AModestyProposal:RethinkingTseniut

Miniteaser:
Understandingthelawsofmodestyinmodernsociety
RabbiMarcD.AngelisFounderandDirectoroftheInstituteforJewishIdeasandIdeals,and
RabbiEmeritusofCongregationShearithIsraelofNewYorkCity.HeservesasEditorofthe
Institute'sjournal,Conversations.Thisarticleappearsinissue12ofConversations.
The Torah provides a framework for sexual morality. Its legal prescriptions specify
forbidden relationships; its narratives describe behavior and dress that reflect attitudes
relatingtosexualityandmodesty.
TheTorahsviewofsexualrelationshipsmightbestbeseenasfulfillingtheoverarching
commandthatwebeaholypeople(vaYikra19:2).Indeed,Rashi,inhiscommentaryon
thisverse,identifiesholinesswithseparationfromforbiddensexualrelationships.
However,theTorahdoesnotenumeraterulesrelatingtomodestyinthought,dress,and
speech.Forexample,itdoesnotstatehowmuchofapersonsbodyneedstobecovered,
andgivesnomeasurementsforsleevelengthsorskirtsizes.Nordoesitpresentspecific
rulesrelatingtohirhurimeroticthoughts;nortomehitsotseparatingmenandwomen
at public gatherings; nor to the generalnonsexualinterrelationships of men and
women. Rather, these rules are inferred from the mandate to be holyto separate
ourselvesfromsin,includingsinofasexualnature.
ThePhilosophyofTseniut
The Talmud and later rabbinic literature provide additional material relating to sexual
conductingeneral,andtseniut(modesty)inparticular.Anaimoftseniutistodiminishthe
possibilityofimpropersexualtemptationsthatcouldleadtosinfulbehavior.Thehuman
sexualdriveisquitepowerful,andthetseniutlawsareintendedtokeepthatdriveunder
control.
Tseniut,though,isnotsimplyasystemofpreventionfromsin.Rather,itencompassesa
positive philosophy relating to the nature of human beings. While acknowledging the
powerofhumansexuality,tseniutteachesthathumanbeingsaremorethanmeresexual
beings.
Inhisfamousbook,IandThou,thephilosopherMartinBuberpointedoutthatidealhuman
relationshipsinvolvemutualknowledgeandrespect,wherepeopletreatthemselvesand
othersasvaluablepersonsnotasthings.Tseniut,infact,seekstofosterthehighestform
of IThou relationship. By insisting on modest dress and behavior, the laws of tseniut
promoteaframeworkforhumanrelationshipsthattranscendsthephysical/sexualaspects.
Nontseniutbehaviorsignalsapersonsdesiretobeseenasanobjectofsexualattraction.
Peoplewhodressinasexuallyprovocativewayareinterestedinbeingnoticed,inexciting
the sexual interest of others. When people dress provocatively, what they are
communicatingis:noticeme,Icraveyourattention,pleasedontignoreme.Underlying
thisnonvocalizedpleaisthefeelingthatonewillnotbenoticedunlesshe/sheisprepared
tobecomeanobjectofattentionorunlesshe/sheconformstotheprevailingfashions,even

ifthosefashionsviolateonessenseofdecencyandpropriety.1
Itisnormalandnaturalforpeopletowanttoappearpleasingtoothers.Thatiswhythey
spendsomuchtimeandmoneyonclothingandgrooming.Ifonedressesnicely,neatly,
andmodestly,onemaytakeprideandsatisfactioninhis/herappearance.If,though,one
specificallydressesorbehavesinamannerthatisaimedatarousingsexualattention,then
he/she has crossed into the nontseniut mode. One has chosen to be an object a
thing,ratherthanaThou.
Whywouldpeoplewillinglydressoractinamannerastomakethemselvesintoobjects?
The answer is that they want to be noticed, admired, longed for. They think that by
presentingthemselvesasobjects,theywillmorelikelyachievethesegoals.Theydemand
lessofthemselvesandofothers;nocommitmentorseriousdialogueisinvitedorexpected.
Human beings all have feelings of insecurity; we need to be needed, appreciated, and
loved.Althoughthesetendenciesareoftenexacerbatedinteenagers,theycontinuetoexist
throughoutadultlife.Exhibitionismisashortcuttogainingtheattentionandhopefully
theaffectionofothers.Yet,underneaththeveneerofshowinessisalayerofessential
insecurity,loneliness,anddissatisfactionwithself.Exhibitionismmaygaintheattentionof
others,butitdoesnotgaintheirrespectandlove.
Dr.NormanLammhaswritten:Onewholacksthesenseofinnerdignityandworthwill
exposehimself[orherself],asiftosay,Lookatme.AmInotbeautiful?AmInotsmart?
Do you not like me? The lack of inner dignity leads to exhibitionism, the opposite of
modesty,whereasasenseofinnerdignitywillnormallyresultinthepracticeofmodesty.2
Tseniut,then,shouldbeunderstoodasaframeworkformaintainingourhumandignity.It
teachesustotreatourselvesandothersasvaluablehumanbeings,notasobjects.Non
tseniutbehavioranddressservetodiminishourfullhumanity,reducingustothelevelof
objectsofsexuality.Tseniutisamanifestationofholiness.Exhibitionismisamanifestation
ofcrudenessandfeelingsofinsecurity.
TheTechnicalitiesofTseniut
Itisimportantforustounderstandtheunderlyingassumptionsoftheancientandmedieval
halakhic sources. The early rabbinic opinions on the topic of tseniut emerged from a
contextwherewomenJewishandnonJewishweredeemedtobesubservienttomen.
Theoperativeprinciplewasthatthehonorofaprincess,i.e.adignifiedwoman,isforher
toremaininprivate.Womenweretostayhometotheextentpossible.Whentheyappeared
inpublic,theyweretobedressedinsuchawayasnottoattracttheattentionofmen.
Womengenerallywerenotgiventhesameeducationalopportunitiesasmen,norwerethey
encouragedorgenerallyallowedtoparticipateinpubliclifeortohaveauthorityovermen.
Womens role was to care for the household, have children, and maintain piety and
modesty.
Classicrabbinicliteratureassumesthatwomenareprimarilyasourceofsexualtemptation
tomen,andthatwomenshouldthereforedressandconductthemselvessoasnottoarouse
menspassions.Discussionsofthelawsoftseniutoftentendtofocusonspecificdetailsof
whatconstitutesmodestandimmodestdressandbehavior.RabbiYehudaHenkin,inhis
bookUnderstanding Tzniut,citestalmudic andlaterrabbinicsourcesdealing withsuch

issuesaswhatpartsofawomansbodyconstitutenakedness;howmuchofawomansbody
needstobecovered;theervah(nakedness)ofawomansleg,voice,andhair.Healso
discussessociologicalconditionsthatmayimpactontheboundariesofmodesty.3
ThediscussioninBerakhot24aisreflectiveoftheprevailingtalmudicattitude:
Rabbi Yitzhak said: An [uncovered] tefah (hands breadth) in a woman is nakedness
(ervah).DidnotRabbiSheshethsaythatanyone[i.e.anyman]whogazesevenata
womans little finger is as though he gazes at her private parts?... Rabbi Hisda said a
womans leg (shok) is ervah Shemuel said that a womans voice is ervah. Rabbi
Sheshethsaidawomanshairiservah.4
Thispassage,andothersofthesametenor,operatewiththefollowingtacitassumption.
Because womens body, hair, and voice are so alluring to men, women are to cover
themselvesuptotheextentpossible,andarenottousetheirvoicesinawaythatmight
arousemen.Halakhicliteraturecontainsvariousopinionsastohowtoapplythetseniut
rulingsbutbyandlarge,thegeneralassumptionsoutlinedabovearetakenforgranted.
Yet,letusdelveabitmorecarefullyintotheseassumptions.
1.Womentodayarenolongerrelegatedtothehome,butareinvolvedinallaspectsof
society.Womeninteractregularly,andinmanycontexts,withmen;womenoftenhold
positionsofresponsibility,includinghavingauthorityovermen.Fewtodaywouldagree
withthenotionthatthehonorofawomanistoremainintheprivacyofherhome.Few
todaywouldagreethatwomenareormustbesubservienttomen.
2.Ifweareconcernedlestmenbeeroticallyarousedbywomensbody,hair,andvoice,
shouldntwealsobeconcernedlestwomenbeeroticallyarousedbymensbody,hair,and
voice?Althoughhalakhicsourcesspelloutindetailthevariousrestrictionsonthemanner
ofwomensdressandbehavior,thereisverylittlerelatingtomensdressandbehavior.The
assumptionisthatmenarefarmorepassionateanduncontrollablethanwomen.Whether
ornotthisassumptioniscorrect,itissurelynotcorrecttoassumethatwomenlackstrong
sexualfeelingsformen.Theyaresubjecttoeroticarousalbymensmannerofdressand
behavior.Thus,alldiscussionsoftseniutshoulddealwithbothsidesoftheequation,not
justwithwomensmodeofdressandbehavior.
3.Iftherulesoftseniutaretoprotectmenfromfallingintosexualsin,whyaremostofthe
restrictions placed on women? The rules could have been formulated in an entirely
differentway.Sincemenaresopassionateandwomenaresoarousing,thenmenshould
covertheireyesinthepresenceofwomenandshouldavoidpublicplaceswherewomen
mightbeseen.Ifmenhavetheproblem,whyshouldwomenbeforcedtopaythepricefor
mensweaknesses?Letthewomenconductthemselvesastheywish,andletmenguard
themselvesfromfallingpreytotemptation!
ThePhilosophyofTseniutandItsTechnicalities
Thephilosophyoftseniutteachesselfrespect,respectforothers,andtheimportanceofnot
treatingoneselforothersasobjects.Thegoaloftseniutistomaintainhumandignity,and
tofosterrespectfulandmeaningfulhumanrelationships.

Thetechnicalitiesoftseniutshouldaimatfulfillingtheidealsofthephilosophyoftseniut.
Inpopulardiscussionsofthesubject,though,thereoftenisaseriousdisconnectbetween
philosophyandtechnicalities.Hereareafewitemsthatunderscorethegapbetweenthe
conceptoftseniutandthetechnicalhalakhicrulesthataresupposedtofostertseniut.
1. Womens hair is considered ervah, nakedness. Normative halakha applies this
statementonlytomarriedwomen.Singlewomenneednotcovertheirhair,sincemenare
usedtoseeingthemwithuncoveredhairandwillnotbearoused.Isthisavalidargument?
Inoldentimeswhengirlsweremarriedoffatanearlyage,thisassumptionmayhaveheld
true.Seeinggirlsuptotheageofearlyteenswithuncoveredhairmayhavebeenanormal
feature of life, not generating untoward thoughts on the part of men. Yet, today most
womendonotgetmarriedwhiletheyarestillchildren.Ifawomaninher20sor30shas
her hair uncovered, what difference would it make to men whether she is single or
married?Mostmenwouldnotbeabletotellwhethersuchawomanissingleormarried.
Yet,halakhaallowsthesinglewomantogobareheaded,whileamarriedwomanmust
coverherhair.Ifthepurposeofheadcoveringistofostertseniutandtopreventmenfrom
lookingatwomensnakedness,thenthereisnosubstantialreasontodaytodifferentiate
betweenmarriedandsinglewomen.Eitherallwomenofmarriageableageshouldcover
theirhair,ornoneofthemneedcovertheirhairbecausemenareaccustomedtoseeing
womenwithuncoveredhair.5Indeed,RabbiYosefMesasrulesthatmarriedwomenneed
notcovertheirhairinourdays,sincethenormalpracticeofwomeninoursocietyistogo
withhairuncovered.6Hewrote:Sinceinourtimeallthewomenoftheworldhavevoided
thepreviouspracticeandhavereturnedtothesimplepracticeofuncoveringtheirhair,and
there is nothing in this that constitutes brazenness or lack of modestytherefore the
prohibitionofcoveringoneshairhasbeenlifted.
2.Womenshairisconsideredervah.Yetvariousposekimallowwomentocovertheir
ownnaturalhairwithawig.Aslongastheyhavefulfilledthetechnicalityofcoveringtheir
hair,theyarenotinviolationofhalakha.Insomecircles,itisexpectedthatmarriedwomen
wearwigs;iftheydonotdoso,theyareconsideredtobereligiouslydeficient.Doesthis
makeanysense?Womenwillspendthousandsofdollarstobuywigsthatoftenlookbetter
than their own hair. They will wear these wigs, which can be quite attractive, and be
consideredtobewithinthelawsoftseniut.However,ifawomanwearsherownhair,in
amodestfashion,suchawomanisdeemed(bymany)tobeinviolationofhalakha.Ifa
womanshairisindeednakedness,howcanitpossiblybepermittedforthemtowearwigs
alsomadeofhair?Wouldanyonesuggestthatawomanispermittedtowearaskin
coloreddressthatisprintedwiththedesignofherprivatebodyparts?Ofcoursenot.Such
clothingisobviouslyantitseniut.Likewise,ifawomanshairisnakedness,coveringitwith
awigisantitseniut.
3.Awomansvoiceiservah.Thisisgenerallyappliedtohersingingvoice,nottoher
usualspeakingvoice.Buttherearestronghalakhicsourcesthatpermitmentohearwomen
singingreligioussongs,orlullabiestotheirchildren,orothersongsthathavenoerotic
intentorcontent.7Whentheprohibitionofkolishahisappliedtoallinstancesofwomen
singing in the presence of men, this is a distortion of the intent of the halakha. The
prohibitionforbidslicentiousness.Moreover,itshouldbeappliednotonlytomenhearing
lewdsongssungbywomen,butalsotowomenhearinglewdsongssungbymen.The
conceptofkolishisjustasvalidandjustasimportantaskolishah.Ifmensingina
mannerthatissexuallyprovocativetowomen,thisconstitutesabreachintseniutanda
breachinholiness.

4.Anuncoveredtefahofawomanisnakedness.Surely,itwillbeagreedthatitisproper
forwomentocoverthepartsoftheirbodiesthatareparticularlyarousingtomen.Itshould
beequallyagreedthatmenberequiredtocoverpartsoftheirbodiesthatareparticularly
arousingtowomen.Buttherealissueisnothowlongskirtsandsleevesmustbe,norhow
buttonedupamansshirtshouldbe.Rather,thequestionis:Whatconstitutessexually
provocativedressthatisforbiddenbythephilosophyandrulesoftseniut?Apersonmight
becoveredfromheadtotoe,andyettheclothingmaybetootight,tooclingy,tooenticing.
Apersonsclothingmightbeentirelywithintherulesoftseniut,yetthepersonmayuse
seductivegestures,facialexpressions,orbodymovements.Inmanycases,anuncovered
tefahofawoman(oraman)isnotsexuallyarousingatall;ratheritmayberepulsive,an
exampleofverybadtaste.Likewisewhenpeoplewearclothingthatistootightortoo
revealing. These are violations of tseniut, not because they are sexually arousing, but
becausetheycompromiseonesdignityevenifonedoesnotwanttorealizethis.They
reflectapersonsconsciousorsubconsciousdesiretobeseenasanobject,ratherthanasa
dignifiedperson.
ConfrontingReality
A number of tseniut rules in classic halakhic literature have come into conflict with
changingsocietalrealities.Theseruleshavebeenmodifiedordroppedbylargegroupsof
TorahobservantJews.Hereareafewexamples.
1. Our sages commanded that a man must not teach his daughter Torah, since the
intelligenceofthemajorityofwomenisnotgearedtobeinstructed;rather,theyreducethe
wordsofTorahtomattersoffoolishnessaccordingtothepovertyoftheirunderstanding.
Oursagessaid:OnewhoteacheshisdaughterTorahisasthoughhetaughtherfoolishness.
Towhatdoesthisrefer?TotheOralTorah;butasconcernstheWrittenTorah,heshould
not teach her; but if he did teach her it is not as though he taught her foolishness.
(Rambam,HilkhotTalmudTorah1:13)
DespiteRambamsruling,inmanyOrthodoxschoolstoday,girls/womendostudyTalmud.
Indeed, Stern College for Women of Yeshiva University has an advanced program of
TalmudicStudiesforwomen,institutedwiththeblessingofRabbiJosephB.Soloveitchik.
ProgramsforwomenwhowishtopursueadvancedstudyofTalmudandhalakhahave
blossomed in the United States and Israel. Modern Orthodox institutions reject the
assumptionthatwomensintelligenceisunfittoabsorbthewisdomofTalmud.Moreover,
evenifHareidischoolsdonotteachgirls/womenTalmud,theydoteachtheWrittenTorah
inspiteofRambamsrulingnottodoso.
2.Itisunseemlyforawomanconstantlytobegoingabroadandinthestreets,andthe
husbandshouldpreventhiswifefromthis.Heshouldnotletherleave[home]exceptonce
ortwicepermonth,according to theneed.Thereisno beautyforawomanexceptin
dwellinginthecornerofherhome,forsoitiswritten,Allthegloryofthekingsdaughter
iswithin(Psalm45:14)(Rambam,HilkhotIshut13:11).
Veryfew,ifany,OrthodoxcommunitiestodayfollowthishalakhaoftheRambam.Very
few,ifany,acceptthenotionthatawomanshouldlivemostofherlifeintheconfinesof
herownhome.

3. An unmarried man may not teach children because of the mothers who bring their
children [and we fear possible immoral thoughts or conduct between teacher and the
childrensmothers]Awomanmaynotteachchildrenbecauseofthefatherswhobring
theirchildren[andwefearpossibleimmoralthoughtsorconductbetweenteacherandthe
childrensfathers].(ShulhanArukh,YorehDeah,245:2021).
Few,ifany,Orthodoxschoolsfollowthishalakha.Itisquitecommonforsinglemento
teachinDaySchoolsandyeshivot.ItisalsoquiteprevalentforwomentoteachinDay
Schoolsandyeshivot.Indeed,Hareidigirlsschoolstendtoencouragestudentstobecome
teachers.
4.AmanmustdistancehimselffromwomenveryverymuchItisforbiddentolookather
beautyandeventosmellperfumethatisonherItisforbiddentolookatcolorfulclothes
ofawomanwithwhomheisacquainted,evenwhensheisntwearing[theseclothes],lest
thisleadhimtothinkabouther.Ifamancomesacrossawomaninthemarketplace,itis
forbiddenforhimtowalkbehindher;ratherheshouldrunsoastodiverthertohissideor
behindhimOnewholooksevenatawomanslittlefingerwiththeintentionofderiving
pleasurefromthis,itisasthoughhelookedatherprivateparts.Itisforbiddentohearan
ervahvoiceorlookatherhair.Onewhointendstodoanyoneofthesethingsissubjectto
lashes[makatmardut].(ShulhanArukh,EvenhaEzer21:4).
Indiscussingtherulingthatamanmustrunfromawomanifhemeetsherinthemarket
place,RabbiHaimDavidHalevyassertedthatthislawreferstoformertimeswhenwomen
generallystayedhomeandwerenotoftenfoundwalkinginpublic.Butinourday,many
womenwalkinthepublicthoroughfaresandmarketplaces.Ifamanranawayeverytime
hefoundawomaninfrontofhim,peoplewouldthinkhewasafool.Inhisseemingpiety,
he would actually subject religion to ridicule in the eyes of the public. Rabbi Halevy
concludedthatamanwhofoundhimselfwalkingbehindawomanshouldsimplytryto
keephiseyesfromlookingather.8
The above examples demonstrate that there is a disconnect between various technical
halakhotrelatingtotseniut,andtherealityofthesocietalconditionsinwhichwelive.Asa
result,thesehalakhotandotherslikethemhavebeengenerallymodifiedordiscarded
among Torahobservant Jews. Sometimes apologetic explanations have been given and
sometimesnot.
TseniutToday
Weneedtoreturntotheunderlyingphilosophyoftseniut:theexpectationthatwebeholy,
thatwelivedignifiedlives,thatwenotpresentourselvesassexualobjects.Howtheseaims
areactuallyfulfilledverymuchdependsonthesocietalconditionsinwhichwelive.In
ancientandmedievaltimes,whenwomenlivedhighlyrestrictedlives,therulesoftseniut
wereappliedaccordingly.Inourtimes,whenwomenfunctionopenlyandfreelyinsociety,
therulesoftseniutalsomustbeappliedwiththisrealityinmind.
The following are some proposed applications of the rules of tseniut in our modern
societies:
1.Neithermennorwomenshoulddress,speak,oractinalicentiousmannerthatwill
arousethesexualattentionofothers.Itisaviolationoftseniuttowearskimpy,overly
tight,orotherclothingthatisdesignedtohighlightonessexuality.

2.Itisproperformenandwomentodressnicely,neatly,andmodestly.Itisfinetodress
fashionably,aslongasthosefashionsdonotviolatethephilosophyoftseniut.
3.Inoursociety,itisnormalforupstandingandproperwomentowearpants/pantssuits;
shortsleeveddresses/blouses;clotheswithcolorfuldesigns.Wearingthesethingsisnota
violationoftseniut,aslongastheseitemsarenotfashionedinsuchawayastohighlight
onessexuality.
4.Marriedwomenneednotcovertheirhair,aslongastheirhairismaintainedinamodest
style.Thewearingofwigsdoesnotconstituteaproperhaircoveringforthosemarried
womenwhowishtocovertheirhair.Rather,suchwomenshouldwearhatsorotherhead
coveringsthatactuallycovertheirhair.
5.Menandwomenmaysinginthepresenceofthoseoftheothergender,aslongasthe
songs are of a religious nature, or of a generalcultural nature (e.g. opera, folk songs,
lullabies).Peopleshouldneithersingnorlistentosongsthathavevulgarlanguageorerotic
contentthatwillleadtoimproperthoughtsorbehavior.
6.Ifapersondresses,speaks,andactsinaproper,dignifiedmanner,itisnothis/her
responsibilityifothersaresexuallyarousedbyhim/her.Thatistheirproblem.Itistheir
responsibilitytocontroltheirthoughtsandemotions,and/ortoremovethemselvesfrom
situationsthattheyfindtobesexuallyprovocative.
7.Normalinteractionsbetweenmenandwomenareafeatureofoursocieties.Womenmay
serveinpositionsofauthorityovermen,justasmenmayserveinpositionsofauthority
overwomen.9Thekeypointisthis:holinessandtseniutshouldcharacterizeallcontexts
wheremenandwomenmingleandworktogether.Coedyouthgroupsandschoolsare
permitted,butmustbemaintainedwithhighstandardsoftseniut.10
Conclusion
RabbiAvrahamShammah,whoteachesattheHerzogTeachersCollegeinIsrael,stated:
Womenandmenshouldbehaveinamannerthatreflectsgreatrespectforoneanother;
theyshouldnotconsideroneanotherinacrudemannersuchassexualobjects;theyshould
notdressprovocatively,norshouldtheirbodylanguagebeprovocative.11Thisisafine
formulationoftheguidelinesoftseniut.
Itmakeslittlesensetopretendthatourlivingconditionstodayareidenticaltothoseof
antiquity and the middle ages. Womens roles in society have changed radically. The
interrelationshipsofmenandwomentodayarefarmorecommonandfarmorefrequent
thaninformertimes.Fashionshavechangeddramatically.Definitionsofbrazennessand
immodestyarefardifferenttodaythantheywereinoldendays.Recognizingthesechanges
isessentialtoformulatingaproperapplicationoftseniutrules.
Itmustalsoberecognized,though,thatmoderndayfashionsoftenreflectverynontseniut
standards.Clothingthatisdesignedtobesexuallyprovocativelowcutinfrontorback,
dressesorskirtsabovekneelength,clothingthatistootight,menspantsthatareworn
belowthebeltline,andsoforthareclearlyinviolationofthephilosophyandrulesof
tseniut.

OurgoalasthinkinghalakhicJewsistobeclearonourresponsibilitytobeholy,andto
treatourselvesandothersasfellowhumanbeingsnotassexualobjects.Whenweliveas
tseniuthumanbeings,weenhanceourowndignityandthedignityweshowtoothers.This
isnotaninconsiderableaccomplishment.
Notes
1.Seemybook,LosingtheRatRace,WinningatLife,UrimPublications,Jerusalem,2005,
especiallychapter4.
2.NormanLamm,Tseniut:AUniversalConcept,inHahamGaonMemorialVolume,ed.
M.D.Angel,SephardicHouseandSepherHermonPress,NewYork,1997,p.155.
3.YehudaHenkin,UnderstandingTzniut,UrimPublications,Jerusalem,2008.
4.Iamnotgoingintothediscussionaboutimproperlyseeingorhearingwomenduring
onesrecitationofthe Shema,nor distinctions between seeing orhearing oneswife or
otherwomen.
5. See Rabbi Henkins discussion of haircovering for women, pp. 29f; and article by
MichaelBroyde,HairCoveringandJewishLaw,Tradition,Fall2009,42:3,pp.97179.It
isunderstoodthatmarriedwomenmustadheretoahigherstandardoftseniutthansingle
women, since married women are subject to the laws of adultery for illicit relations.
Nonetheless,bothmarriedandunmarriedwomenareboundbytherulesoftseniutand
obviously are not allowed to comport themselves in a way that will entice improper
thoughtsordeedsonthepartofmenwhoseethem.
6.RabbiYosefMesas,MayyimHayyim,vol.2,no.110.
7.Foradiscussionofsourcesrelatingtokolisha,seeSaulBerman,KolIsha,inRabbi
Joseph H. Lookstein Memorial Volume, ed. Leo Landman, Ktav Publishing House, New
York,1980,pp.4566;andtheresponsumofRabbiDavidBigman,ANewAnalysisofKol
BIshaErva,intheResponsasectionofjewishideas.org.MichaelMakovicollectedmany
sourcesonthetopicinhisarticleANewHearingforKolIshah,intheArticlessectionof
jewishideas.org
8.H.D.Halevy,MayyimHayyim2:45.
9.SeeBenzionUziel,PiskeiUziel,Jerusalem,MossadHaRavKook,5737,no.44,where
RabbiUzielarguesthatwomenmayvoteinelections,andmaybeelectedtopublicoffice
wheretheyhaveauthorityovermen.
10.SeetheexcellentpamphletbyRabbiYuvalCherlowandRonHori,HevraSheleimah:
Hevrah Tsenuah Meorevet leKhathila, published by Neemanei Torah vaAvodah and
HaKibbutzHaDati,TelAviv,2011.
Rabbi Shammahs paper was originally published in Hebrew and can be found at
http://www.kolech.org.il/show.asp?id=25484.ItwaspublishedinEnglishinthebulletin
ofJOFA.