Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2005, 19(4), 730734

q 2005 National Strength & Conditioning Association

IS RUNNING PERFORMANCE ENHANCED WITH

CREATINE SERUM INGESTION?
TODD A. ASTORINO,1 ANDREW C. MARROCCO,2 SARA M. GROSS,2 DAVID L. JOHNSON,2
COLLEEN M. BRAZIL,2 MICHELETTE E. ICENHOWER,2 & RYAN J. KNEESSI2
Department of Kinesiology, California State University, San Marcos, California 92096; 2Exercise Science
Program, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland 21801.
1

ABSTRACT. Astorino, T.A., A.C. Marrocco, S.M. Gross, D.L.

Johnson, C.M. Brazil, M.E. Icenhower, and R.J. Kneessi. Is running performance enhanced with creatine serum ingestion? J.
Strength Cond. Res. 19(4):730734. 2005.Runners Advantage
(RA) creatine (Cr) serum has been marketed to increase running
performance. To test this claim, cross-country runners completed baseline testing (BASE), an outdoor 5,000-m run followed by
O2max testing on the same day. Subjects repeated
treadmill V
testing after ingesting 5 ml of RA (n 5 13) containing 2.5 g of
Cr or placebo (n 5 11). Heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and run time were recorded. With RA (56.48 6
O2max was higher (p 5 0.01) vs. BASE
8.93 mlkg21min21), V
(54.07 6 9.36 mlkg21min21), yet the magnitude of the increase
was within the coefficient of variation of V O2max. No effect of
CO2max and duration of
RA on maximal HR was exhibited, yet V
incremental exercise were significantly higher ( p , 0.025) vs.
O2max was similar in PL (58.85 6 6.67 mlkg21min21)
BASE. V
and BASE (57.28 6 7.22 mlkg21min21). With RA, the 5,000-m
time was unchanged, and RPE was lower (p , 0.025) vs. BASE.
These data do not support the ergogenic claims of RA in its current form and dose.
KEY WORDS. maximal oxygen uptake, distance runners, endurance exercise, ergogenic aid

INTRODUCTION
reatine (Cr) loading is a common strategy to enhance performance in various types of athletic
endeavors. Previous research indicates that Cr
loading augments short-term, sprint exercise
(13, 22), resistance training (7, 18, 25, 27), and repeated
bouts of high-intensity exercise (2, 10). The magnitude of
performance enhancement with Cr loading reported in
previous studies varies due to different subjects, loading
regimens, Cr quality, and exercise protocols, yet recent
research (21) indicated approximately 26% improvement
during resistance training combined with Cr loading vs.
training alone. The exact mechanism explaining the ergogenic benefit of Cr supplementation remains to be identified, although increased phosphocreatine (PCr) resynthesis (2, 9), lean body mass (7, 18), and training volume
(18) have been implicated.
Research investigating any potential benefit of Cr
loading on endurance performance is relatively sparse. In
trained men (3), a decrease in endurance performance
was demonstrated, which was attributed to weight gain
(10.9 kg). In this study, a 6-km terrain run and treadmill
run to exhaustion at a workload equivalent to 120% max O2max) were completed by subjects,
imal oxygen uptake (V
and were repeated after administration of Cr (6 days of
O2
loading at 5 gday21) or placebo. No difference in peak V
was demonstrated between the Cr and placebo group vs.

730

the initial trial, and subjects ran significantly slower ( p

, 0.05) with Cr (23.79 6 0.85 minutes vs. 23.36 6 0.82
minutes) compared with the placebo (23.76 6 0.80 minutes vs. 23.92 6 0.79 minutes). In a more recent study
(8), 5 days of Cr supplementation (6 gday21) did not alter
O2, or heart rate during a 30cardiovascular function, V
minute endurance trial followed by interval exercise.
Consequently, it is likely that Cr loading does not alter
endurance performance, and may potentially decrease
performance due to weight gain. Despite results refuting
any ergogenic effect of Cr loading on distance performance, it is plausible that supplementation may augment
resistance and/or interval training completed by distance
runners, which may indirectly enhance performance.
Nevertheless, a product marketed toward runners was
recently introduced, Runners Advantage Cr serum (RA;
Muscle Marketing USA, Blaine, WA). According to the
manufacturer, each 5-ml liquid serving contains 2.5 g of
high-quality Cr monohydrate, as well as other constituents, and the serum is absorbed more readily than the
powder form of Cr monohydrate, thus attenuating water
retention and minimizing incidence of deleterious side effects, including dehydration. In addition, taking the serum once prior to exercise is claimed by the manufacturer
to increase your stamina and run time, all while reducing your level of fatigue.
The primary aim of the study was to test the ergogenic
claims of RA using a randomized, single-blind, placebocontrolled design. Competitive distance runners completed tests of running performance before and after placebo
or RA administration. It was hypothesized that ingestion
of RA will not enhance running performance (5,000 m) or
O2max in collegiate runners.
V

METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem

Immediately after season-ending competition, cross-country athletes were separated randomly into an experimental (RA) or placebo (PL) group. Both athletes and research
technicians were blinded as to the specific treatment given to each subject. Subjects initially completed baseline
testing (BASE), a 5,000-m run followed by treadmill
O2max testing. After ingesting either RA or similar dose
V
PL 4872 hours later, subjects repeated testing at the
same time of day.
Subjects

Runners from a Division III cross-country and track team

were recruited to complete this study (N 5 24: 17 men
and 7 women). They were tested within 23 days after

CREATINE SERUM
TABLE 1. Demographic data for subjects in the RA and PL
groups.*
Parameter (Mean 6 SD)

RA (n 5 13)

PL (n 5 11)

Age (y)
Height (in)
Weight (kg)
% BF
O2max (mlkg21min21)
V
Gender (men, women)

19.50 6 1.42
68.62 6 4.52
63.41 6 8.97
12.25 6 7.46
54.76 6 9.72
8, 5

20.80 6 1.54
68.18 6 3.16
60.86 6 6.40
8.31 6 4.28
56.92 6 7.51
9, 2

* RA 5 Runners Advantage (experimental); PL 5 placebo.

the season-ending championships, so they were in peak

fitness. Mean age, body fat (% BF), and V O2max of the
subjects were equal to 19.75 6 1.54 years, 11.68 6 6.86%
BF, and 55.61 6 8.00 mlkg21min21, respectively. They
were competitive and were experienced at distances ranging from 800 m10,000 m. Average 5,000-m personal record times for these men and women were approximately
16.5 and 20.6 minutes, respectively. Only 6 subjects (4 in
RA, 2 in PL) had completed incremental treadmill exercise previously. Subjects provided their informed consent
and filled out a health/history questionnaire to confirm
that they were free of any conditions (i.e., exercise-induced bronchoconstriction, extreme pain, onset of
sprains/shin splints, acute infection or injury) that may
alter their ability to complete the physiological demands
of the study. Menstrual phase of the women was not considered, because previous findings indicate that neither
O2max (4) nor running performance (5) are altered by
V
menstrual phase.
Baseline Testing

Subjects initially completed baseline testing (BASE), a

5,000-m run (12.5 laps) on an outdoor 400-m track, with
run time, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) (20), and
heart rate (HR) (Polar Electro Inc., Woodbury, NY) recorded by a research assistant each lap. Subjects were
instructed to run as fast as possible during this 5,000-m
run. Subjects ran in groups of 34 and were provided split
times every mile, as well as verbal encouragement, to
simulate race conditions. Pilot testing revealed a coefficient of variation for the 5,000-m run equal to 2.5% (approximately 24.0 seconds). Immediately after the run,
subjects walked to the Human Performance Laboratory
O2max on a motor-driven treadmill
for measurement of V
(Model Z7, True Co., OFallon, MO). Depending on the
number of subjects tested per day, they were tested within 15 minutes1.5 hours after the 5,000-m run. Pilot test O2max after the 5,000-m
ing revealed no difference in V
O2max alone. Early data (24)
run vs. measurement of V
O2max is not different even when subjects
showed that V
are in various stages of exhaustion due to completion of
O2max tests on the same day.
multiple V
Administration of Creatine Serum and Placebo

Subjects were separated randomly into 2 groups: an experimental group (n 5 13) who took the recommended
dose (5 ml) of RA 10 minutes pre-exercise (according to
the manufacturers instructions), and a control group (n
5 11), who ingested a similar volume of PL solution (water, cyclomethyl cellulose [0.2%], aspartame [0.2%], 1%
citric acid, sodium benzoate [0.1%], red color no. 40, and
cherry and raspberry flavors [0.2%]). Demographic characteristics of the subjects are listed in Table 1. No differ-

AND

RUNNING PERFORMANCE 731

ences in any physical characteristics were evident between groups. The solutions were housed in identical bottles and were administered to subjects by the primary
investigator in a single-blind fashion, so only the primary
investigator was aware of the assignment of RA vs. PL
for each subject. Solutions were administered to the subjects based on the manufacturers instructions. Ingredients in RA are the following: 2.5 g of Cr monohydrate, Dribose, D-glucose, glucosamine sulfate, magnesium ascorbate, calcium pantothenate, calcium pyruvate, citrus bioflavonoids, green tea extract, guarana extract, L-arginine,
L-glutamine, L-carnitine, Siberian ginseng, royal jelly,
Vitamin B12, zinc gluconate, and chromium picolinate.
The serum produced specifically for women is slightly different, because it contains the aforementioned ingredients combined with wild yam extract, garcinia cambogia
extract, sorbitol, and glycerin.
o2max Assessment
V

Subjects completed tests of maximal oxygen uptake

O2max) on a motor-driven treadmill during which HR
(V
(Model 29C, SensorMedics, Yorba Linda, CA) and pulmonary gas exchange data were obtained continuously.
Treadmill speed was self-selected by each subject and
ranged from 6.89.5 mph. After 1 minute of running at
the desired speed, treadmill grade was increased approximately 0.51.0% every minute and speed remained constant. Test duration ranged from 812 minutes. Subjects
received verbal encouragement at all times and were instructed to exercise to volitional fatigue. The test was terminated when the subject was unable to keep up with the
O2max
pace of the treadmill and grabbed its handles. V
was confirmed by the following criteria: (1) a plateau in
O2max),
O2 # 50 mlmin21 at V
oxygen consumption (DV
and (2) respiratory exchange ratio (RER) greater than
O2max testing, subjects expired through
1.10 (1). During V
a plastic mouthpiece and low-resistance valve into tubing
connected to a mixing chamber. Ventilation was measured by inspired air flow through standard gas analyzers. Measurements of ventilation (VE), oxygen consump CO2) were ob O2), and carbon dioxide production (V
tion (V
tained breath-by-breath throughout exercise by a metabolic cart and reported every 10 seconds. Pilot testing
revealed a coefficient of variation in V O2max across days
equal to 3.04.0%.
Body Composition Assessment

Body height and weight were measured, and body composition was assessed using skinfold (SKF) calipers
(Lange Beta Technology, Cambridge, MD). The primary
investigator measured subcutaneous fat at 3 sites on the
body, following standardized procedures: chest, abdomen,
and thigh for men, and triceps, thigh, and anterior suprailiac for women (14). Sum of SKF was converted to %
BF using a common nomogram (16). Two measurements
at each site were taken in rotational order, and a third
measurement was recorded if the first 2 measures deviated by more than 10%.
Pretest Guidelines

Exercise status was monitored closely during all testing.

Subjects completed 24-hour exercise recalls prior to each
trial. They also were required to run 34 miles every day
between the 2 trials to maintain their fitness. Subjects
also submitted 24-hour dietary recalls prior to each trial,

732

ASTORINO, MARROCCO, GROSS

ET AL.

and were instructed to eat the same items prior to each

trial. Caffeine intake was prohibited, because some research (26) indicates that caffeine may reverse the ergogenic benefits of Cr, and data (17) show that caffeine ingestion may enhance high-intensity exercise.
Side Effects/Symptoms Inventory

Subjects were required to fill out a questionnaire that

contained questions regarding incidence or severity of
symptoms (e.g., bloating, gas, diarrhea, cramps, fatigue,
anxiety, insomnia) due to RA or PL ingestion for 72 hours
after administration of the solution.
Statistical Analyses

Data were expressed as mean 6 standard deviation and

were analyzed using GraphPad Prism Version 3.0 (San
Diego, CA). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with
repeated measures was used to examine changes in run
time, HR, and RPE during the 5,000-m run. Tukeys post
hoc test was used to locate differences between means
when a significant F ratio was obtained. In both the RA
and PL trials, a 1-tailed dependent t-test was used to detect differences in run time, HR, RPE, and maximal gas
exchange data between BASE and RA or PL values. Calculation of effect sizes for RA or PL vs. BASE for the
primary dependent variables yielded the following re O2max (0.23 and 0.26), 5,000-m run time (0.07 and
sults: V
0.04), and duration of incremental exercise (0.03 and
0.17). Statistical power of RA vs. BASE was equal to 0.04
O2max), and duration of incre(5,000-m run time), 0.09 (V
mental exercise (0.41), respectively. Due to the completion of multiple comparisons, statistical significance was
set at p # 0.025.

FIGURE 1. Changes in (a) ratings of perceived exertion

(RPE), (b) heart rate (HR), and (c) run time with Runners
Advantage (RA) ingestion vs. baseline testing (BASE). * 5 p ,
0.025 from BASE.

RESULTS
5,000-m Run

Heart rate, RPE, and run time were increased significantly (p , 0.01) with each lap in both treatments. With
RA ingestion, no significant differences in RPE vs. BASE
were observed across the 5,000-m run, with the exception
of laps 4.58.5, when it was lower (p 5 0.01; Figure 1a).
Heart rate toward the end of the run was consistently
higher in RA than in BASE; however, no statistically significant differences were evident except at lap 3.5 (Figure
1b). Run time was significantly slower early in the run
with RA ingestion vs. BASE, and a nonsignificant trend
was shown for impaired performance (approximately 10
seconds) with RA (Figure 1c). Mean run time was 19.03
6 2.32 minutes at BASE vs. 19.20 6 2.61 minutes with
RA. With PL, RPE was significantly lower ( p , 0.025)
from laps 3.55.5 vs. BASE (Figure 2a). With PL ingestion, HR was significantly lower ( p , 0.025) vs. BASE at
laps 1.54.5, yet was similar during the remainder of the
run (Figure 2b). Run time was significantly slower ( p ,
0.025) at 1.55.5 laps with PL vs. BASE. Times to complete the 5,000-m run were similar in PL (18.94 6 2.41
minutes) and BASE (19.03 6 2.39 minutes; Figure 2c).
Run times were similar in RA and PL.

O2max was similar in PL (58.85 6 6.67 mlkg21min21)

V
CO2
and BASE (57.28 6 7.22 mlkg21min21). Maximal V
was significantly higher ( p , 0.01) in PL than in BASE.
Maximal gas exchange data for all trials are provided in
Table 2.

o2max Assessment
V

Side Effects/Symptoms Inventory

O2max was higher ( p 5 0.01; 56.48 6 8.93

In RA, V
mlkg21min-1) than in BASE (54.07 6 9.36 mlkg21min21).
CO2 ( p 5 0.001) and duration ( p 5 0.001) of
Maximal V
incremental exercise were higher with RA vs. BASE.

All testing was well tolerated by the subjects. No subject

reported that he or she was aware of the solution ingested
prior to exercise. Furthermore, only 1 subject reported
minor gastrointestinal distress from ingestion of the so-

FIGURE 2. Changes in (a) ratings of perceived exertion

(RPE), (b) heart rate (HR), and (c) run time with placebo (PL)
ingestion vs. baseline testing (BASE). * 5 p , 0.025 from
BASE.

CREATINE SERUM

AND

RUNNING PERFORMANCE 733

TABLE 2. Maximal gas exchange data in response to RA and PL administration.*

Parameter (X 6 SD)
O2 (mlkg21min21)
V
CO2 (Lmin21)
V
RER
VE (Lmin21)
HR (bmin21)
Duration (min)

BASE
54.07
3.88
1.12
126.40
192.40
8.67

6
6
6
6
6
6

9.36
1.13
0.05
31.79
8.10
0.76

RA
56.48
4.11
1.14
131.60
196.20
9.26

6
6
6
6
6
6

p
8.93
1.22
0.04
29.82
9.34
1.03

0.01
0.001
0.21
0.09
0.09
0.001

BASE
57.28
3.80
1.11
123.50
191.80
9.81

6
6
6
6
6
6

7.22
0.88
0.04
21.72
7.07
2.10

PL
58.85
4.00
1.13
128.20
191.10
9.89

6
6
6
6
6
6

p
6.67
0.87
0.03
20.38
6.53
2.13

0.09
0.01
0.05
0.09
0.60
0.85

* RA 5 Runners Advantage (experimental); PL 5 placebo; BASE 5 baseline testing; RER 5 respiratory exchange ratio; HR 5
heart rate.
p , 0.025.

lutions. Body weight was not altered with ingestion of RA

or PL.

DISCUSSION
The primary aim of the study was to determine any potential ergogenic benefit of Runners Advantage Cr serum
to enhance running performance. Data from this random O2max
ized, placebo-controlled study demonstrated that V
is significantly higher with administration of RA vs.
BASE. In addition, RPE was significantly lower with RA
ingestion. Nevertheless, compared with baseline testing,
5,000-run time was unaffected by RA ingestion, and athletes tended to run slower after RA ingestion. Consequently, our hypothesis that RA Cr serum does not enhance running performance was met, and the manufacturers claims of the ergogenic effects of this serum may
be unfounded. However, additional research into its potential ergogenic properties may be warranted if a serum
with a larger Cr dose and institution of a loading phase
is developed.
No benefit of RA on 5,000-m run time was evident in
this study. A likely explanation for this result comes from
previous work from Kreider et al. (19). In that study,
muscle biopsies from the vastus lateralis were obtained
from 40 men after randomized ingestion of low- and highdose placebo, 2.5 and 20 g of Muscle Marketings ATP
Advantage Cr serum, and 20 g of Cr monohydrate powder
for 5 days. Results demonstrated significant ( p , 0.05)
increments in muscle (PCr), free (Cr), and total creatine
with Cr monohydrate ingestion, suggesting Cr retention.
In contrast, Cr serum ingestion did not significantly alter
concentrations of these phosphagens, and it was found
that this product did not contain Cr. These data suggest
that ingestion of this Cr serum does not promote Cr retention. Because the ergogenic potential of Cr loading is
dependent upon its ability to enhance muscle (PCr) and
total creatine (12, 15), an inability of Cr serum to be taken
up by muscle may preclude any ergogenic benefits of this
product.
Despite there being no change in 5,000-m run time
with intake of RA, do the data have practical significance
O2max was higher ( p 5 0.01)
for the competitive runner? V
after RA ingestion, yet the magnitude of increase was
within the coefficient of variation of V O2max testing in
our laboratory. Green tea extract, a constituent in the
serum, has been reported to have a thermogenic effect by
significantly increasing 24-hour energy expenditure (1
329 kJ) and RER-derived fat oxidation in healthy men (6).
O2max in response to RA
This may explain the higher V
ingestion. In addition, it is evident that factors (lactate
threshold, running economy, substrate status) other than

O2max also determine distance running performance.

V
Furthermore, unpublished, preliminary data from our
O2max is significantly higher in
laboratory show that V
subjects (n 5 20) who are new to incremental exercise, in
response to repeated testing due to a presumed practice
effect. Four subjects ran faster (6, 10, 11, and 20 seconds,
respectively) after RA ingestion, yet with the other 9 subjects, 4 ran the same time and 5 were markedly slower
(15, 30, 40, 42, and 53 seconds, respectively). The coefficient of variation for the 5,000-m run was equal to approximately 24 seconds. All testing was performed at the
same time of day and in similar climates. Overall, it is
likely that RA ingestion with the current dosing regimen
does not augment running performance in competitive
distance runners.
However, we can speculate that a Cr serum with a
larger dose may have ergogenic benefits for endurance
athletes. Seminal work by Harris et al. (13) demonstrated
enhanced running performance with Cr ingestion. In that
study, middle distance runners completed 4 3 300m and
4 3 1,000m runs before and after ingestion of 30 g of Cr
monohydrate for 6 days. Results demonstrated significant
reductions in run time for the last 300 and 1,000 m, as
well as overall 4 3 1,000m time. These data suggest that
performance of repeated runs at shorter distances, as well
as interval training, may be enhanced with Cr monohydrate, and not serum, ingestion. The dosing regimen and
Cr content of this RA serum would have to be modified
to exert any ergogenic benefit to distance runners.
In the present study, only 1 subject reported symptoms or deleterious side effects with RA ingestion. Body
weight was not altered with RA ingestion. These results
are similar to recent data (11) in baseball players, which
revealed lower incidence of injury and/or strains with
chronic Cr loading vs. placebo. In 26 current or former
athletes (23), long-term Cr loading (0.84 years) demonstrated no differences in incidence of muscle injury,
cramps, or additional side effects vs. placebo. Consequently, it appears short-term ingestion of RA is safe and does
not cause cramping or gastrointestinal distress.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The manufacturers claims of Runners Advantage Cr serum to confer an ergogenic benefit to runners are not entirely supported by our findings. With RA ingestion,
O2max was sig5,000-m run time was unchanged, yet V
nificantly higher. In current form and dosage, this product may have minimal ergogenic benefit, so we do not
recommend its use in competitive runners seeking to enhance performance.

734

ASTORINO, MARROCCO, GROSS

ET AL.

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Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the cooperation put forth by Coach
Jim Jones and the athletes on the cross-country team at
Salisbury University. The primary investigator would like to
thank Dr. Richard B. Kreider for providing a side effects/
symptoms inventory. This study was funded by Muscle
Marketing USA. However, the researchers independently
collected, analyzed, and interpreted all data and hold no
financial interest in the outcomes of this study. Dissemination
of results in this study do not constitute endorsement of the
tested supplement by the investigators or the National Strength
and Conditioning Association.

Address correspondence
astorino@csusm.edu

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Astorino,