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FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Part 1: DC CIRCUITS
Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

I. Introduction.
II. Linearity property.
III. Superposition.
VI. Source transformation.
V. Thevenins theorem.
VI. Nortons theorem.
VII. Maximum power transfer
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Viet Son Nguyen - 2011

I. Introduction
Chapter 3 presented some analysis method using Kirchhoffs laws
Advantage: Analyze a circuit without changing the its configuration.
Disadvantage: For a large, complex circuit its hard to compute, and
solve the set of equations.
For complex circuits, it need to develop some theorems to simplify circuit
analysis, such as Thevenins and Nortons theorems (applicable only to linear
circuits).
This chapter presents:
Concept of circuit linearity.
Circuit theorems.
Concept of superposition, source transformation, maximum power transfer.

II. Linearity property
Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between
cause (input, excitation) and effect (output, response)
Linearity property combines:
Homogeneity (scaling) property:
Additivity property:
v iR kiR kv
v1 i1 R i1 i2
v (i1 i2 ) R i1 R i2 R v1 v2
v2 i2 R
Ex: Resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship satisfies

both the homogeneity and additivity properties.
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly
proportional) to its input.
A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources, and
independent sources.
Chapter 4: Methods of analysis

R2 2
+ v -
II. Linearity property
12i1 4i2 vS 0
12i1 4i2 vS 0
vx 2 i1

4i1 16i2 3vx vS 0

10i1 16i2 vS 0
Ex 4.1: Find i0 when vs = 12V and vs = 24V.

Applying KVL to the 02 loops gives:
R4
R3
R1
4
i1
R4
i2
Vs
3vx
Solving the set of equations gives:
i1 6i2
12
vs 12 V
0.158 A
vS i0 i2
76
i2 76
Because, this circuit is linear circuit applying the linearity property gives:
vS 24 V i0 i2 2.0,158 0,316 A

III. Superposition
If circuit has two or more independent sources, there several ways to determine
the value of a specific variable (voltage, current):
Use nodal or mesh analysis.
Superposition approach: Determine the contribution of each independent
source to the variable, and then add them up.
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through)
an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents though) that element due to each independent source acting alone.
Superposition is not limited to circuit analysis but is applicable in many field
where cause and effect bear a linear relationship to one another.

III. Superposition
Step to apply superposition principle:
Turn off all independent sources except one source (dependent sources
are left intact):
Replace voltage source by short circuit
Replace current source by open circuit
Find the output (voltage or/and current) due to that active source (using
nodal or mesh analysis)
Repeat step 1 & 2 for each of the other independent sources.
Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to
the independent sources.

R2 3
III. Superposition
Ex 4.2: Using the superposition theorem, find v0.
Since there are two sources, let:
v0 v01 v02
+
v0 R1
- 2
To obtain v01, set the current source to zero
R4 5
20V
8A
R2 3
R4 5
Applying KVL to the loop gives:
(3 5 2)i 20 i 2 A v01 2.2 4 V
v0
R1
20V
- 2
To obtain v02, set the voltage source to zero

Using current division gives
iR1
8
5 4 A v02 2.4 8V
2 3 5
Finally, we find:
R2 3
+ R1
v0
- 2
R4 5
8A
v0 v01 v02 8 4 12 V

R4 2
III. Superposition
Ex 4.3: Using the superposition theorem, find i0.
R1
In this circuit, there is a dependent source, we left

intact. We let:
i0 i01 i02
R3 1
4A
+ -
i0
5i0
R2
R5
To obtain i01, turn off the 20-V source to zero
4
20V
Applying mesh analysis, we have:

Loop 1:
i1 4 A
Loop 2:
3i1 6i2 i3 5i01 0
Loop 3:5i1 i2
R4
R1
Applying KCL at node 0: i3

From the four equations, we have:
i1 i01 4 i01
i01 3,06 A
i2
10i3 5i01 0
R3
i1
i01 1
4A
R2
5
0
+ -
5i01
R5
i3
4
8

R4 2
III. Superposition
Ex 4.3: Using the superposition theorem, find i0.
R1
To obtain i02, turn off the 4-A source to zero

Applying KVL, we have:
Loop 4: 6i4
Loop 5:
R3 1
4A
R5
4
20V
i4 10i5 20 5i02 0
R4
i5 i02
From the four equations, we have:
i02 3,53 A
R1
i0 i01 i02 0, 47 A
i4
3
R3
+ -
i02 1
Finally, when there are the both sources in the

circuit, we find:
R2
i5 5i02 0
In loop 5, we have:
+ -
i0
5i0
R2
5i02
i5
R5
20V
9

24V
III. Superposition
R4 8
Ex 4.4: Using the superposition theorem, find i.

The circuit has three sources, let: i
i1 i2 i3
Getting i1, turn off 3-A source, 24-V source
R2 4
R1 4
i
12V
R3
12
12
i1
2A
R1 / /( R2 R4 ) R3 6
24V
R4 8
R4 8
Getting i2, turn off 3-A
3A
source, 12-V source
24
iR4
1,75 A
( R1 / / R3 ) R2 R4
i2
R2 4
R1 4
R1i
1A
R1 R3
i1
i2
R3
3
R2 4
R1 4
12V
R3
3
10

24V
III. Superposition
R4 8

To get i3, turn off 24-V and 12-V sources
Using nodal analysis:
1 1
1
8 4 v2 4 v1 3

1 1 1 v 1 v 0
4 4 3 1 4 2
R2 4
R1 4
R3
12V
2v1 3v2 24
v2 3,33v1
Solving the set of equations gives:
v1 3V i3 1A
Thus: i i1 i2 i3 2 1 1 2 A
3A
R4 8
R1 4
v1
v2
R2 4
i3
R3
3
3A
11

R2 2
III. Superposition
The circuit has three sources, let: i
i1 i2 i3
R1
i
16V
Getting i2, turn off 16-V, 12-V source
i2
i3
Thus:
R2 2
R1 6
12
0,75 A
628
R3
i1
16V
4
2 0,5 A
628
Getting i3, turn off 16-V, 4-A source
12V
4A
Getting i1, turn off 4-A source, 12-V source
16
i1
1A
628
R3 8
R2 2
R1 6
R3 8
i1
i i1 i2 i3 0,75 A
12

IV. Source transformation
Similar to the series-parallel combination and wye-delta transformation, source
transformation is using to simplify circuits that bases on the concept of
equivalence.
An equivalent circuit is one whose v - i characteristics are identical with the
original circuit.
A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in
series with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a resistor
R, or vice versa.
13

R
a
iS
vS
b
R
+
-
vS RiS
vS
iS
R
a
iS
vS
b
Notes:
The arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal of
the voltage source.
The source transformation is not possible when R = 0 (ideal voltage source)
or R = (ideal current source).
14

R2 2

Ex 4.6: Use source transformation to find v0
R5
R1
R2
vs1
R3
R4 3
v0
R3
12V
- 8
3A
R6
is1
12
4A
vS1 3 R1 12 V
iS1
R4
;
R5 R1 4
R6 R4 3
+
v0 R3
- 8
R8
is3
R8 R7 / / R6 2
iS 3 iS1 iS 2 2 A
R7
is2
R3
R6
is1
R7 R2 R5 6
vS 1
iS 2 R 2 A
7
R8 . R3
2.8
v0 iS 3
2
3,2 V
R3 R8
10
15

R4 1

Ex 4.7: Use source transformation
to find i0
5V
R1
5A
i0
R2
R3
R6 R1 / / R2 2
R7 R4 R5 5
;
vS1 5R6 10V

vS 2 3R7 15V
vS 1 5
iS 3 iS1 iS 2 10,5 A
iS1 R 7,5 A
R6 R7
R
i vS 2 3 A
8 R R 1, 43
6
7
S 2 R7
R8
i0 iS 3
1,78 A
R8 R3
R5
3A
5V
R7
R6
vS2
R3
vS1
R6
R3
iS1
R7
iS2
i0
R3
R8
iS3
16

R3
4
R1 2
Ex 4.8: Use source transformation to find vx

We transform:
+
vx R2
- 2
6V
6
6-V independent voltage source: iS 3 A
2
Dependent current source: vS1 0,25vx . R3 vx
R4 R1 / / R2 1
vS 2 iS R4 3V
Applying KVL:
The largest loop: 3 5i vx
18 0
Loop containing vS2 and R4: 3 i vx 0
18V
R3
4
R1
iS independent current source and R1, R2
0,25vx
R2
iS
R3
+
vx
i 4,5 A
vx 7,5V
+
-
18V
R4
vS2
vS1
4
vx
+
-
18V
17

R2 5
ix
Ex 4.9: Use source transformation to find ix

Dependent voltage source:
iS
2i x
0, 4ix
5
Applying KCL gives:
3, 4ix
10
4A
We transform:
ix 4 0, 4ix
R1
4A
R2
4 0, 4ix

R1 R2 3
3
2ix
ix
iS
R1
R2
10
4
ix 0,39 A
3
18

a
V. Thevenins theorem
In practice, a particular element in a
circuit is variable (called load) while other
Linear
two-terminal
circuit
elements are fixed.
theorem to avoid this problem.

Thevenins theorem: A linear two terminal circuit can
Load
RTh
Each time the variable element is changed, need

to be analyzed all over again use Thevenins
VTh
Load
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series

with a resister RTh where:
VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals
RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.
19

a
Finding VTh: VTh is the open-circuit voltage across
the terminals.
Linear
two-terminal
circuit
VTh VOC
-
Finding RTh:
Network has no dependent sources.
Linear circuit with

all independent
sources set equal to
zero
RTh Rin
b
Network has dependent sources.

a
Linear circuit with
all independent
zero
RTh
v0
i0
i0
v0
a
Linear circuit with
all independent
zero
v0
i0
RTh
v0
i0
20
Thevenins theorem is very important in circuit analysis:
Help simplify a circuit: Replace a large circuit by a single independent
voltage source and a single resistor.
Easily to determine the current and voltage on the load
a
IL
IL
Linear
circuit
RL
b
VTh
IL
RTh RL
VTh
RL
b
RL
VL RL I L
VTh
RTh RL
21

R1 4
Ex 4.10: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the
circuit. Find the current through RL = 6, 16, 36
Calculating RTh:
i1
32V
R1 R2
R3 4
RTh
R1 R2
R3
i
R2 2
12
1
2A
RL
b
32 VTh
VTh
2
VTh 30 V
Calculating VTh: Applying nodal analysis gives
R1
12
VTh
30
I
The current through RL : L

RTh RL 4 RL
When RL = 6:
When RL = 16:
30
IL
3A
10
When RL = 36:
30
IL
0,75 A
40
30
IL
1,5 A
20
22

R2 6
R1 6
Ex 4.11: Find i by using the Thevenins theorem
4
12V
Calculating RTh:
a
i
R3
2A
12.4
RTh ( R1 R2 ) / / R3
3
12 4
Calculating VTh: Applying nodal analysis gives:
12 V
V
2 V 15V
6
10
V
15
VTh
R3
.4 6 V
R2 R3
64
The current through R4 :
VTh
6
1,5 A
RTh R4 1 3
23
R4

- +
Ex 4.12: Find the equivalent of the circuit

To find RTh, set the independent source equal
to zero, but leave the dependent source alone
Connect to the terminal a voltage source v0 =
1V, and we find i0 through the terminal.
RTh
v0 1
i0 i0
Applying mesh analysis to loop 1, 2, 3:

The current through R4 :
1
i
A
2
v
2(
i
i
)
0
x
1
2
6
4i2 2(i2 i1 ) 6(i2 i3 ) 0

1
6(i i ) 2i 1 0
6
R
Th
3
2
3
i0
2vx
R4 2
R2 2
5A
+
4 vx
-
R3
6
b
- +
i1
+
4 vx
-
2vx
R4 2
R2 2
i2
R3
6
i3
v0 = 1V
24

Ex 4.12: Find the equivalent of the circuit
2ix
Since the circuit has no independent sources VTh = 0
ix
R1
R2
2
b
In order to find RTh , apply a current source i0 at the terminal
v0
Applying nodal analysis gives: i0 ix 2ix
4
0 v0
v0
Applying Ohms law: ix
2
2
v0
2ix
ix
i0
R1
R2
From these two equations, we have:
v
v v
v
v
i0 ix 0 0 0 0 v0 4i0 RTh 0 4
4
2 4
4
i0
Note that:
The negative value of RTh means that the circuit is supplying power by the
dependent source.
This example shows how a dependent source and resistors could be used
to simulated negative resistance.
25

a
VI. Nortons theorem

Nortons theorem: A linear two terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current
Linear
two-terminal
circuit
b
source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where:

a
IN is the short circuit current through the terminals

RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.
Finding RN:
RN RTh
Finding IN:
IN isc
RN
IN
b
a
Linear
two-terminal
circuit
isc = IN
b
Source transformation: Relationship between Nortons and Thevenins theorems:
VTh
IN
RTh
26

VI. Nortons theorem
In order to determine the Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit, we need to find:
The open-circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b
The short-circuit current isc at terminals a and b
The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b when all
independent sources are turned off.
VTh voc ; IN isc ; RTh
voc
RN
isc
27

R2
VI. Nortons theorem
8
R1
Ex 4.13: Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit.
12V
5(4 8 8)
RN ( R1 R2 R3 ) / / R4
4
5 4 88
R3 8
R2
Finding IN by shortening circuit terminals a and b
R1
i1
i1 2 A
i2 isc IN 1A
20i2 4i1 12 0
i2
2A
12V
By another way, we can find IN by the source transform

equation:
R4
2A
Finding RN in the same way RTh
i3 2 A
i4 0,8 A voc VTh 5i4 4 V
25i4 4i3 12 0
VTh
IN
1A
RN
R3
R2
a
i3
R1
i4
2A
R4
VTh = voc
12V
R3
- 28

VI. Nortons theorem
R1
Ex 4.14: Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit.
R2
3
R3
15V
4A
Finding RN
RN ( R1 R2 ) / / R3
6.6
3
66
R1
15V
Finding IN by shortening circuit terminals a and b
i1
R2
3
R3
4A
i2
applying the mesh analysis gives:
i1 4 A
27
6i2 27 i2 isc IN
4,5 A
6
3(i1 i2 ) 3i2 15 0
29

VI. Nortons theorem
2Ix
ix R2
Ex 4.15: Using Nortons theorem, find RN and IN at terminals a-b

Finding RN: set the independent voltage source equal to
zero and connect a voltage source of v0 = 1V to a-b
5
R1
4
v0
ix
0,2 A i0 ix 2ix 3ix 0,6 A
5
v
1
RN 0
1,67
i0 0,6
10V
2Ix
ix R2
i0
R1
Finding IN: Shorting circuit terminals a and b
10 10
ix
2A
R2 5
IN iSC 6 A
iSC ix 2ix 2 4 6 A
1V
ix
2Ix
R2
5
R1
4
10V
iSC = IN
30

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load:
Electric utilities: Minimizing power losses in the process distribution
Communications: Maximize the power delivered to a load.
Problem: Delivering pmax to a load when given a system with
known internal losses.
Assuming that the load resistance RL can be adjusted
Linear
circuit
Replacing entire circuit by Thevenin equivalent circuit

2
VTh
RL RTh
p i RL
R
p pmax
L
RTh RL
a I
L
RL
VTh
RTh
i
RL
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load

resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the
load (RL = RTh).
2
pmax
VTh
4 RTh
31

Ex 4.16: Finding the value of RL for maximum power transfer. Find the maximum
power.
Finding RTh:
RTh R1 / / R2 R3 R4 9
12V
A
6i1 12(i1 i2 ) 12 i1
i2 2 A
i2 2 A
Applying KVL around the outer loop to get VTh: 6i1 3i2
The maximum power is: pmax
R4 2
Finding VTh:
For maximum power transfer: RL
R3 3
R1 6
i1
R2
12
i2
2A
RL
b
VTh 12 VTh 22 V
RTh 9
VTh2
22 2
13, 44W
4. RL 4.9
32

Ex 4.17: Finding the value of RL for maximum power transfer. Find the maximum
power.
Finding RTh:
Finding VTh:
R1 2
+ vx -
R3
R2
1
9V
+
-
3vx
4
RL
33

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FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

Ex: Resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship satisfies

Chapter 4: Methods of analysis

II. Linearity property

4i1 16i2 3vx vS 0

Ex 4.1: Find i0 when vs = 12V and vs = 24V.

Solving the set of equations gives:

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Viet Son Nguyen - 2011

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

To obtain v01, set the current source to zero

Applying KVL to the loop gives:

(3 5 2)i 20 i 2 A v01 2.2 4 V

To obtain v02, set the voltage source to zero

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Viet Son Nguyen - 2011

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

In this circuit, there is a dependent source, we left

To obtain i01, turn off the 20-V source to zero

Applying mesh analysis, we have:

3i1 6i2 i3 5i01 0

Applying KCL at node 0: i3

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Viet Son Nguyen - 2011

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

To obtain i02, turn off the 4-A source to zero

From the four equations, we have:

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Viet Son Nguyen - 2011

Finally, when there are the both sources in the

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

Ex 4.4: Using the superposition theorem, find i.

Getting i1, turn off 3-A source, 24-V source

Getting i2, turn off 3-A

source, 12-V source

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Viet Son Nguyen - 2011

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

Ex 4.4: Using the superposition theorem, find i.

Using nodal analysis:

Solving the set of equations gives:

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

Getting i2, turn off 16-V, 12-V source

Getting i3, turn off 16-V, 4-A source

Getting i1, turn off 4-A source, 12-V source

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Viet Son Nguyen - 2011

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Viet Son Nguyen - 2011

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

IV. Source transformation

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Viet Son Nguyen - 2011

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

IV. Source transformation

vS1 5R6 10V

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

IV. Source transformation

Ex 4.8: Use source transformation to find vx

iS independent current source and R1, R2

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

IV. Source transformation

Ex 4.9: Use source transformation to find ix

Applying KCL gives:

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Viet Son Nguyen - 2011