductance starts low then unsaturates to a larger value for switch delay.
The amount of time the Inductor operates In the pre-delay saturation
mode is relatively short compared to the switch delay time. This predelay time, t ,, may be determined from the change in Induction, AB ,,
pd
po
experienced by the core during operation in the pre-delay mode, indicated
in Fi gure 1 Il-2a :
t pd

NAAB
2
V

'

(111-9)

Even though the inductor Is initially saturated, the switch does not behave as if it were a conducting switch; rather, it behaves as if it were
a comparatively small inductance.

This implies that the voltage across

the saturable inductor does not appreciably change during the pre-delay
saturation since t . is relatively small.

For the saturable Inductor in

24

I
Figure M 1-2

A-B-H Curve Used to Illustrate the Effect

of dc Bias on Switching Action

25
the circuit of Figure lll-3a, the effect of the pre-delay saturation of
the core on the switching delay voltage and current are shown in Figure
111-3?.
The use of a dc bias current to reset the magnetic core will influence the energy transfer operation.
core reaches the value of -H

When the magnetic intensity In the

Indicated in Figure I ll-2|t, the core unsa-

turates in the reverse direction so that the value of the switch inductance becomes L . At this time, t , positive current may still be flowu
' u
ing in the switching winding.

The voltage and current of the saturable

inductor In the circuit of Figure I Il-3a are affected as indicated in

Figure Ill-3d.

Figure 1 M-3d also shows the effect of the use of a dc

bias on the overall performance of the saturable inductor by presenting

the pre-delay, the switch delay, energy transfer, and reverse unsaturation in perspective.
The reverse unsaturation of the Inductive switch increases the time
required to transfer energy to the load.

The amount of time increase is

dependent upon the application of the saturable inductor.

the reverse unsaturation time, t

As an example,

, wi II be determined for the inductor

in the circuit of Figure I 1 l-3a.

Figure I Il-3a indicated an inductively charged capacitor; the initial charging current in this application will be:
I = /f^
Vosin (ujt)
^
^u
( I I 1-10)

w = 1/ /iTc^

26

t=o

(a)
'I,

V.

(b)
V.

'pd

(c)

'pd

(d)

Figure I I 1-3

For an L-C Circuit, the Effect of Bias on the Inductor

Voltage and Current is Shown on Varying Time Scales

27

where

is the unsaturated inductance, C is the value of capacitance

being charged, and V

is the supply voltage, as indicated in Figure

IIl-3a.
At t = t ,, the core saturates.

Since current through the Inductor

cannot change Instantaneously, it can be shown that

I = / ^ V sin(/=^^ (t+t'-t,)) (t ,< t < t )

^
-/^sat ^
A s a ^
^
^

(111-11)

where

(I I 1-12)
^

and L ^ is the saturated inductance. The factor f - t , accounts for

sat
^
the current flowing through the Inductor when the core saturates.
The core unsaturates at t = t^; the current for time t > t^ may
be determined in a similar manner:

(I I 1-13)

t" = / r r ( ^ - arcsin ( / ^ ^ i n ( ^ ^ ^ (t^+f -t^))) ) . (111-14)

^ ^
sat
sat

The factor t" - t accounts for the current flowing through the inductor
winding when the core unsaturates. The time at which the core unsaturates

may be determined by recalling that at t = t^, H =-H^ (see

' u'
Figure I I 1-2).

By assuming the flux in the bias and switching windings

are completely coupled, it can be seen that:

28
4r^ = I + ^
N
c
N
Therefore, when the core unsaturates,

"f

sat

(II1-15)

the switching current at t = t is

^
u

sat

Thi s impiles that

^
sat

(H -H )
u r
o

At t = T, the switching current goes to zero.

Therefore, it can be shown

from Equation 111-13 that

- t

(I I 1-18)

+ t" = T T / L C ^

/ u

when 1 = 0 . The reverse unsaturation time, t , may be expressed as

c
ru
t

= T - t .
ru
u

(II 1-19)

By substituting Equation (111-19) In Equation (111-18), the reverse

unsaturation time may be written as

/;::>

^ru = / \ F

. ,

' ( /

sat

^'""'" /^s.n(TT-arcsin(/ -^

,. ^

NV^-^^^-

( 1 I 1-20)

29
The inductor voltage and current for the circuit of Figure II I-3a are
indicated in Figure lll-3d with t ,, t,, t , and t
shown.
pd
d
u
ru
For an inductor design Implementing a dc bias, the maximum repetition rate, or rep-rate, at which the inductor may be operated is limited
by the dc bias.

The maximum rep-rate, f

, may be written as
max
^
max

where t

t ,+ t ^ + t
d
et
ru

(I 11-21)

is the time required for energy transfer for an inductor reset

with dc current.

The pre-delay unsaturation, t

, occurs during the

switching delay time because the change In induction during the predelay, A B . , Is considered part of the AB determined for design purposes.
An inductor design employing a reverse bias pulse for reset incurs the
same form of rep-rate limitation.

In this case, the maximum rep-rate

would be

max

^
t , + t' + t^
d
et
"-

(111-22)

where t' is the time required for energy transfer for an inductor that
et
is reset with a reverse current bias pulse.
The time required for switch delay and energy transfer Is set by
the application of the inductor and resulting inductor design.

With the

dc bias, the reverse unsaturation time is also inherent in the inductor

design, and may not easily be altered.

By using a reverse current pulse

to reset the inductor, some control over the reset time may be obtained.
In this case, the reset time, t , may be decreased simply by decreasing

30
the time required to achieve the reverse current maximum required to
reset the core, as indicated by Equation (MI-8).
A dc bias current may be supplied to a bias winding with the circuit
of Figure I I 1-4.

The bias winding and the switching winding couple to-

gether to act as a transformer.

Therefore, any voltage or current pulse

applied to the switching winding will be transformed to the bias winding.

For most saturable inductors, N
will be relatively small.

N , so the transformed voltage pulse

The Inductors of the bias circuit are added

to approximate a constant current supply as discussed previously, and

to protect the supply from the current pulse transformed to the bias during energy transfer.
A reverse current pulse for core reset may be automatically provided
by the system in which the saturable inductor is utilized.
cuit is shown in Figure I 1l-5a.

One such cir-

The voltage and current of the PFN, sa-

turable Inductor, and resistor are shown in Figure M l-5b.

During the

transfer of energy to the PFN, the PFN Is charged to approximately twice

the supply voltage, V . After the voltage across the PFN reaches 2V ,
s

-3

the PFN starts to discharge through the resistor and inductor.

The reverse bias leakage current of the diode mav be sufficient to
reset the magnetic core:
required.

if so. the resistor across the diode is not

If a larger current is required for reset than the diode will

orovlde. the value of R

mav be chosen so that

V
r

V N
r

The time required to reset the core, t^, corresponds to the time constant determined by the resistor and the inductor such that

31

Figure II1-4 A Circuit Realization of a dc Constant Current

Supply for Reset Purposes

32

saturable
inductor

(b)

PFN

(c)

V PFN

reset
resistor

Diode.

(d)

V.
(e)

diode

diode

Figure 111-5

A Circuit Providing a Reset Current Pulse After Energy

Transfer with the Effect of the Reset Pulse on the
Inductor, PFN, Reset Resistor, and Diode Voltage
Current vs. Time

33

r " R '^ i
(
\,

HH 2V
2V j)
r
s'
N R

(111-24)

If the reverse current from the diode Is used to reset the core, then
the time required to reset the core corresponds to the recovery time
of the diode.
From these forms of reset, several bias schemes for producing a
desired pre-switch condition have been devised.

By determining the

effect of reset on the switching inductor and the system in which the
inductor is to be utilized, the most effective form of reset for an
application may be selected.

CHAPTER IV
GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The physical configuration of a saturable inductor directly affects
the operation of the inductor as a switch.

Use of a saturable inductor

results in a switch delay followed by a relatively fast energy transfer.

The minimum time required for the energy transfer is determined In part
by the saturated seIf-inductance L
geometry.

,, which is affected by the inductor

sat'
^

A bias winding used in conjunction with the switching winding

implies the existence of a coefficient of coupling between the two windings, which is also affected by the inductor geometry. The coefficient
of coupling In turn affects the amount of energy transformed to the bias
circuit, thus affecting the switch efficiency.

The geometry of the in-

ductor includes the winding configuration and the shape of the ferromagnetic core.
The primary geometrical factors are window area, core cross-sectional area, core volume, magnetic length of the core, the thicknesses of
the bias and switching windings, and the amount of insulation between
the two windings. The window area refers to the area of the hole in
the core.

For a toroid, this area may be expressed as

W

= Trr.,^
a

where r

id

(IV-1)

id

is the inner radius of the core. The thickness of the switch-

ing and bias windings refers to the depth of the windings on the inside
of the core in the core window, measured radially from the core toward
the center of the core window.

34

35
This chapter investigates the effect of inductor geometry on the
speed of energy transfer, switch efficiency, and scaling of the inductor
design to accommodate different stand-off voltages and conduction currents.

The speed of energy transfer is limited by the saturated self-

inductance of the switch.

The saturated self-inductance, L ^, is af' sat

fected by the core cross-sectional area and the magnetic length of the
core, as indicated in Equation (11-5).

The switch efficiency is affec-

ted by the coupling coefficient, k, between the bias and switching windings.

The coupling coefficient Is dependent upon the thickness of the

switching and bias windings and the thickness of any insulation layer
between the two windings, along with the core radius and the radius of
the core window.

The scaling proportions of the inductor are found to

be dependent upon the stand-off voltage and conduction current in a situation where the ratio between the radius of the core window and the
radius of the core is fixed.
Two core shapes commonly used in saturable inductors are the toroid
and C-core, shown in Figure lV-1.

For the toroid, it Is assumed that

the wire is wound over the entire length of the toroid, thus utilizing
al I of the core material.

The C-core consists of two C-chaped pieces of

ferromagnetic material placed together to form a square core.

For the

C-core, it is assumed that the wire is wound on just one leg of the core.
This allows the C-core to be approximated as a solenoid in any calculation where the winding shape has an affect.
Under saturated conditions, the relative permeability of the core,
y , approaches unity. Indicating that a saturated inductor behaves as
an air core inductor.
approximately

As such, the saturated self-inductance, L^g^. is

36

v_y'c
(a)

1_
(b)

Figure lV-1

Two Typical Core Forms Used in Saturable Inductors

37

L ^ =%
sat
where I

I H^ dv

(IV-2)

i^

is the current in the switching winding and H is the magnetic

field intensity induced In the "air" core. The Integral is taken over the
volume of the field.

The saturated inductance is determined in this in-

stance for an inductor with one winding.

It is assumed that the length of the solenoid is large compared to
the radius of the magnetic core, and the inner radius of the toroid is
large compared to the radius of the magnetic core. Therefore, the magnetic intensity has only radial dependence for the solenoid so that
H(r) = J- fir)

(IV-3)

where f(r) is a unitless function describing the radial dependence of

H(r).

As shown in Figure IV-2a by the cross-section of a one-winding

inductor with a circular core, the radius, r, of Equation (IV-3) increases from the center of the magnetic core to the outer edge of the Inductor winding.

Equation (IV-3) may also be used to approximate the mag-

netic Intensity for a toroid.

It may be assumed without major error that flux is distributed uniformly radially across the magnetic core. The radial dependence of the
magnetic Intensity is shown for a solenoid In Figure IV-2b and for a
toroid in Figure IV-2c. The radial dependence, f(r), may be determined
from the winding distribution for a solecoid (C-core) as:

38
0 < r < r
^"^(1-) =

<

(IV-4)
r-r
1 - -r

r <

^2

For a t o r o i d , f ( r )

+ a
C

becomes

V^'=

r < r
C

0 < r < r

'

'^-^cX^-V-id' ^^s'^'-id-^'
a (2r. ,-a )
s

r<
c

r<r

(IV-5)
c

ta

i d s

where r is the radius of the core, r. , Is the inner radius of the toroid
c
id
window, and a

is the thickness of the switching winding, as Indicated

in Figure IV-2a.
The parabolic shape of H(r) for a toroid Is due to the winding distribution.

The winding on an inductor is normally layered.

The number

of turns in a layer is proportional to the circumference of the window

area:
N^

^ lirr^

(IV-6)

where N. is the number of turns in the first layer, and r^ is equal to

r

id'

As more layers are wound, the available window area obviously de-

creases so that
N

where r

oc 2irr
n
n

(IV-7)

is the radius of the window after (n-1) layers have been wound

Therefore, r

is less than r. and N

is less than N^.

This decrease

39

switching
winding
magnetic
core

Figure lV-2

The Cross-Section of an Inductor with One Winding Shown with

the Radial Dependence of the Magnetic Intensity In the Core
and Winding Shown for (b) a Solenoid and (c) a Toroid

40
in number of turns per layer in a toroid implies that f(r) is parabolic
as shown in Figure IV-2c and described by Equation (IV-5).
By substituting Equation (IV-3) into Equation (IV-2), the saturated
self-inductance may be written as
2
^sat "

~ ^

2-n

'

'

'

^^^^^ ^ ^^ ^^ ^

(IV-8)

Since the magnetic intensity does not depend upon or 9, the saturated
inductance may be expressed as

y N^2Tr
L ^ = - ^
sat
Z

/ ^
f (r) r dr .

(IV-9)

From Equation (IV-9) and the radial dependence of magnetic intensity expressed in Equations (IV-4) and (IV-5), the following expressions for the
saturated self-inductance of a solenoid (C-core) and toroid may be determlned:

Lo =
C

M2
Try N

fn ^
61

i3^+Ara+6r)
c s
c

2
I
=
h"

9-L
I

|rl(a +r )^+ - ^
"^2 s c
^2r. ,-a

id

A-^ a - ^a
(r -r. ,) - 2r. . r )
) 2 s 3 s
c
id
id c

41

where Lp is the self-inductance of the solenoid switching winding, Ly

is the self-Inductance of the toroid switching winding, and N

is the

number of turns in the switching winding.

In general, the saturated self-inductance may be simply expressed
as
L

N ^ y AG
, = -^-rr

sat

( IV-12)

'

where G Is a dimensionless factor accounting for the effect of winding

geometry and A Is the cross-sectional area of the magnetic core. The
factor G may be determined from Equation (IV-IO) for a solenoid as

G^ = V (a^ + 4r a + 6r^) .
C
- 2 s
c s
c
6r
c

(IV-13)

From Equation (IV-11), G becomes

G = -4r (^ (a +r ^+ -r^^
r (^a^-fa (r - r. ,)-2r. ,r ) +
T
2 2
s c
(2r. .-a ) 2 s 3 s c
id
id c
r
i d s
c
( 1V-14)
a

1 7

19

rA-^ a

-Ta

id s )2^6 s
(2r.,-a

5 s

(r -2r. ,) + a ir.

id

-r

id c

) "r - r. , r '.

id c

for a toroid.
The change of Q>^ with respect to winding thickness is shown in
Figure IV-3; G^ as a function of a^ is indicated In Figure IV-4. Due
to core geometry, the maximum winding thickness for a toroid is r.^ and
for a C-core is D, as shown in Figure lV-1.

For simplicity, r.^ is

42

^o

r ^ c\j CO
r-H

II

f-H

II
Q

II

m
II

II

a a
A

r^ () i n

o
S-.

O LO

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to
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43

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LO

CVJ
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44
normalized to one.

The width of the C-core window, D, is chosen so that

the window area and magnetic length of the C-core and toroid are the
same for a specific core radius.

A uniform window area implies that the

same number of turns are wound on the two inductors at a specific winding
thickness.

By maintaining a similar number of turns and magnetic length,

any differences between Gp and Gy at a specific core radius are due to

core and winding geometry alone.
For a specific core radius, window area, and magnetic length, the
increase of G with winding depth is less for the C-core inductor than for
the toroidal Inductor, as indicated In Figures IV-3 and IV-4.

This im-

plies that the saturated inductance is less for the inductor wound on a
C-core for specific winding dimensions.

As indicated in Figure IV-4, a

low saturated inductance may be achieved for a toroid from a geometry

requiring a core radius that is small compared to the radius of the window, with the thickness of the switching winding less than half the radius
of the window.
A bias winding wound over the switching winding would link the same
flux as the switching winding, forming a simple two winding transformer.
The amount of energy transformed to the bias winding during the energy
transfer mode reduces the total energy transfer, thus affecting the efficiency of the switch.

One way to maximize the switch efficiency (neglec-

ting losses) would be to minimize the coefficient of coupling between the

two windings.
The coefficient of coupling is

k =

^
sat

< 1
bsat

(IV-15)

45

bias
winding
insulation
layer
switching
winding
magnetic
core

r,=r

+a +A

1 c s
r=r^+a^+A+a.
2 c s
D

(b)

Figure IV-5

The Cross-Section of a Saturable Inductor Shown With

the Magnetic Intensity vs. Radius for the Bias Winding

46
where LsaT is the self-inductance of the switching^ windinq,
^* L^
bsat. is the
self-inductance of the bias winding, and M Is the mutual inductance [ 6 ] .
The mutual inductance may be expressed as

M = YY' I ^b ^s '^'^
where I^ Is the current in the switching winding, H
tensity induced by I^, I

^ '^"^^^
is the magnetic in-

is the current in the bias winding, and H

is

the corresponding bias magnetic Intensity.

The cross-section of a saturable Inductor with bias winding is shown
in Figure IV-5a;
lV-5b.

the radial dependence of H (r) is Indicated in Figure

The thickness of the bias winding is assumed small enough that

a linear approximation for H, may be used for the toroid;

therefore.

Figure lV-5b represents H. (r) for the C-core as well as the toroid bias
windlng.

The radial dependence of H (r) may be expressed as:

0 < r < r + a +A
c s
(lV-17)

f. ( r ) =
b

r-ir

+a +A)
^

1
a.

r+a+A<r<r+a+A+a.
c s
c s
b

where a^ is the thickness of the bias winding, and A is the thickness

b
of the Insulation layer between the switching and bias windings [7].
Based on the radial representation for the magnetic Intensity due
to the bias current, the saturated self-inductance of the bias winding
may be determined in a manner similar to the saturated self-inductance
of the switching self-inductance:

47

2
y_N
k . . . = - 2 . ^ 2 - I ^ a ^ + ^ a. ( r +a +A) + ( r +a +A)^ 1
Dsat
36
6 b 3 b c s
c s

(IV-18)

The saturated self-inductance of the switching winding remains the same

as determined for a one-winding inductor. Therefore, the mutual inductance for the inductor wound on C-core may be determined using Equation
(IV-16):
y NN
o sb
^r = 7 i0
^
i

, 1a^9+^r a +^r 2
(
(t
a^ + r a + r ) .
3 s
c s
c

( IV-19)

The mutual inductance for the toroidal inductor may be expressed as

yoNsN,b ^ , / , v2
^ ,
as
. 2
^
^,
,1
MT =
5 I2
^ (as + rc) +
T

(2r. ,-a V) (4-r a

s
id

(IV-20)

+ 4- a (r - 2r.,) - r r.,) J
3 s c
id
c id

From the mutual Inductances, the self-inductances of the bias windings,

and the self-inductances of the switching windings, the coefficient of
coupling for the C-core, kp, and the toroid, k^, may be determined:

[| a^ + r a + r^]
'3 s
c s
c
k^ =

(IV-21)

48

[ y ( a + r ^ )^+(:r^
) ( j a A l a (r-2r.,)
2 s
c
2rj(j-a5
4 s 3 s
c
id

-rr..)]
c id

[ ^ ^ a . ^ + | - a . ( r ^ + a +A) + ( r + a + A ) ^ ) ( ^ ( a
+ r )
z^b b
3 b c
s
c
s
2
s
c

^s
( 2 r j .-a )
l a s

1 2
2 s

2
3 s

id

a r..(r.,-r
s id
Id

id c

^Q
1 "^ 1 9
( 2 r . ,-a )^ 6 s 5 s
I d s

) +T'"-J
3 Id

I'

id

))]^
(IV-22)

The coupling coefficient for a C-core inductor is shown In Figure

IV-6 as a function of switching winding thickness.

As before, the width

of the C-core window, D, varies with the core radius to achieve the same
window area and magnetic length as the toroid.

The width of the insula-

tion layer and the bias winding are assumed to be .ID.

The coupling co-

efficient for a toroidal Inductor Is shown as a function of a

IV-7. where r.^ is normalized to one.
Id

in Figure

For the toroid, a. and A are asD

sumed to be 1r. , each.

Figure IV-6 indicates that for a solenoid approximation, the coefficient of coupling for a particular core geometry varies little with
the winding thickness or a change in core radius.
coupling for a toroidal

The coefficient of

inductor. Indicated in Figure IV-7, shows a

much larger variation under saturated conditions.

For some winding

49

CO

in

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II
Q

II
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KO

cn

CM

_
2

cn
>

51
configurations, the coefficient of coupling will drop from near unity
while the core is unsaturated to .2 upon saturation.
The general performance capabilities of saturable inductors as high
power switches can be evaluated in part by Investigation of the geometrical constraints imposed on inductor design by the peak current, standoff voltage, and switch delay required.

This evaluation may be obtained

by scaling the inductor design for various stand-off voltages and conduction currents while maintaining a constant switch delay.

Several factors

that may be used to determine core performance are number of turns in the
switching winding, saturated inductance, switching Dl/dt, and core volume.
The geometrical factors that will be affected by scaling are window
area, core cross-sectional area, magnetic length of the core, and core
volume.

The minimum window area is specified by the number of turns and

wire cross-section required for a specific conduction current.

The core

cross-sectional area is specified in part by the stand-off voltage.

The

core cross-sectional area and window area determine the magnetic length
while the core volume may be determined from the magnetic length and
cross-sectional area of the core.

Therefore, the magnetic length and

volume of the core are affected by the stand-off voltage and conduction
current.
The number of turns may be expressed in terms of conduction current
and winding geometry by recognizing the physical limitations presented
by the window area and conductor material.

The number of turns may be

written as
N = A /TTr ^
c
w

(IV-23)

52
where A^ is the area of conducting wire in the switching winding and
r^ is the radius of a single conductor.

The area, A , may be determined

from the area of the switching winding and the area lost to the "packing"
factor and insulation.

The packing factor arises from the use of round

wire and reduces the available area for current conduction such that

A .
= .75 A
WI re
s

(IV-24)

where A^r^g 's the area actually filled by wire and A

the switching winding.

Is the area of

The amount of insulation on the wire will depend

upon the stand-off voltage and number of turns; assume that the insulation of the conductor accounts for 1/3 of the winding area so that

= .5 A
c

(IV-25)

The area of the switching winding is determined in the plane of the core
window.

In terms of the thickness of the switching winding, a , and the

radius of the window, the area of the switching winding may be expressed
as
A

= irr.^^ - 7r(r. . - a ) ^ .
s
id
id
s

(IV-26)

Therefore, the number of turns may be written as

.5 a (2r. , - a )
N =
^
2
r
w

(IV-27)

53
It should be noted that the thickness of the switching winding is less
than the radius of the core window due to the presence of the bias winding and insulation layer.
For a given rms current, the wire radius may be determined from the
allowable current density.

A typical rms current density for pulse power

applIcations Is

'^max = 2.35 (10^) A/m^

(IV-28)

assuming a copper conductor [8]. This value for J

is chosen for safema x
ty reasons and may vary, depending upon the application and conductor material.

Based on the maximum allowable rms current density, the conduc-

tor area may be determined as

7T rw2

= .Irms /,
/Jmax

^( 'lV-29)
^^'

so that
r^
w

= 3.68(10>-4") / I
/ rms

(IV-30)

Therefore, the number of turns may be expressed in terms of the rms current as
1.175(10^) a (2r. . - a )
N =
'^
^
.
I
rms

(IV-31)

The core radius and switching winding thickness may be specified In

terms of the window radius by recognizing the desirability of maintaining
a low saturated inductance and low coefficient of coupling during

54
saturation.

The saturated inductance for a toroidal inductor as a func-

tion of core radius and switching winding thickness is shown In Figure

r 4/r. ,5 is factored out to allow the plotted function
w
Id
^
to be dependent upon a and r only so that
IV-8.

The term

a o
a <^ r ^
(-^)2 ( 2 - - ^ ) 2 , _ c . x 2 ^

(,-^)M2-^r(^y
V. y ^" r. 7 V. . ^ ^T

r^

L .,( (- ^ ) =
It \. _ 5 ^
sa' y r. ,
^ '^

^^

^^
i-^!
r
8(1+-^)
Id

(IV-32)

where r. , has been normalized to one.

id

As the thickness of the switching winding is increased, the saturated inductance also increases. However, the coefficient of coupling decreases with an increase in switching winding thickness, as indicated In
Figure IV-7. A low coefficient of coupling implies that a = .8 r. , while
low saturated Inductance requires that a = .1 r. . A compromise between
the desire for low k and low saturated Inductance may be obtained by
choosing
r

= .25 r. ,
Id

(IV-33)
a

= .5 r. ,
id

Based on Equation (IV-31) and the values for r^ and a^, the number
of turns may be determined in terms of the rms current and the window
radius:
2
) r. .
^
.
Irms

7.7(10
N

11

(IV-34)

55

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4U

r?

..

-o

(0
01

to

T7

CD
L.

o
o
cn

l_

o
o
h(D
l_

L.
(H

>
L.

M-

M-

CD

u
c

CD
C
-ii:

o
D

sz
\-

to
4-

-o
c

CD
-f-

<u

V-8

l_
3
4(U
00

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56
The number of turns may also be expressed as:
E t^
N =

( IV-35)
ABA

where the area of the core. A, may be written as

A =

(.25 r.J^

(IV-36)

I d

From Equation ( I V - 3 6 ) , the window radius may be w r i t t e n in terms of N and

I

so t h a t t h e number o f t u r n s in Equation (IV-35) becomes

J^

t (10 )
/14.1E
-2
/
AB
/
I

(IV-37)

The saturated inductance of the switching winding may be written as

N^y A G
L

^ =

CIV-38)

sat

The relationship for N, L ,, dl/dt, and V may now he written as

^
sat
N=

L ,=
sat

-'-'^^

-8

1.7(30 )

F^/^

^
I

( IV-44)

dt

5.88(10"^) c^/2
-^To

V = 3.9(10") (EI)^''^

57
The number of turns may also be expressed as:

N =

2.
ABA

(IV-35)

where the area of the core. A, may be written as

A =

(.25 r. j 2 .

(IV-36)

I d

From Equation (IV-36), the window radius may be written in terms of N and
I
so that the number of turns in Equation (IV-35) becomes
rms
^

t.(lO^)
-^
AB
/

=
/

14.IE
.

(IV-37)

The saturated inductance of the switching winding may be written as

L
=
sat

N^y A G^
2
!_
o

(IV-38)

The relationship for N, L ,, dl/dt, and V may now be written as

saT

N=

L ,=
sat

ii-Ii
-8 F^/^
1.7(10 )
^
I
( IV-44)

^
dt

{ 5.88(10^)

I/E^'^2

3.9(10") (EI)^^"^

58
The expression for N Is shown in Figure IV-9 as a function of standoff voltage, E, and rms current, I

. As expected, the number of turns

^

rms

increases as the voltage and current increase, as shown in Figure IV-9.

For the case where the voltage and current are scaled at the same rate,
the number of turns remains constant.

This is due to the fact that the

increase in voltage requires an increase

in core area to maintain the same

switch delay for the same core material. This increase in core area is offset by the increase In core window area necessary for higher currents.
The saturated Inductance Increases as the stand-off voltage is increased, as indicated in Figure IV-10. This implies that the

dl/dt

capability of the switch decreases with an Increase in stand-off voltage, as shown In Figure IV-11.

For a constant or Increasing dl/dt as

the inductor Is scaled, the relationship between voltage and current

must be such that
3/2
al >E.

( lV-45)

The constant oc is added for the purpose of balancing units.

Figure IV-12 Indicates the change in core volume with respect to
3/2
current and voltage. By specifying that al >. E
, an increase in
core volume occurs as indicated.

The large increase in volume required

to maintain a constant or increasing dl/dt with a scale to larger currents or voltages indicates that dl/dt vs. volume is a major consideration In inductor design.
Figures IV-9 through IV-12 represent the scaling of an inductor
for the case where

59

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60

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63
r

=.25

a
id

= 1 Tesia

=.5r.,

id

t, = 1 usee
d

The scaling relations are approximate and are not good over an arbitrary range.

The results obtained are general in that a change of these

variables will affect only the constant of proportionality in Equation

(IV-44).

The exponentiona1 powers of E and I are Independent of the

val ues of r , a , and t_,.

c
s
d
Clearly, the configuration of the inductor affects the switching
characteristics of the inductor in several ways.
of the switching winding limits the

The winding depth

dl/dt capabilities of the switch

by increasing the saturated Inductance of the switch.

The percentage

of coupling between the switching and bias windings may effect the efficiency of switch operation.

Overall switch performance is not main-

tained by scaling E and I In a similar manner. If the inductor Is

3/2
scaled in size to correspond with
ai >. E
, the dl/dt capability of
the switch either remains constant or increases with an increase in voltage and current.

CHAPTER V
INDUCTOR LOSSES

The electrical power losses experienced by the saturable inductor

affect the switch efficiency and thermal considerations of Inductor
design.

The thermal considerations include core cooling and volume of

the core required to prevent excessive temperature rise.

losses include core and winding losses.

The inductor

The energy dissipated In the

magnetic core Is comprised of hysteresis and eddy current losses. The

2
winding losses consist primarily of I R losses in the conductor. Total
energy losses may be represented in joules per pulse for a particular
Inductor design.

The joules/pulse losses may be used to determine the

switch efficiency by comparing the energy loss with the amount of energy
transferred.
The core losses may be used to specify the minimum core volume required to limit the core heating.

It Is necessary to maintain a tempe-

rature in the core that Is lower than the Curie temperature [9]. At the
Curie temperature, a ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic [10].
The change from ferrcmagnetism to paramagnetism is also accompanied by
a rise in the resistivity of the magnetic material and a decrease in Induction.

By maintaining temperatures somewhat less than the Curie tem-

perature, resistivity and induction may be held approximately constant

with respect to change In temperature.

The core temperature during

operation may be determined by calculating the amount of heat produced

by the losses in the core and by eonsldering

the manner in which the

heat flows from the center of the core to the surface.

64

Thermodynamic

65
considerations form an Important part of inductor design but are beyond
the scope of this thesis and will not be considered here [11].
The losses experienced by the magnetic core during a cycle of operation may be explained with the aid of the B-H curve of Figure V-1.
Assume .that point (a) corresponds to the pre-switch condition.

Upon

application of voltage, the flux density in the core begins to increase

as previously expressed in Equation 11-1.

Eddy currents are induced in

the core in response to the time rate of change of B:

^
dt

^^^
NA

where e(t) is the voltage applied to the inductor.

(V-1)

When the core satu-

rates at point (b), the relative permeability of the magnetic material

approaches unity, switching occurs, and the current In the winding rapidly Increases.

Simultaneously, a decrease in the voltage across the

inductor occurs, thus the eddy current losses decrease as indicated by

Equation (V-1).

Since the eddy current losses are low and the winding

2
current Is large, the I R losses of the switching winding dominate during saturation.
A magnetic material may be considered as consisting of many small
magnetic domains [12]. When a magnetic field is applied to the core,
the magnetic domains tend to align themselves with the field.

Physical

movement of these domains generates heat due to the friction Incurred by

realignment.

The area of region 1 of Figure 1 corresponds to the energy

required to machanically align the magnetic domains in the "forward" direction.

"Forward" in this case is a matter of convention and refers to

alignment during switch delay.

During reset, the domains are forced in

66

figure

V-1 A R u o
-C_n.3t.t.,Co.eCosse3.,.,.3pec.
+0 Switch Operation

67
the opposite direction and the electrical energy (Region 2, Figure V-1)
expended In aligning the domains is released in the form of heat.

The

energy loss during a complete cycle due to the hysteresis effect Is

determined by:
W^

= Vol / H dB

(V-2)

where Vol is the volume of the core, and the B-H loop is taken at operating frequency [13].
Eddy current losses arise from the currents induced in the core to
oppose the establishment of flux in the core.

An estimation of eddy

current loss for laminated cores under pulsed conditions has been made
by W. S. Melville [14]. Melville assumes that

(a)

the core material does^ not experience a rapidly

changing permeability,

(b)

the material at the surface of a lamination does

not experience a B-H cycle that is appreciably
different in characteristic from the interior of
lami nation.

The first assumption implies that the core does not saturate.

For satu-

rable inductors, Melville's estimation may be used to characterize eddy

current losses before saturation.

The second assumption Implies that

the time delay, t,, is greater than the time constant of the core lamination; i.e., the flux has sufficient time to penetrate the lamination
during switch delay.

The time constant of the core lamination Is ex-

plained in more detail later In this chapter.

68
A laminated magnetic core usually consists of a thin lamination
wound spirally In some predetermined form.

The eddy currents circulate

in the cross-section plane of the lamination; this plane corresponds to

the plane perpendicular to the flux.

The magnetic intensity produced

by the eddy currents tends to reduce the effect of the exciting magnetic intensity applied to the lamination.

By taking an average exci-

ting magnetic intensity within the core and considering the effect that
the eddy currents have on this average H, an estimation of the eddy
current losses may be obtained.
The cross-section of a magnetic lamination Is shown in Figure V-2a.
An exciting magnetic intensity, H,,^, exists external to the lamination;
inside the lamination, the exciting magnetic intensity consists of eddy
current and magnetizing components.
tion to resist the change of flux.

Eddy currents flow in the laminaThe effect of the eddy currents on

the magnetizing force, H , Is more pronounced in the center of the lamination, creating a skin effect as shown in Figure V-2b.

The magnetizing

intensity averaged over the width of the lamination may be expressed as:
d/2
H

where H

= -7:7
m
d/2

/
/

H
X

d
X

is the net magnetizing force within the lamination.

(V-3)

The aver-

age value, H , Is shown in Figure V-2c.

With respect to H^, the average

value for the eddy current magnetic intensity Is

d/2
-\-

d/2

ex

dx = 0

(V-4)

69

(a)

Figure V-2

A Typical Lamination in a Laminated Core with Width

Thickness

and

Shown with the Effect of the Eddy Current

Magnetic Intensity on the Exciting Magnetic Intensity and

Magnetizing Magnetic Intensity

70
where H

ex

is the opposing magnetic Intensity due to eddy currents.

At the surface of the lamination (x = d/2. Figure V-2a), the exciting

magnetic Intensity consists of eddy current and magnetizing components
as Indicated in Figure V-2c.

Thus, the exciting magnetic Intensity

may be expressed as
H^/o = H + H
d/2
e
m
where H

(V-5)

Is the eddy current component of the magnetic Intensity at the

surface of the lamination.

Since the magnetic intensity due to the

eddy currents opposes the magnetizing H, it follows that at some depth

within the lamination

H
X

H - H
m
ex

where H and H
are at some distance
X
ex

(V-6)

from the center of the lamina-

tlon surface, as Indicated in Figure V-2c.

The voltage in an incremental strip of width Ax at a distance

from the lamination center (see Figure V-2a) is Induced by the flux
between the strip and the laminar center.

This voltage may be expressed

as:

e =

-wy^^t

/ H
'

where w is the width of the lamination, and y

d
X

(V-8)
X

is constant.

The eddy

current, i , in an incremental strip Ax wide may be expressed as

i
X

^ Ax
pw

(V-9)

71
where I is the length of the lamination so that M x is the cross-sectional area that the eddy current flows through and w Is the length of the
current path which corresponds to the width of the lamination.

This im-

plies that
AH

^'x/5,

(V-10)

pw

(V-11)

ex
so that
.H
1^=
dx
where Ax -> 0 .

T h e r e f o r e , an e x p r e s s i o n f o r H

as a f u n c t i o n o f x may

be d e t e r m i n e d from Equations ( V - 6 ) , ( V - 8 ) , and ( V - 9 ) :

_>i = l i - i _ I
dx
p 3t /

(H - H ) dx .
m
ex

(V-12)

By t a k i n g t h e Laplace t r a n s f o r m , t h i s e q u a t i o n becomes
2
9 H
^
^^2

- ii- s(H - H ) = 0 .
p
m
ex

(V-13)

The solution to Equation (V-13) in the s-domain Is

H
= H
ex
m

+. ^.
e,cosh

/^{/v^A

( / ^ x )

+ 6^ c i ' s h ( / ^ x )

where 3. and ^^ "^^Y ^ f u n c t i o n s o f

s.

(V-14)

72
The functions 3^ and ^^ may be determined from the boundary conditions of the lamination.

At the center of the lamination where x = 0,

3H
-T^

=0

CV-15)

dx

due to the spatial symmetry of the eddy currents within the lamination.
By differentiation Equation (V-14) with respect to x and applying the
boundary condition of Equation (V-15), It can be seen that 6 = 0.
This imp Iles that

^v = ^m "^ ^1 ^osh ( / ^ x ) .
ex
m
1

(V-16)

S u b s t i t u t i o n of the expression f o r H
i n t o Equation (V-4) y i e l d s
ex
'

^f2
JH^ + 3^ COS h ( / ^

X yjdx = 0,

(V-17)

^1=

^^-18)

so t h a t

. ' y ^ 6 ,
sinhC/^sj)

^m

T h e r e f o r e , the magnetic i n t e n s i t y due to eddy currents may be expressed

as:
r/ ^ s : r c o s h ( / ^ s x)
H
=H
il-^l-e-^
^
ex
mi_
- u z / V i d x
S ' n h ( / -sj
)

^
I .

(V.20)

72
For an applied unit step voltage, the magnetizing component of the
exciting magnetic intensity is

H - 1
E
m
s yNA

'

(V-20)

so that
u
- _ i _ 1 r,
ex ~ yNA s U

p^2
. /m
r^
sinh(/fs
f) S

1-

(V-21)

The time domain solution may be obtained by taking the inverse Laplace
transform of Equation (V-21):

E
^ex

V
/ <^* Z

= ^

where a is a constant.

/icsh( / l ^
-^:=;
- ^

X)

e"
(V22)

/ p a 4 ^

/ p 2

The value of a is determined from the condition

sin h (/ ^a-^) = 0 so that

p 2
2 . 2
-n p47r
a =
1
d y

(V-23)

and
2

(-1)

c o s ( - ^ x) (1 - e

^x = IJA

-2

n=l

(V-24)

73
At X = d/2, cos(-p-x) becomes (-1)" and H becomes H ,^/^.,
d
ex
e(d/2)
that

implying
^ ' ^

00

"e = -^(d/2) =

"-25'

n= 1
The constant, a, may also be expressed as
2 2 ,
a = - il^ 1
3

(V-26)

2
T = -7^^^
12p

where

(V-27)

The constant, T, Is usually referred to as the lamination time constant.

From Equation (V-1), it may be shown for a constant applied voltage that

k - f
From Equations (V-27) and (V-28), the eddy current component may now be
expressed in terms of the ratio t/x'^
_ A B T 6

"

y t^

-n27T2 t

/Cl-e

^, ^
n= I

^ ^ ^

o
z

(V-29)

The eddy current losses may be determined by integrating Equation

(V-29) over the change in induction during switch delay:
AB
W

= Vol

I H^ d B

(V-30)

74
where Vol is the volume of the magnetic material in the core. A constant applied voltage implies that

dB = ^

dt

(V-32)

We = ^

I H^ dt .

(V-32)

so that

By substituting the magnetic intensity due to the eddy currents expressed in Equation (V-29) Into Equation (V-32) and manipulating the result,
the following solution may be obtained:
00

/AB^ T
VAB^
W =
e

18 T

t K'

2_2
(1-e ^ V - -)

TT2 t n=l
^

^
n4

) .

(V-33)

In general, the eddy current magnetic Intensity and losses may be expressed as

T'P^-^

H =
e

We

y
VAB

(V-34)

t ^ T
t .
Tt $. (, T
).

/ Tc^
(v-35)

The function ^p is graphed in Figure V-3 and $ in Figure V-4 with respect to t/x.
The total losses experienced by an Inductor during one cycle con2
sist of eddy current, hysterisis, and I R losses such that

75

H
4-)

cn
0
CO

3
CL

4-

in

o
(T3

c
O

o
0

E
c

o
c

in
>

c
O
LO

(tj

u
c
3

cn
cn
0

0
>

i_

0
4in

o
3

Q
I

Lf)

0
L.
3

cn

4J

76

0
CO
3

Q_
0
JZ

O
O

c
(0
4-

cn

c
O
O

CO

CO

>
c
O
u
c

c
O
to
c

cn

0
>
O

in
O

i_

s_
3

O
>^

c
O

o
UJ

S_
3

Q
I

0
s_
3
CJ^

H
4->

77

W-^ =
I

W^ + W. + W^ .
e
h
I

(V-36)

2
The I R losses are

W_
I

I^R t ^
et

(V-37)

where I is the average switching current over one pulse, t

is the

duration of the energy transfer pulse, and R is the resistance of the

switching conductor.

W
T

The total may be written as:

2
^^^^^1 <D (:t) +Vol/ HdB + I^R t
y
t
T
et

(V-38)

As discussed previously, the losses experienced during switch delay

and saturation are eddy current, hysteresis, and winding losses. During
reset, the primary losses are due to hysteresis and eddy currents.

The

eddy current losses derived in Equation (V-33) are a function of the

length of pulse applied to the inductor.

This pulse duration would cor-

respond to the switch delay for the delay mode of operation and to the
reset time for the reset mode.

The hysteresis loss experienced by the

core occurs partially during switch delay and partially during reset.
For magnetic materials with a B-H curve such as Figure V-1, half of the
hysteresis loss would occur during switching and the other half during
reset.

Therefore, the loss incurred during delay and energy transfer,

W , may be expressed as

W
s

= W (t^) + I W + I^R t^^

e d
2 h
et

(V-39)

78
while the energy loss during reset, W , is

^r

"

^e^^r^ ^ 1 ^h '

(V-40)

From the energy transferred during switching and the energy loss/pulse,
the switch efficiency, n, may be determined
W
n = 1-

+ W
\

(V-41)

where W is the energy transferred to the load per pulse by the switch.
The foregoing analysis provides a procedure for determining the
loss per unit volume of the ferromagnetic material and allows the determination of switching efficiency for any particular design.

The

loss/unit volume along with appropriate thermal analysis will verify a

design for temperature limitations and cooling requirements.

The elec-

trical switch efficiency may be used to verify performance of a design

for utilization in pulse power applications.

CHAPTER VI
MAGNETIC MATERIALS

The response of a saturable Inductor as a high power switch is

closely related to the magnetic characteristics of the core material.
The choice of core material for a switch application is dependent upon
the desired switch behavior.

A wide variety of magnetic materials and

types of core construction that are suitable for use in saturable inductors are currently available.

By examining the characteristics of

these cores with respect to the desired switching properties, the suitability of a material for a specific saturable inductor may be determined.

Critical parameters that may affect material choice are stand-

off voltage, required efficiency, easy reset, etc.

Figure VI-1 illustrates the B-H curve of a material suitable for
use in saturable inductor cores.

The unsaturated permeability, y ,

provides a high unsaturated inductance for low energy transfer during

the switch delay.

The saturated permeability should be low (y

=1)

to allow a low saturated inductance for a relatively fast energy transfer during conduction.

A saturated permeability of approximately unity

also allows the bias and switching windings to effectively decouple for
some designs during energy transfer Increasing switch efficiency In
some applications (see Chapter IV).
The saturated relative permeability of the magnetic material will
in most cases approximate unity for high currents during energy transfer.

The squareness ratio Indicates the amount of current (magnetic

intensity) required after saturation of the magnetic material to force

79

80
the permeability to one.

The squareness ratio is the ratio of residual

induction to saturated induction.

The closer the squareness ratio is

to unity, the less conduction current is required to force y

to one

after the core has saturated.

The "knee" of the B-H curve should be square; the "knee" refers to
the transition region from unsaturated to saturated operation on the
B-H curve.

A square "knee" implies an abrupt transition between "open"

and "closed" states of a saturable inductor.

The saturated inductance is affected by the change in induction,
AB, required to saturate the core.

The number of turns in the switching

winding ig inversely proportional to the change induction, AB, so that

for a step applled voltage.

(VI-1)

2
The saturated inductance is d i r e c t l y proportional to N so that from
Equations (I 1-5) and ( V l - l ) ,
2

2
y yG
^ ^ - ^
AAB^ I

E V

L ^ =
^^^

(VI-2)

Therefore, a large available change In induction implies a relatively low

saturated inductance for a given inductor geometry.

The available change

In Induction for delay purposes Is limited to the linear portion of the

B-H curve where y

is large.

The maximum induction before saturation, B^,

is an approximate Indication of the change in Induction for large y^. The

value for B

Is usually determined at some point above the knee of the

B-H curve (see Figure VI-1).

If the knee of the curve is rounded, then

some value of Induction lower than B^ must be used to determine the AB

available for switch delay.

31

Figure VI-1

A B-H Curve Illustrating Characteristics of a Magnetic

Material that May Be Used in Comparison of Core
Materials for Use in Saturable Inductors

82

For small hysteresis losses, the coercive force, H , of the magc

netic material should be low; a low coercive force also allows easy
reset.

A high resistivity, p. Indicates a low eddy current loss because

the magnitude of the eddy currents in the material are directly affected by the electrical resistivity of the material.
The Curie temperature, T , of the magnetic material affects core
volume requirements.

A high Curie temperature Indicates that a large

energy may be released in the core In the form of heat without seriously
affecting the magnetic properties of the material.

This indicates that

the minimum volume required for a saturable inductor designed for a

specific application is limited by the core losses and by the Curie
temperature of the magnetic material.

The temperature restrictions of

the winding insulation may limit the internal temperature of the inductor to an even lower value.
Magnetic materials are manufactured in a variety of ways.

Magnetic

materials suited for use in saturable inductors usually consist of iron

or iron oxides combined with other materials such as silicon, nickel,
or cobalt in varying percentages.

The presence of other elements in

small percentages may dramatically change the magnetic properties of

the material [15].
Several techniques are used in constructing magnetic cores to minimize possible eddy current losses In the core.

"Tape wound" or "fer-

rite" cores are examples of cores constructed for different operational

requirements.

Other types of cores are available, but their character-

istics are not as suited for use in saturable inductors as the tape
wound or ferrite core.

83
A tape wound core is made from a magnetic alloy that can be rolled
into a continuous strip.

The core is formed by winding a narrow width

of the tape material Into a predetermined shape, usually toroidal [16].

The thinner the tape Is rolled, the less area the eddy currents have in
which to circulate.

This implies that a core with a small tape thick-

ness would have a relatively low eddy current loss.

A small tape thick-

ness also indicates that flux penetration to the center of the tape may
be achieved In shorter times.
tape form:

Two forms of alloys are manufactured in

the metallic alloy, and the amorphous alloy.

The metallic

alloy has a crystalline atomic structure while the amorphous alloy has
a random atomic structure similar to glass.
A ferrite core consists of a mixture of crystals of iron oxide with
various other metallic oxides.

The additional metallic oxide might be

magnesium oxide, nickel oxide, or zinc oxide.

The ferrite core is a

uniform, solid body similar in texture and mechanical properties to

oxide or silicate bodies [17].
A comparison of the basic magnetic characteristics for several tape
wound cores of metallic and amorphous alloy and a typical ferrite core
is presented in Table Vl-J.

The characteristics compared are unsatura-

ted permeability, y , maximum induction, B^, residual induction, B ,

saturation induction, B , the squareness ratio, coercive force, H. ,
s
^
resistivity, p. Curie temperature, T^, and average watts/kg loss for
60 cycle operation.

The values of Table VI-1 are average values taken

from several manufacturer's specifications.

The watts/kg rating presented in Table VI-1 is useful only as a
comparative value for the materials presented.

Since the frequencies

84

to

cn
E
0

i-

cn
CO

in

to

O
-J

4->
"M

CT>
LT)
t

>?r
0
r-t

4S0

4Lf)

r-l

+
4-

+in

vo
^

LO

<o
(Tk

r-H
11

LO

(U

</>

'r^
i-

<u

4->
0
<T3

&.
rtJ
x:
0
to
3
0
r~

^
ns
r>

OJ

0
+J
0
3
T3
C
1

M0

0
to
r

s.
a.
E
fO

LO

;r
si-

- o

ft

>_^
r^

LO
0

LO
0

LO
0

14

1I

LO

CVJ

LO

CO

IJ

r-*

r>^

CVJ

11

>,_^

1t

LO

vo
^

CO
'^

CO
0

t1

f-H
- i _ ^

CVJ
CO

OD

LO
0

;r
cn

C3^
r^

r-t

cn
c

to
11

0)

ja
fO

&3
4->
3
00

C
i ^

cu

to
Z3

(1)

.4->
e

to

s.

Ln
0

S0
It0)
r
JO
rtJ
4->
r
3
OO

3
a

CO
to

<u 0
c r
(U 4->
&. <a
fO s.
rj
cr

<Tt

CO

10
LO

CO

LO

LO

<Ti

CO

00

CO
LO

CVI

rt

I-H

11

LO

U3
CO

CVJ

kHz , max

to
0
r
4->

'V,^'

Lf)
0

353

M0

LO
0
r-t

370

c
cn
(O
2:

00

fXJ
r*".
i - to
CQ
(U

LO
LO

r
to

f-H

LO

CO
00

1t

LO

03
fO

CVJ

CQ

s=
0

0
CJ

cn

LO

CO
3

LO

CO

vo

cn

to

LO

CO

"N
u:
0
0
!l-

<u
6^

LO

03

10

<u

U-

O
ID

Li-

?f
LO

LO

o
LU

a.
<c

o
LO

to
CJ
10

OJ
(J-

O
CO

Z
?S
0
CO

0
0

{/)

0
LO

cn
t/1
CO

o
ex
so

CO
r00
LO
CO

+J
03

00

CJ
{=

CQ
tI

O
<^
(U
LL.

OS

to
0)
1
CVJ

r^

t
E
t-H
.

.^1^

S-

i->

a: 0
u. +c_>

CQ
'vT
O
2
CO
CO

0
CO
(U

r
-M
03
C

r^

0
OJ

c
E
s.

ce:

-a
<u
to

0)
+J

Q::

CQ

c^

n:

0
LO
03
-0
0)
C
r~

E
s-

(U
4->
OJ
0

85
at which the saturable inductor is operated are high, the losses induced in the core during switching will be higher than the losses Induced
at 60 cycles.

The Initial permeability may also be used only as a means

for comparison because the y^ values for the tape wound cores were determined at 400 Hz by using the constant current flux reset, CCFR, test
method [18]. The initial permeability of some cores tends to decrease
at higher frequencies.

To determine the actual initial or saturated

permeability for design purposes, a pulse magnetization curve for the

desired operational pulse width (switch delay) should be examined.
As indicated in Table Vl-l, the amorphous materials have a lower
coercive force and core loss than the metallic or the ferrite materials.
However, the squareness ratio and initial permeability are also lower
than the average metallic alloy.

The metallic alloys have a higher max-

imum induction and squareness ratio than either the ferrite or amorphous
materials.

The ferrite materials have a very high resistivity. Indica-

ting a very low eddy current loss.

However, the maximum induction, B ,

is low in comparison to the amorphous and metal Iic materials.

The ini-

permeabillty of the ferrite material does not tend to decrease as much

as the tape wound cores for operation at higher frequencies.
Cores made of ferrite material have low losses and therefore may be
operated at higher rep-rates than most tape wound cores.

The tape thick-

ness of tape wound cores limits the maximum rep-rate at which the core
may be operated.

This limitation Is due in part to excessive heating

from eddy currents.

The loss ratings of the three types of materials

indicate that for a specific applied voltage and conduction current, a

smaller volume of amorphous material would be required than of either

86
the ferrite or metallic tape cores.

However, the Curie temperature of

the amorphous material indicates that a core made of this material cannot tolerate as high a temperature rise as either the ferrite or metalI ic tape cores.

Therefore, the reduction in volume obtained by low

loss in amorphous materials Is offset in part by the low Curie temperature.

Three types of cores are considered suitable for use in saturable

inductors.

They are ferrite cores and tape wound cores made of amor-

phous or metallic tape.

The magnetic characteristics of these cores

used for comparison are Initial permeability, maximum induction, residual induction, saturation Induction, squareness ratio, coercive force,
resistivity. Curie temperature, and average watts/kg loss for 60 cycle
operation.
Based on magnetic characteristics, the response of these materials
as cores In saturable Inductors may be determined in general. The
watts/kg rating In conjunction with the Curie temperature indicates the
volume requirements for a desired stand-off voltage and conduction current for the saturable Inductor.

The resistivity of the material may

be used as a rough indication of the eddy current loss.

A squareness

ratio near unity implies that the saturated permeability rapidly approaches one during saturation.

The relative permeability partially

determines the amount of energy transfer to the load during switch delay.

The maximum induction before saturation determines the number of

turns for a specific application, thus affecting the saturated inductance.

87
The application of the saturable inductor and design requirements
will determine which of these magnetic characteristics are most critical.

Based on the preferred characteristics, a material may be chosen

which best suits the application.

88
CHAPTER V I I
MAGNETIC SWITCH DESIGN

The design of a saturable inductor for use as a switch is dependent

upon several factors.

The initial design constraints are stand-off

voltage and switch delay.

Based on these values and the desired switch

performance, the core material and core geometry may be chosen.

Core

parameters that affect design and consequently characteristics of the

switch are window area of the core, cross-sectional area of the magnetic
material in the core, magnetic length of the core, maximum induction of
the magnetic material, unsaturated and saturated permeability, and coercive force.

These parameters allow the determination of the number of

turns in the switching winding and the required reset current.

The

method of achieving reset also affects* the desl'gn and characteristics

of switch performance as discussed in Chapter 111.
An example design may be useful in illustration of the manner in
which core material and geometry are determined and switch performance
evaluated.

Figure VI1-1 indicates the circuit in which the saturable

inductor is to be utilized.

In this application, the saturable induc-

tor is utilized as a charge delay switch (see Chapter 11).

The performance characteristics of the magnetic switch that are
of importance in this application are the switch delay, the current
during switch delay or hold-off current, and the energy transfer time.
The choice of switch delay is dependent upon the recovery time of the
switch (hydrogen thyratron, SCR, etc.) and should be long enough to
prevent discharge switch reclosure during switch delay.

The hold-off

current should be low enough that reclosure doesn't occur due to

89

PFN T = lOysec
saturable
inductor

Vc

diode
discharge
.
switch
f

L-

6fi

Figure VI1-1 The Design Circuit Utilizing a Saturable

Inductor as Switch Delay

90
current in the switch after the PFN discharge.

A short energy transfer

time is desired for rapid charging of the PFN.

To choose the switch delay, the recovery time for the discharge
switch and the length of the discharge pulse of the PFN should be taken
into account.

Because the supply voltage drops across the Inductor while

the discharge switch is conducting, the switch delay should be

tn ^ "^DCM + T

PFN

(VI 1-1)

rec

where Xppj^ is the length o f the discharge pulse and t

time f o r the t h y r a t r o n used as discharge s w i t c h .

Is the recovery

For the switch delay,

an a p p r o p r i a t e value f o r a s t a n d - o f f voltage of 3 kV might be:

t , = 40 ysec .
For a relatively low saturated inductance and thus fast energy transfer. It is desirable to use a core material with a large AB. A material
with a relatively high maximum Induction, B , would be 5% Si 97^ Fe,
m
commonly called silicon steel. Indicated in Table Vl-l.

As shown in

Equation (VI-2), the saturated inductance is inversely proportional to

the cross-sectional area of the core, therefore, a core with a comparatively large cross-sectional area is desired.

Since cores are generally

constructed in standard forms, a core constructed in C-core form with

A = 13.1 (10~^)m

and Jl = .267 m is chosen.

The lamination thickness of the magnetic tape in the core may be

determined from the switch delay, resistivity of th-e material, and unsaturated permeability.

As discussed in Chapter V, the switch delay

should be greater than the lamination time constant to assure flux

91
penetration of the entire lamination before saturation.

The lamination

time constant as expressed in Equation (V-27) is

,2
d y y
T

12 p
Flux penetration of the lamination implies that
.2
d li y
t^
d > 712^p

(VI 1-2)

so that

/tTrz}
d</

(VI1-3)
y y

^o^r
where d Is the lamination thickness. As presented in Table VI-1, the
resistivity for silicon steel is p = 5(10~ )Q-fr\.

The value for y

is
r

approximately 3500 for a pulse duration of 40 ysec.

Therefore, the

lamination thickness may be determined as

d < 2.3(10""^) m
The lamination thickness for this application is chosen at 2.54(10 -5 ) m
to insure flux penetration of the lamination.

As a result, a silicon

steel core is chosen for use in the saturable inductor with the following physical dimensions:
A = 13.1(10""^) m^
= .267 m
d = 2.54(10"^) m
The stacking factor, S, corresponding to d = 2.54(10

-5

) m Is .89.

92
The dc B-H curve for silicon steel is shown In Figure VI1-2.

At

pulse widths of 40 ysec, the B-H curve will be considerably different

since y^ is 3500.

However, this B-H curve does provide an indication

of the response of the magnetic material In terms of maximum induction,

saturated permeability, reset magnetic intensity, etc.
Due to the round knee, the maximum Induction that Is useful for
switch delay is approximately .8 Tesla.

With a reset magnetic intensity

of -180 A-T/m and an unsaturated permeability of 3500, the Increase in

induction would be
B = y y H
r^o r

.9 Tesla

so that the total available change in induction for switch delay would
be AB = 1.6 Tesla.

Therefore, the total number of turns may be deter-

mined from Equation (Vl-l) as:

E t^
^ = ^SAB

^5 "^""'"

The saturated inductance may be determined from the number of turns

and the core and winding geometries.

The switching winding is wound

over the entire core so that the C-core approximates a toroidal core.
In this application, one layer of wire is sufficient to wind the number
of turns required so that the geometry factor Is approximately unity.
Insulation around the core increases the cross-sectional area to approximately 18.2(10~^) m . The squareness ratio for silicon steel as shown
in Table Vl-l is .8, indicating that the saturated permeability of the
core wilI not go to one.

Instead, it may be assumed that 5 > u^ > 1;

an average value for the purpose of calculations would be.

y
^s

4 .

93

H (A-T/m)

Figure VI1-2

The dc B-H for Sil icon Stee

94
The saturated inductance may now be calculated from Equation (11-5)
as:
L , =
sat

145 uH

The method of reset for this application Is provided by dc bias to

produce a reset magnetic intensity of -210 A-T/m.

If the bias winding

has 12 turns, then the reset current may be determined from Equation
(I I 1-4) as:

H I

I^r = 4 Nr = 4.0 A .
As previously discussed in Chapter IV, the presence of the bias
winding will possible affect switch efficiency.

To evaluate this effect.

It is desirable to calculate the coefficient of coupling during satura-tlon.

The effective cross-sectional area during saturation Is 18.2(10

2
m . This implies a core radius such that r

= .024 m.

-2

From a wire area

2
of 4.4 mm and the Insulation on the wire, the winding, bias, and insulation thicknesses may be approximated as:

Ji 2 mm

a, ^ 2 mm
b
A 2 mm
The bias winding is wound on one leg of the C-core so that the Inductor
appears as a solenoid.

Therefore, Equation (IV-21) for the coupling

coefficient of two windings on a solenoid core may be used to approximate the coefficient of coupling as
k ^ .87

95
This value for the coefficient of coupling is rather large.

However,

the amount of energy transformed to the secondary of a transformer is

also dependent upon the load on the secondary.

In this case, two large

inductances are placed in the bias circuit as shown In Figure VI 1-1.

Little energy is transferred to the bias circuit during saturation because these inductors appear as an open circuit to the energy transfer
pulse.

Therefore, the efficiency of the inductive switch is dependent

only upon core and winding losses.

The hysteresis loss may be determined as In Equation (V-2):

W^

Vol / H dB .

The value for W, may be obtained by numerically integrating the curve

of Figure VI1-2 so that
W,
h

1 .45(10"^) J/pulse .

The eddy current losses are expressed In Equation (V-33) as a function

of switch delay and lamination time constant.

The ratio of t^/i may be

determined as
t

,/T

296

so that the eddy current loss may be evaluated as

W

.61(10"^) J/pulse.

It is necessary to determine the peak switching current and energy

transfer duration to evaluate the winding losses. The switching current
as a function of time is dependent upon unsaturated and saturated

96
inductances and circuit values.

For the circuit of Figure Vll-1, the

PFN capacitance is 1 uF. The unsaturated inductance may be determined

from Equation (11-4) as
L

= 91 .2 mH .

The unsaturated inductance has been previously determined as L , = 141

^
'
sat
yH.

The inductance of the PFN Is 36 yH so that the total inductance of

the charging circuit while the magnetic switch is saturated is

L
c

177 yH .

The circuit of Figure Vli-1 during charging appears as the circuit

of Figure 111-31.

This Implies that the equations derived in Chapter

111 for the charging current apply in this case also.

From Equations

(111-10), (111-11), and (111-13), the switching current may be expressed

as
I (t) = 9.9 sin(3.3(10^) t )
s

(VI 1-4)

0 < t < t ,
d

where t

i (t) = 225 sin(7.5(10'^)(t-39.9ysec))

s
t ,< t < t
d
u

(VII-5)

I (t) = 9.9 sin(3.3(10 )(t+798 ysec))

s
t < t < T
u

(Vll-6)

I s t h e t i m e a t which t h e c u r e u n s a t u r a t e s .

during saturation

from Equation ( V I I - 5 )
I

is

= 225 A
P

The peak c u r r e n t

97
The time required to transfer energy to the load, t , may be determined
et
as
t ^ = t - t,
et
u
d

(VI1-7)

From Equations (I I 1-7) and (VII-I 7), the energy transfer time becomes

t^_^ =
et

41 .75 y sec .

The average current over the energy transfer pulse may be expressed as

-^
*et

I
'

i (t) dt
"

(VI 1-8)

By substituting Equation (VII-5) and the value for t

into Equation

(VII) and integrating from t , to t , the rms saturation current may be

obtai ned
Irms =

142.3 A

The winding losses may be determined from Equation (V-37) with the
rms saturation current and the winding resistance.

The resistance of

the winding may be calculated from the wire size and the length of wire
in the winding.

For wire with a cross-sectional area of 4.4 mm, the

resistance per unit length is

R
w

0.21 a/m

The length of wire in the switching winding, W^, may be found by multiplying the number of turns by the length of wire In one turn so that
W

11.6 m

98
and
R

.25 Q.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e w i n d i n g losses a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y

Wi = i rms
L Rt e^t = .21 J/pulse

The t o t a l

l o s s e s i n t h e i n d u c t o r as expressed i n Equation (V-36)

W
T

= w + W, + W^ = .213 J / p u l s e
e
h
I
^

are

neglecting the eddy current losses during reset.

The saturable inductor may be constructed and tested based on the
design values derived thus far. These values are:

= 3 kV

Jl =

.267 m

t , = 40 y sec
'd

2.54(10

65 Turns

= 13.1(10""^) m^

-5

)m

The response of the saturable Inductor in the circuit of Figure Vll-1

is shown In Figure VI1-3 for various applied voltages.

The inductor

operating at the design voltage of 3 kV and switch delay of 40 ysec Is

shown in Figure Vll-3ft.

Figure Vll-Jb represents the operation of the

saturable Inductor at 2 kV for a time delay of 60 ysec while Figure

VII-3C Indicates that at an applied voltage of 1 kV, the time delay is
approximately 130 ysec.

This Increase in switch delay with a reduction

In applied voltage is predicted in Equation (11-2).

99
V
PFN

E
CJ

CVJ

y^ii-vi-'j: ii.-fj.l^rt^*4r'.: ^ ! f

:j.^^'v^>- '>

JC

S2SIK
.1-' ' ' - .-^^'r-'<"r';.>,

<:

#:*^H^^

LO

*?-

20 usee/cm

20 usec/cm
(a)

V
PFN

>
llMllI'll

IIIHM-B

""'- 1

20 ysec/cm

20 usec/cm
(b)

V
PFN

CJ

CJ

o
CVJ

50 ysec/cm

50 ysec/cm
(c)
FIgure V I -3
I

The Charging Current and PFN Voltage for a Saturable

Inductor Designed to Delay Conduction for 40 ysec at
3 kV. The Inductor Voltages are (a) 3 kV, ^b) 2 kV,
and (c) 1 kV

100
The peak current for the designed conditions of 3 kV and 40 ysec is
determined from Figure Vll-3a to be I
mately the predicted value of 225 A.

= 200 A.

This value is approxi-

The discrepancy in peak current

arises from a higher saturated inductance than was calculated.

error may be due to poor winding techniques.

The

The looser the switching

winding is wound, the larger the inductance is under saturated conditions.

The actual value of inductance may also be due to a larger satu-

rated permeability than

was anticipated.

The switch delay, hold-off current, and the duration of the energy
transfer are the performance criteria for this saturable inductor design.
The switch delay was required to be 40 ysec at 3 kV;

Figure V I 1 - ^

Indicates that the switch delay was as designed within measurement error.
The hold-off current at t = t , may be calculated from Equation (VI1-4)
as 1.3 A, which is low enough that the discharge switch will not reclose.
In Figure Vll-2a, the sensitivity is not sufficiently high to allow accurate determination of the hold-off current; it appears to be approximately 2 A.
actual t

The energy transfer time was calculated as 42 ysec;

from Figure Vll-2a may be approximated as 44 ysec.

the

Therefore,

the saturable Inductor performed within design limitations as predicted.

CHAPTER VII I
CONCLUSIONS

Many advantages exist In the use of saturable inductors in repetitive pulse generation.

The magnetic switch is applicable whenever a

switch delay Is desired or a large transition in Inductance is useful.

The saturable inductor provides a compact and inexpensive alternative
to some solid state methods used to achieve switch delay.

Because fail-

ure mechanisms are few, inductors offer very long operational lifetimes.
The design of a saturable inductor is fairly simple and performance
is relatively easily predicted and reliable.

Saturable inductor design

may also be tailored to meet specific performance requirements;

such

requirements might be high dl/dt, high efficiency, accurate switch delay, low hold-off current, short duration of energy transfer, low jitter,
or hi gh reliabI 1ity.
Disadvantages in the use of saturable inductors arise from the
nature of the switch delay.

The switch delay Is controlled only by

varying the reset current or the magnitude of the applied (stand-off)

voltage.
design.

The variation in switch delay is thus limited for a particular

Variations in applied voltage will result in changes in switch

delay implying that the saturable inductor Is best suited to applications in which the stand-off voltage Is to remain constant.
The limits of applicability of Inductor switches far exceed that
achieved in the past.

Scaling of simple designs indicates that the size

or power handling capabilities of inductor switches can be truly gigantic.

The scaling presented was based on voltage and current density

constraints and mechanical forces were not included.

101

For very high

102
power pulses, the mechanical forces may be sufficient to cause damage
and an analysis of mechanical stresses would be required to verify a
design.
Several areas need to be investigated in order to extend the
characterization of the saturable Inductor as a high-power switch.

better and more comprehensive approach to the determination of core

losses would be beneficial.

This approach might Include cases where

the core saturates and where the lamination is not fully exercised.
characterization of losses In ferrite cores would also be useful.

The

An-

other area of Investigation involves the manner of heat deposition and

flow in the core.

By determining the distribution of heat in the core,

a core volume for a specific design may be determined which safely

limits internal heating while minimizing core size.

LIST OF REFERENCES

S. E. Black, "Command Charge Using Saturable Inductors," Technical

Papers of the Second International Pulsed Power Conference, Lubbock,
Texas, June 13 -15, 1980.
2.

J. E. Creedon and S. Schneider, "A Magnetic Assist for High-Power

Hydrogen Thyratrons," Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium on Hydrogen
Thyratrons and Modulators, Fort Monmount, N. J., May 20 - 22,
pp. 145-158.

3.

K. J. Busch, A. D. Hasley, and Carl Neitzert, "Magnetic Pulse Modulators," The Bell System TechnicaI Journal, September 1955, Vol. 34,
pp. 943-993.

4.

G. T. Coates and L. R. Swain. High Power Semiconductor-Magnetic

Pulse Generators. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T. Press. 1966.

5.

W. S. Melville, "The Use of Saturable Reactors as Discharge Devices

for Pulse Generators," Proceedings of the I.E.E.E., Vol. 98, pt. 3,
February 1951, pp. 185-204.

6.

Carl T. A. Johnk. Engineering Electromaqnetic Fields and Waves.

John Wiley and Sons: New York. 1975. pp. 311-347.

7.

G. N. Glasoe and J. V. Lebacquz, Ed.

Publications, Inc: New York. 1965.

8.

Donald G. Fink and John M. Carroll, Ed. Standard Handbook for

Electrical Engineers. McGraw-Hill Book Co: New York. 1968. p. 4.86.

9.

D. J. Craik. Structure and Properties of Magnetic Materials.

Limited: London. 1971. pp. 37-38.

10.

Samuel Robinson Williams. Magnetic Phenomenon. McGraw-Hill Book Co:

New York. 1931. pp. 154-158.

11.

Max Jakob. Heat Transfer. Volume I.

1949. pp. 305-312.

12.

K. H. Stewart. Ferromaqnetic Domains.

Cambridge, Great Britain. 1954.

13.

W. S. Melville, "The Measurement and Calculation of Pulse Magnetization Characteristics of Nickel Irons from .I to 5 Microseconds,"
Proceedings I.E.E., 1950, Vol. 97, part II, p. 165.

103

Pulse Generators. Dover

pp. 511-515.

John Wiley and Sons:

Pion

New York.

Cambridge Univ. Press:

104
14.

W. S. Melville, "Theory and Design of High-Power Pulse Transformers,"

Journal I.E.E., 1946, Vol. 93, part IMA, p. 1063.

15.

Richard M. Bozorth. Ferromaqnetism.

Princeton, N.J. 1959. pp. 14-47.

16.

Tape Wound Cores, TC-IOIB, The Arnold Engineering Co., 1972.

17.

Harold A. (Goldsmith, "Ferromagnetic Ceramics..."

ing, Apri I 1951.

18.

"Toroidal Magnetic Amplifier Cores," I.E.E.E. Standards Paper # 106.

D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc:

Product Engineer-