5.7.

FINAL COMMENTS ON CONSERVATION

141

Figure 5.22: Albert Einstein (1879-1955), German theoretical physicist who developed theories that explained data better than those of Newton.
Image from
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Einstein.html.
Another consequence of Einsteins reformulation was the remarkable results of mass-energy
equivalence via the famous relation
E = mc2 ,
(5.208)
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. Another way of viewing Einsteins contributions
is via a new conservation property: the mass-energy of an isolated system is constant. It is
the conservation of mass-energy that is the key ingredient in both nuclear weapon systems
as well as nuclear power generation.

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142

CHAPTER 5. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

CC BY-NC-ND. 01 July 2014, J. M. Powers.

Chapter 6
First law analysis for a control volume
Read BS, Chapter 6
Problems in previous chapters have focused on systems. These systems always were composed of the same matter. However, for a wide variety of engineering devices, for example
flow in pipes,
jet engines,
heat exchangers,
gas turbines,
pumps,
furnaces, or
air conditioners,

a constant flow of new fluid continuously enters and exits the device. In fact, once the fluid
has left the device, we often are not concerned with that fluid, as far as the performance
of the device is concerned. Of course, we might care about the pollution emitted by the
device and the long term fate of expelled particles. Pollution dispersion, in contrast to
pollution-creation, is more a problem of fluid mechanics than thermodynamics.
Analysis of control volumes is slightly more complicated than for systems, and the equations we will ultimately use are slightly more complex. Unfortunately, the underlying mathematics and physics which lead to the development of our simplified control volume equations
are highly challenging! Worse still, most beginning thermodynamics texts do not expose
the student to all of the many nuances required for the simplification. In this chapter, we
will summarize the key results and refer the student to an appendix for a more rigorous
development.
We will introduce no new axioms in this chapter. We shall simply formulate our mass
and energy conservation axioms for a control volume configuration. A sketch of a generic
apparatus for control volume analysis is given in Fig. 6.1.
143

144

CHAPTER 6. FIRST LAW ANALYSIS FOR A CONTROL VOLUME

.
mi(hi + vi2/2 + gzi)

.
me(he + ve2/2 + gze)

.
me(he + ve2/2 + gze)
.
Qcv

.
Wcv

.
me(he + ve2/2 + gze)

Figure 6.1: Sketch of generic configuration for control volume analysis.

6.1

Detailed derivations of control volume equations

This section will give a summary of the necessary mathematical operations necessary to cast
the conservation of mass and energy principles in a traditional control volume formulation.
The analysis presented has been amalgamated from a variety of sources. Most directly, it
is a specialization of course notes for AME 60635, Intermediate Fluid Mechanics.1 Basic
mathematical foundations are covered well by Kaplan.2 A detailed and readable description,
which has a stronger emphasis on fluid mechanics, is given in the undergraduate text of
Whitaker.3 A rigorous treatment of the development of all equations presented here is
included in the graduate text of Aris.4 Popular mechanical engineering undergraduate fluids
texts have closely related expositions.56 However, despite their detail, these texts have some
minor flaws! The treatment given by BS is not as detailed. This section will use a notation
generally consistent with BS and show in detail how to arrive at its results.
1

J. M. Powers, 2012, Lecture Notes on Intermediate Fluid Mechanics, University of Notre Dame,
http://www.nd.edu/powers/ame.60635/notes.pdf.
2
W. Kaplan, 2003, Advanced Calculus, Fifth Edition, Addison-Wesley, New York.
3
S. Whitaker, 1992, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Krieger, Malabar, Florida.
4
R. Aris, 1962, Vectors, Tensors, and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics, Dover, New York.
5
F. M. White, 2002, Fluid Mechanics, Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.
6
R. W. Fox, A. T. McDonald, and P. J. Pritchard, 2003, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Sixth Edition,
John Wiley, New York.
CC BY-NC-ND. 01 July 2014, J. M. Powers.

6.1. DETAILED DERIVATIONS OF CONTROL VOLUME EQUATIONS

6.1.1

145

Relevant mathematics

We will use several theorems which are developed in vector calculus. Here, we give short
motivations and presentations. The reader should consult a standard mathematics text for
detailed derivations.
6.1.1.1

Fundamental theorem of calculus

The fundamental theorem of calculus is as follows

Z x=b
Z x=b  
d
(x) dx =
dx = (b) (a).
dx
x=a
x=a

(6.1)

It effectively says that to find the integral of a function (x), which is the area under the
curve, it suffices to find a function , whose derivative is , i.e. d/dx = (x), evaluate
at each endpoint, and take the difference to find the area under the curve.
6.1.1.2

Divergence theorem

The divergence theorem, often known as Gausss7 theorem, is the analog of the fundamental
theorem of calculus extended to volume integrals. Gauss is depicted in Fig. 6.2. While it is

Figure 6.2: Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), German mathematician; image from
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Gauss.html.
often attributed to Gauss who reported it in 1813, it is said that it was first discovered by
Joseph Louis Lagrange in 1762.8
Let us define the following quantities:
t time,
7

Carl Friedrich Gauss, 1777-1855, Brunswick-born German mathematician, considered the founder of
modern mathematics. Worked in astronomy, physics, crystallography, optics, bio-statistics, and mechanics.
Studied and taught at G
ottingen.
8
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence theorem.
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146

CHAPTER 6. FIRST LAW ANALYSIS FOR A CONTROL VOLUME

x spatial coordinates,
Va (t) arbitrary moving and deforming volume,
Aa (t) bounding surface of the arbitrary moving volume,
n outer unit normal to moving surface, and
(x, t) arbitrary vector function of x and t.
The divergence theorem is as follows:
Z
Z
dV =
Va (t)

Aa (t)

(6.2)

n dA.

The surface integral is analogous to evaluating the function at the end points in the fundamental theorem of calculus.
If (x, t) has the form (x, t) = c(x, t), where c is a constant vector and is a scalar
function, then the divergence theorem, Eq. (6.2), reduces to
Z
Z
(c) dV =
(c) n dA,
(6.3)
Va (t)
Aa (t)
!
Z
Z
Va (t)

| {z c} +c
=0

dV

Aa (t)

c
dV = c
Va (t)
Z

Z
= 0.
c
dV
n dA
Va (t)
Aa (t)
{z
}
|

(c n) dA,

(6.4)

n dA,

(6.5)

Aa (t)

(6.6)

=0

Now, since c is arbitrary, the term in parentheses must be zero. Thus,

Z
Z
dV =
n dA.
Va (t)

(6.7)

Aa (t)

Note if we take to be the scalar of unity (whose gradient must be zero), the divergence
theorem reduces to
Z
Z
(1) dV =
(1)n dA,
(6.8)
Va (t)
Aa (t)
Z
0 =
(1)n dA,
(6.9)
Aa (t)
Z
n dA = 0.
(6.10)
Aa (t)

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6.1. DETAILED DERIVATIONS OF CONTROL VOLUME EQUATIONS

147

That is, the unit normal to the surface, integrated over the surface, cancels to zero when the
entire surface is included.
We will use the divergence theorem (6.2) extensively. It allows us to convert sometimes
difficult volume integrals into easier interpreted surface integrals. It is often useful to use
this theorem as a means of toggling back and forth from one form to another.
6.1.1.3

Leibnizs rule

Leibnizs9 rule relates time derivatives of integral quantities to a form which distinguishes
changes which are happening within the boundaries to changes due to fluxes through boundaries. Leibniz is depicted in Fig. 6.3.

Figure 6.3:
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716), German mathematician, philosopher, and polymath who co-invented calculus;
image from
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Leibniz.html.
Let us consider the scenario sketched in Figure 6.4. Say we have some value of interest,
, which results from an integration of a kernel function over Va (t), for instance
Z
=
dV.
(6.11)
Va (t)

We are often interested in the time derivative of , the calculation of which is complicated
by the fact that the limits of integration are time-dependent. From the definition of the
derivative, we find that
R
R
Z
(t + t) dV Va (t) (t) dV
d
d
Va (t+t)
dV = lim
=
.
(6.12)
t0
dt
dt Va (t)
t
9

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, 1646-1716, Leipzig-born German philosopher and mathematician. Invented calculus independent of Newton and employed a superior notation to that of Newton.
CC BY-NC-ND. 01 July 2014, J. M. Powers.

148

CHAPTER 6. FIRST LAW ANALYSIS FOR A CONTROL VOLUME

AII

AI
wII
wI

VI

Va

VII
nII

nI
I
Va(t)

Va(t+t)

II

Figure 6.4: Sketch of the motion of an arbitrary volume Va (t). The boundaries of Va (t)
move with velocity w. The outer normal to Va (t) is Aa (t). Here, we focus on just two regions:
I, where the volume is leaving material behind, and II, where the volume is sweeping up
new material.
Now, we have
Va (t + t) = Va (t) + VII (t) VI (t).

(6.13)

Here, VII (t) is the amount of new volume swept up in time increment t, and VI (t) is
the amount of volume abandoned in time increment t. So we can break up the first integral
in the last term of Eq. (6.12) into
Z
Z
Z
Z
(t + t) dV =
(t + t) dV +
(t + t) dV
(t + t) dV,
Va (t+t)

Va (t)

VII (t)

VI (t)

(6.14)

which gives us then

Z
d
dV =
dt Va (t)
R
R
R
R
(t + t) dV + VII (t) (t + t) dV VI (t) (t + t) dV Va (t) (t) dV
Va (t)
lim
(6.15)
.
t0
t
Rearranging (6.15) by combining terms with common limits of integration, we get
R
Z
((t + t) (t)) dV
d
V (t)
dV = lim a
t0
dt Va (t)
t
R
R
(t + t) dV VI (t) (t + t) dV
VII (t)
+ lim
.
t0
t
Let us now further define
CC BY-NC-ND. 01 July 2014, J. M. Powers.

(6.16)

6.1. DETAILED DERIVATIONS OF CONTROL VOLUME EQUATIONS

149

w the velocity vector of points on the moving surface Va (t),

Now, the volume swept up by the moving volume in a given time increment t is
dVII = w
| {z n} t dAII = |wII{zt} dAII ,

(6.17)

dVI = w
I t dAI .
| {z n} t dAI = w
| {z
}

(6.18)

positive

distance

and the volume abandoned is

negative

distance

Substituting into our definition of the derivative, Eq. (6.16), we get

Z
Z
((t + t) (t))
d
dV = lim
dV
t0 V (t)
dt Va (t)
t
a
R
R
(t + t)wII t dAII + AI (t) (t + t)wI t dAI
AII (t)
.
+ lim
t0
t

(6.19)

Now, we note that

We can use the definition of the partial derivative to simplify the first term on the right
side of (6.19),
The time increment t cancels in the area integrals of (6.19), and
Aa (t) = AI + AII ,
so that

d
dt
|

dV
{z
}

Va (t)

total time rate of change

dV
Va (t) t
{z
}
|

intrinsic change within volume

Aa (t)

w n dA .
{z
}

(6.20)

net flux into volume

This is the three-dimensional scalar version of Leibnizs rule. Say we have the special case
in which = 1; then Leibnizs rule (6.20) reduces to
Z
Z
Z
d

(1)w n dA,
(6.21)
dV =
(1) dV +
dt Va (t)
t{z }
Aa (t)
Va (t) |
=0
Z
d
Va (t) =
w n dA.
(6.22)
dt
Aa (t)
This simply says the total volume of the region, which we call Va (t), changes in response to
net motion of the bounding surface.
Leibnizs rule (6.20) reduces to a more familiar result in the one-dimensional limit. We
can then say
Z
Z x=b(t)

db
da
d x=b(t)
(x, t) dx =
dx + (b(t), t) (a(t), t).
(6.23)
dt x=a(t)
dt
dt
x=a(t) t
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CHAPTER 6. FIRST LAW ANALYSIS FOR A CONTROL VOLUME

As in the fundamental theorem of calculus (6.1), for the one-dimensional case, we do not have
to evaluate a surface integral; instead, we simply must consider the function at its endpoints.
Here, db/dt and da/dt are the velocities of the bounding surface and are equivalent to w.
The terms (b(t), t) and (a(t), t) are equivalent to evaluating on Aa (t).
We can also apply the divergence theorem (6.2) to Leibnizs rule (6.20) to convert the
area integral into a volume integral to get
d
dt

dV

Va (t)

dV +
t

Va (t)

Va (t)

(w) dV.

(6.24)

Combining the two volume integrals, we get

d
dt
6.1.1.4

dV

Va (t)

Va (t)

+ (w)
t

dV.

(6.25)

General transport theorem

Let B be an arbitrary extensive thermodynamic property, and be the corresponding intensive thermodynamic property so that
dB = dm.

(6.26)

The product of a differential amount of mass dm with the intensive property give a
differential amount of the extensive property. Since
dm = dV,

(6.27)

where is the mass density and dV is a differential amount of volume, we have

dB = dV.

(6.28)

If we take the arbitrary = , Leibnizs rule, Eq. (6.20), becomes our general transport
theorem:
Z
Z
Z
d

(6.29)
dV =
() dV +
(w n) dA.
dt Va (t)
Va (t) t
Aa (t)
Applying the divergence theorem, Eq. (6.2), to the general transport theorem, Eq. (6.29),
we find the alternate form
d
dt

dV =
Va (t)

CC BY-NC-ND. 01 July 2014, J. M. Powers.

Va (t)

() + (w)
t

dV.

(6.30)