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(a)
(b)
(c)
Design information.
Mortar designation (ii)
fy = 460N/mm2.
Strength of concrete infill = 30N/mm2
Block thickness (width of wall) = 215mm.
Block shell thickness = 35mm.
Percentage of block which is solid = 60%.
SOLUTION.
1.
(a)
Methods :
- workability
- compaction / aggregate size relationship
- cover to reinforcement
- stainless steel reinforcement
Reinforcement- spacers / laps
- cleanliness
Masonry
- good bed joints / clean cores
- Lifts generally not 900mm.
(50mm clearance to top of block, clean outside of
blocks, compact grout after pouring etc).
Implications : Cost {Contractor will try to reduce, client wants quality}
Balance required
Insurance costs may be reduced with quality schemes.
Safety and Quality need to be balanced.
(b)
Greater durability results from high strength units with low water absorption
formed into masonry using a strong mortar. Problems arise if the water
absorption exceeds about 10% and / or the concrete density is below
1500kg/m3. Durability can be maximised through correct specification of
materials.
ii. Concrete infill.
Greater durability is achieved with a low permeability product. A strong well
compacted concrete achieves this. Durability can be maximised by good site
control and well specified materials.
iii. Cover to reinforcement.
Greater durability can be obtained with greater cover. The use of spacers and
good detailing together with good quality control will improve the durability.
iv. Exposure conditions.
Harsher weather conditions will reduce the durability of reinforced
masonry. Sensible and practical designs will achieve the design life.
(c)
(b)
i. Write notes on the problems of sulphate attack in brickwork.
Suggest methods of minimising sulphate attack in the 3.0m
boundary wall if the wall was constructed in a highly
industrialised area with high rainfall and the ground water was
known to contain sulphates.
ii. Write notes on the problem of frost attack on brickwork and
suggest how this could be minimised. In a 3.0m high boundary
wall constructed in an area of high rainfall and winter
temperatures which often move below freezing.
[9 marks]
2.
(a)
Clause 18
Design wind load = 1.4 x 0.8 = 1.12kN/m2 [This may be reduced to 1.2
x 0.8 but has not been undertaken in this example]
Clause 32
Clause 20 Table 3
Use M4 mortar (designation (iii) with clay units WA between 7 12%
fkb
0.4
f = 0.9
0.427
0.442
fkp
1.1
1.1
1.1
Clause 32
0.36
0.39
0.40
h/L =
3.0/7.5 = 0.4
0.4
0.4
Table 8
Applied mt
0.055
0.052
0.055
0.055 1/5(0.055-0.052)
0.055-4/5(0.003)
0.0544
0.0526
wkfL2
0.052
3.43
3.31
3.28
ii.
bi).
Sulphate attack. The C3A part of the mortar reacts with sulphates in solution and
expansion results.
C3A is present in OPC (CEM class II 42.5) so use a sulphate resisting cement which
has the C3A removed.
Sulphates come from ground water so masonry in these environments should be
protected.
Some clay bricks enhance the possibility of sulphate attack. Use low soluble salt
content clay bricks.
To reduce sulphate attack use dense mortar.
Improved detailing should reduce water ingress.
Copings / cappings / DPCs / Surface treatments etc.
Sulphate attack requires a flow of water.
bii).
Frost action.
Saturated brickwork is vulnerable to frost attack if temperatures fall below freezing
and bricks are incorrectly specified.
Repeated freezing and thawing increases damage.
Valve action reduces the vulnerability of mortar and concrete to frost action. i.e
include air entrainers.
Winter construction should be avoided if there is the likelihood of freezing before the
mortar has hardened.
Frost resistant clay bricks can be specified.
Calcium silicate bricks are vulnerable to freeze thaw especially when in the vicinity of
sea water.
3.
(a)
Design a cavity wall, 3.0m high and 4.0m long with both skins
comprising low absorption clay brickwork, 102.5mm thick and using
M4 (designation (iii) mortar. The left hand edge of the panel has a
2.0m return wall whilst the right hand edge is part of a continuous wall
extending beyond the vertical wall support and into an adjacent panel.
A damp proof membrane along the base of the wall results in limited
moment resistance and the top of the wall is free. A characteristic wind
load of 0.8kN/m2 acts laterally over the face of the wall. Assume that
the weight of masonry is 20.0kN/m3 and that normal construction
practice and unit manufacture apply.
[16 marks]
(b)
A load bearing cavity wall with a clay brickwork outer and concrete
blockwork inner skin is used to construct a 50.0m long four storey
building. Discuss the problems which may result along this 50.0m
length due to the relative movements between the two materials and
suggest and illustrate appropriate details to surmount these difficulties .
[9 marks]
(a)
Design a cavity wall, 3.0m high and 4.0m long with both skins
comprising low absorption clay brickwork, 102.5mm thick and using
M4 (designation (iii) mortar. The left hand edge of the panel has a
2.0m return wall whilst the right hand edge is part of a continuous wall
extending beyond the vertical wall support and into an adjacent panel.
A damp proof membrane along the base of the wall results in limited
moment resistance and the top of the wall is free. A characteristic wind
load of 0.8kN/m2 acts laterally over the face of the wall. Assume that
the weight of masonry is 20.0kN/m3 and that normal construction
practice and unit manufacture apply.
3.
Sketch of wall.
free
Return
Continuous
Built in
built in
(Clause 32.4.2)
(Table 3)
So = 0.045
(Table 8c)
(Clause 18)
(Clause 32.4.3)
A load bearing cavity wall with a clay brickwork outer and concrete
blockwork inner skin is used to construct a 50.0m long four storey
building. Discuss the problems which may result along this 50.0m
length due to the relative movements between the two materials and
suggest and illustrate appropriate details to surmount these difficulties .
Temperature effects.
Coefficient of expansion of concrete is 7 14 per oC x 10-6
Coefficient of expansion of clay brickwork 5 8 per oC x 10-6
= 0.5%
= 0.4%
And additionally the clay brick may be temporarily wetted and expand further
= 0.02%
Therefore, relative movement
4.
A load bearing masonry wall X carries four stories above and supports
a first floor concrete slab as indicated in Figure 4. The load from the
roof and four storeys above is 127.4kN/m. The load from the concrete
slab is 33.6kN/m. Design the wall assuming normal manufacture and
construction.
[16 marks]
Wall x
2900mm
(a)
FIGURE 4
(b)
Check what lateral load the wall in a) could sustain if the axial load
available to resist lateral load is 45kN/m length.
[9 marks]
Solution
4a). Assume the wall uses 140 wide units of height 190mm.
Eccentricity of load.
t/6
127.4kN
33.6kN
5.
(a)
You are required to design a diaphragm wall which is 6.4m long and
continuous either side. The height of the wall is 5.75m. A reinforced
concrete beam is placed on the wall to carry the roof and is of such
weight that it counteracts uplift forces acting on the roof. The dead
load of the roof which spans 10.5m onto the diaphragm wall is
3.5kN/m2 and a live load of 2.0kN/m2 is to be anticipated. A
characteristic wind load of 0.9kN/m2 is likely and normal control of
unit manufacture and construction are expected. M4 (designation (iii)
mortar is specified.
[15 marks]
(b)
(c)
Q5 Solution
5a). Length of wall = 6.4m, ht of wall = 5.7m.
DL of roof = 10.95 x (3.5/2) = 19.16kN/m
LL of roof = 10.95 x 2.0/2 = 10.95kN/m
Wind load = 0.8kN/m2
Load case 0.9Gk + 1.4Wk
For reinforcement ms = 1.15. Normal control m = 3.5
From ACBM (diaphragm walls Fig 3.2) D = 550mm
Table 3 BS 5628 : part 1 fkb = 0.25. (NOTE 3 Table 3)
Equation 3.4 ACBM B
Required fk = (44.34 x 103 x 3.5)/(0.793 x 780 x 103)= 0.252MPa not > 6.4MPa OK
Consider shear :
V at base = 0.625 x 5.7 x 1.4 x 0.8 = 4.0kN (propped cantilever)
Shear stress at base v = (4.0 x 103 x 0.9)/(780 x 100) = 0.05MPa
fv/mv = 0.35/2.5 = 0.14 so OK
5b).
Bonded wall
Quoin bond
Tied wall
Adequate bond using ties
5c). With diaphragm walls the second moment of area is large which implies flexural
cracking is unlikely before ULS reached. Deflection is usually +/- span/750
Cracking
1. Flexural tensile cracking
Tensile flexural cracks (unusual)
Webs in wall
Web crack
due to shear
6.
(a)
Discuss the merits of enhancing the lateral load capacity of wall panels
using reinforcement. Examine the four methods given in Appendix A
of BS 5628-Part 2 and comment on the appropriateness of each.
(b)
For each wall :i. Recommend if bed joint reinforcement should be included and
give reasons.
[6 marks]
ii. Make recommendations on how you would support the wall.
[3 marks]
iii. Describe any movement joist to be included.
[3 marks]
iv. Indicate which design method you would use.
[3 marks]
Solution Q6a).
Bed joint reinforcement distributes cracking and maintains slender sections.
Method 1. Most conservative. Treats the wall as a horizontal beam. Walls will
usually span in two directions in reality. As this is conservative, enhancements are
limited to 50% of unreinforced load. With cavity walls, add the strengths of both
walls.
Method 2. The method requires the unreinforced load capacity to be determined and
for this to be enhanced by 30%. The enhancement of 30% is carried by the
reinforcement which is then designed in accordance with BS 5628 : Part 2 of the code.
The technique has no theoretical basis as the unreinforced and hence uncracked wall
is assumed to contribute to wall strength together with the reinforced and hence
cracked section.
Method 3. The lateral load capacity of unreinforced masonry walls as described in
Clause 32 of BS 5628 : Part 1 uses the concept of orthogonal strength ratios. In
Method 3 the orthogonal strength ratio is altered by assuming the f kp strength is as for
a reinforced section and then it is designed in accordance with Part 1. No limits are
assigned to fkp which is of concern.
Method 4. Experimental evidence indicates that walls with bed joint reinforcement
first crack at the ultimate load of an equivalent unreinforced wall. The ultimate load
capacity of the unreinforced wall is determined with partial safety factors set to 1.
The characteristic wind load of the panel is then determined by dividing this load by
the partial safety factor for materials appropriate to serviceability. Using one of the
other methods, a check at ultimate load is made.
Q6bi). An infill panel high up in a building should have two main functions. Firstly it
must keep the occupants safely protected from the elements, and secondly it must not
contain a blast which in very rare circumstances may arise. The former situation may
certainly warrant including bed joint reinforcement, but correct lateral load design
may abrogate this need. Further, arching effects, whether intentional or not will
enhance the strength. The second aspect of the wall is to enable blasts to escape from
the interior of the building without damaging additional internal structural elements.
Again it is debatable whether a lightly reinforced infill panel will have significant
effects on the progress of a blast.
Q6bi). A boundary garden wall in an entertainment centre may have serious
consequences if it falls. In this instance the wall should have bed joint reinforcement
included. The wall will also have a damp proof course which needs to be accounted
for in the flexural strength calculations by assuming the base is simply supported.
Adequate piers to ensure stability should also be considered.
Q6bi). A single storey masonry in-fill panel wall in a factory which is well protected
from wind should be designed for lateral loading without any bed joint reinforcement.
These walls usually comprise an inner blockwork skin which spans between supports
and needs to be adequately tied into the uprights which is connected to a continuous
outer skin usually of brickwork. The outer skin will need expansion joints.
Q6bii, iii, and iv). Wall support, movement and design method.
A concrete blockwork infill panel on the sixteenth story of a reinforced concrete
framed residential high rise building in London. The building is heated by gas.
Supports. Wall ties attached to the frame and built into the bed joints of the wall.
Angle or other bracket attached to floor and ceiling to fix base and top.
Movement. Providing movement joints is not critical. Both materials will be
shrinking
Design method. Clause 32 BS 5628:Part 1
A solid brickwork garden wall in an entertainment area which caters for thousands
of children. Wind speeds are high.
Supports. Piers of brickwork integral with the wall. A dpc will be placed below the
wall to minimise the upward movement of water and will affect this boundary so
must be considered.
Movement. Provide expansion joints every 10 12mm and ensure the joints can
accommodate up to 15mm of movement otherwise reduce the spacing.
Design method. Clause 32 BS 5628:Part 1
A masonry cavity infill panel for a single storey factory building in an industrial park
which is surrounded by tall trees and buildings. The frame is steel
Supports. The inner block skin will span between the steel uprights and as such needs
to be attached to the uprights using appropriate wall ties. The upper edge of this wall
is unlikely to have any lateral support . The base of the wall will have a damp proof
membrane which will affect the support conditions. The facing brickwork will be
continuous in most cases and needs wall ties to enable it to be connected to the
concrete leaf but there need to be additional ties at the vertical uprights.
Movement. The inner skin is unlikely to need movement joints but the ties
connecting the wall to the columns should not be rigid. The brick wall will need
expansion joints every 10 12mm and ensure the joints can accommodate up to
15mm of movement otherwise reduce the spacing. These should be positioned at the
uprights.
Design method. Clause 32 BS 5628:Part 1