Y

Section

l- Vocabulary Activities

A. Find words in your text that mean these things:

1. of little worth or importance

2. the most important or central part of something
3. gained by one's own skill, work, or action
4. arrival of an important invention, event or period
5. authentic, real
6. the outside structure or outer surface of something
7. cleverly planned or invented
B, Adjectives ending in -/C. Form adjectives from these nouns by adding -/C:

l. atom - atomic
2. metal

9.

3. atmosphere

4. nucleus
5.
6.
7.
8.

state

organ
base

alcohol

period

10 electricity

l.

electron
12. magnet
13. acid
14. carbon
15. sulphur
16. science

C. Complete the following sentences by using one of the adjectives ended in JC from above:
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

6.
7.

table have been devised so far.

Different forms of the
The frst tables of the elements date from long before the advent of the modern theory

of

strucfure.
reason given by Mendeleev for the groupings was the similarity of the
The
valences of the elements in a given group.
elements are all solids at room temperature.
Except for mercury, the
chemistry, devoted to
There is a special branch of chemistry, called
carbon-containing compounds.
Water is neuffal: it is neither
acid, are indeed dangerous if used improperly.
Some strong acids, like

D. Find synonyms and antonyms in your text to the following words:

SYNONYMS
l. non-scientific is similar in meaning to
2. nucleus is similar in meaning to
3. valuable is similar in meaning to
4. lifeless/passive is similar in meaning to
5. look like is similar in meaning to
6. blue-blooded is similar in meaning to
7. stiff/inflexible is similar in meaning to

trivial

ANTONYMS

1. metal is nearly opposite in meaning to

2. transition is nearly opposite in meaning to
3. formal is nearly opposite in meaning to
4. stable is nearly opposite in meaning to

non-metal

l.

ii:'it

fl}

i'h i i:lvl;,Si'ii;'l'

PREPARING

T0 READ: Why

is the periodic table so useful?

f"t

},1

144
16

thefirstforms of aperiodic table of the:ien;nts :;:-::-:. '::'::"=i-':e

the advent of the modern theon of atomi; i::-::-r= -: ''::: :-'=j -;'rn
';-' \n1::-d:l'eer
comparison of the chemical properties trf tlt; :,sn::r-; -:
who first devised tables essentiallr simiiar tu- Ihc>e :--ei l;'l'-The elements can be classified as metal:. IloI-IL3ili! r:,: r::t-l:lis \It-re
than 75 percenfof the elements are metals. Erc;rl I.I:li.rJ:il'. i:,: r::etallic

ffi

NEW VOCABULARY

o
alkaline earth metals
coinage metals
c0re
halogens
lanthanides

elements are all solids at room temperarure,

The vertical sequences in the table are caiied -fli-,i:-r.

shell

USEFUL LANGUAGE
> ldentify the function
of subordinate clauses
e,g. Certain of the groups
have acquired trivial
names which are very

commonly used.
(See G. Xlll.1.

(if

3.)

> Rewrite sentences

introduced by although
using in spife of or
despite
e.g. In spite of being a

base metal, lead has

many important uses.
(See G. Xlll. 3. 6.)

> Make full sentences

using cause/reason

words or phrases
e.g. Hydrogen is placed
by itself above the centre
of the periodic table

since it doesn't fit well

into any of the grouPs.
(See G, Xlll. 3.4.)

a:ll ti:e lllriz.'ntal

a;curred tririai
hare
the
sroup]
t-rf
Certain
periods.
Sequences uta .ill"d
,ercluding
element-t
group
I-a
The
names which are very commonlr used.
eartlt
;'':;.;re
the
of
hydrogen) are the alkali metaLs. Group II-a ct-rnsist=
the
are
metali, group I-b of the coinage rytetals. The VIl-b elements
halogeni. The group 0 elements are the nobie ga-,es. aith.rugh the terms
"rare gases" and "inert gases" are also encountered.
The basic reason given b1' Mendeleev tbr the grouprngs u as the similaritl of
the valences of the elements in a giren group. These similarities can nou'be
explained in terms of the electronic stn-lctures of the atoms. We can now
also understand why the metals Ag. Cu and Au. although formally similar to
the metals Li, Na, K. Rb and Cs in having stable + 1 oxidation states, are
otherwise not very similar to these elements. ln the Li group there is one
valence electron outside of a very stable, rigid noble gas core, whereas in
the Cu group, the outer electron has beneath it a complete d shell which is
not paiieularly resistant to loss of electrons and is rather soft and
deformable.

We can also see why the formal similarities of the oxidation states of
elements with partially filled d shells to those of elements which have only s
and p electrons in their outer shells are really only formal'
Certainly N and V have no genuine chemical similarities. ln contemporary

forms of the periodic table, ihese sequences of elements in which d and f

shells are being filled, called transition series, are set apart from the nontransition elements. The sequences Li-Ne and Na-Ar are called the first
short period and the second short period, respectively The sequences Sc-Ni,
Y-Pd and La-Pt are called the flrst, second and the third transition series,
respectivell,. The fourteen elements Ce-Lu are called the rare earths or the
lanihanides because they all resemble lanthanum chemicall1" The elements
into sequence Th to element 104 are called the actinides. although on the
whole their resemblance to actinium is not nearll' so close as that of the
lanthanides to lanthanum. The elements in the three transition series' rvhere
d shells are being filled. are sometimes ca11ed the "d-block elements"' The
lanthanides and ictinides together are correspondingll called the ',fblock
elements''.
(Text adapreci -liont G. T1 ler

California- 1991

\lilier

Jr..

Chentistr'" \\.a;st.'r'.i: Pu:iis:.1:g

cLri:1pan\'.

Section

ll- Language

Focus

A. What func,tion do the clauses in italics express?

e.g. The group 0 elements are the noble gases, although the terms ..rar;
gases" and "inert gases" are also encountered.
- subordinate clause of
concession

1. It was Mendeleev

2.

who

first

devised tables essentially similar to

those used today.

The fourteen elements ce-Lu, are called the rare earths or the
lanthanides because they all resemble lanthanum chemically.
3. we can also see why the similarities of the oxidation states of
elements with partially filled d shells to those of elements which
have only s and p electrons in their outer shells are reaily only
formal.
4. In the Li group there is one valence eleckon outside of a very stable, rigid nobie ga-\
;rrr3.
whereas in the cu group, the outer electron has beneath it a complete d shelt.
5. certain of the groups have acquired trivial names which are very commonly use,l.

B.

Rewrite the

folloring senteflces introduced by alhaugh using in

spite of

or despde.

e.g. The group 0 elements are the noble gases, atthowghthe terms "rare gases" and .,inert gases"
are also encountered.
The group 0 elements are the noble gases, despite the terms 'orare gases" and ,,inert gases.. are
aiso
encountered.

l.

2.

Although the atomic ntmrber is the same for all isotopes of an element, the mass number
differs.
The particles of a suspension can be seen under a microscope, although those of a colloid
cannot.

3. Rays from the sun warm everything they touch althoughthey themselyes are quite cold.
4. A single plant produces thousands of seeds during one season, although r.ery feu of them
5.

survive.

Although lead is a base metal, it has many important uses.

C. Make full sentences out of the two statements, using

in

the cause/reason words and phrases given

brackets.

e.g. The fourteen elements Ce-Lu, are called the rare earths or the lanthanides. They all resemble

lanthanum chemically. (becaus e)

Because all the fourteen elements Ce-Lu resemble lanthanum chemically, they are
called the rare mrths or the lanthani&s. (emphasizing effea)

The fourteen elements Ce-Lq me called the rare earths or the lanthanide because they
all resemble lanthanum chemically. (emphasizing cause)

1. Hydrogen is placed by itself above the centre of the periodic table. It doesn,t fit well into any

2.
3.

4.
5.

ofthe groups. (since)

The isotopes of a particula element difler only in the masses of their nuclei, not their charge.

Neutrons have no electric charge. (taktng into account that)

Elements in the same group in the periodic table have similar chemical properties. Their
atoms
have the same number of valence electons. (owing to thefact that)
Alpha particles cannot travel very far. Alpha particles have a relatively large charge and size.
(the reason why...is that)
Electrons were attracted toward the more massive, positively charged aucleus. Electrons were
negatively charged. (as aresult ofl

Section

lll-

Text Structure

O LISTENING

Fill in the gaps with the most suitable text

organizers. This
term covers a wide range of words and phrases which help the

reader understand how the information

organized. A selection is given here.

in the text

is

Adding a point: also, as well as, not only_but also, not but,
in addition
Contrast: however, although, in spite of, despite, nevertheless,
but, yet
Logical relations: as a result, by this is meant, consequently, accordingly, thus, hence
Elements are classified

Metals,

metallic

_ nonmetallic,

are usually good conductors of heat and

their physical an chemical properties.

electricif, _nonmetals are not. Most
nonmetals that lack this quality.

metals are malleable, can be hammered into flat sheets

nonmetals which are not
ductile and can be drawn out into thin wires
Some metals are _
usually ductile. _)
metals have luster, are able to reflect light and have a high density
arsenic and antimony, exhibit
nonmetals which do not exhibit these properties. A few elements,
metal.
nonmetallic properties, and are sometimes

metallic

A. Classifying
Answer the following questions using the words/phrases given below:
1.

2.

J.

How are the chemical elements classified?

How is the periodic table organized?
What was the reason for grouping the chemical elements in groups and periods?

Use the words/phrases given below:

The chemical elements csn be classified into three groups according to

depending on
on the basis of
The

periodic table consists of/ is conceived / organized

B. Cause and Effect

Continue describing the organization
following cause and effect words:

of the chemical elements in the periodic table by using the

As / Because / Since / Owing to the fact _

The reasonfor / That is why / We can see why
Therefore / Consequently / Hence / Thus / As a result (of this)
C. Application

l.

Use the periodic table to classiS, each of the following elements as metal, nonmetal or

2.
3.
4.

metalloids:
(a) francium; (b) tellurium;(c) arsenic; (d) molybdenum; (e) radium
Give the group number and period in the periodic tabie for each of the elements listed above.
Give the names of two elements that are (a) noble gases, (b) alkali metals, and (c) halogens.
Explain why hydrogen does not fit as a group l/IA element.

UNit 2: CFiEh4}STRY
PREPARING T0 READ: What is a bunsen burner? What is it meant for?

Th{H DIFFERHNT TYPHS OF BUNSEN BURNER

I'm

to

NEW VOCABULARY

ffi

about the different tYPes of flame

that can be, obtained from a

air intake holes

to flicker
to glow
pinpoint jet

> lntroductory
infinitival phrases

e.g.7o heginwith,l'm
ooino to talk about
(See G. XX. H.)

infinitive

'
',.

e.g. There is not

sufficient oxygen fo

completely oxidize
(See G. X. 1. c)

> Double Comparative

e.g, Ihe more the air
holes are opened, the

(See G. |X.4.)

talk

for lidliH-iE'Fbunsen. First, you

rotate the iolldr until no Part of
the holes in the chimney can be
seen. The air intake holes are

USEFUL LANGUAGE

largerlhe

going

bunsen birrnir by adjusting the

air intake holes. To begin with,
I'll gp, thrpugh the correct stePs

to roar
to suck in

> Split

Today,

F-1.''*:

volume-

now closed completely. Next, you tum on the gas b1 means tf th: ga. tap
on the bench, then light the gas by holding a lighted match at the top of the
chimriey. The flame obtained with the air intake holes ciosed is r:llow,
ouiet. and flickerins ; rdther likd a candle flame. And if 1 ou hold a piece of
J;;i ;lr* or ctrina in the top part of the flame, black carbon is deposited
thickf on it. Now turn the collar slowly until the air intake holes are fully
open. Notice what happens to the flame. (sound of bunsen .flame roaring.)
Llsten, can you hear the roaring sound the flame is making? -A'nd the colour
of the flame; did you notice hory it graduaily changed from 1'ello* to blue?
Not only that, it isn't uhsteady aqy. pgle; it scdr'idly flickers at all. \o$ hold
a piece of cool glass or china in the flame. No lcarbon is deposited on rt: it
remains completely clqan.
Let us consider Uiieny what happened in the little experiments that I have
just described. When the air intake holes are completely closed. pure coal

gas flows through the pinpoint jet and up the chimney. There is not
sufficient oxygen to completely oxidize..all the gas. Consequentll'. small
carbon particles are foimed which 4re ti6h=6a until they glo*. This makes.l
the flame appear to be yellow. Thus, the black particles that rvere deposited'
on the piece-of cool glass in the first experiment were particles of carbon'
When the air intake holes are open, the gas sucks in air as it flou s up the
chimney. The more the air holes are opened, the larger the volume of air that
is sucked in by the gas flowing rapidly through the chimner. This explains
the roaring sound that You heard.
When the air intake holes are open, the gas burning at the top of the
chimney is not pure coal gas, but a mixture of coal gas and air. As a result,
far moie of the coal gas is oxidizedthan when only pure coal gas is burnt'
Consequently, the flame is much hotter, hot enough. in fact. to oridize the
small particlis of carbon to form carbon dioxide. This explains uhf in the
,..ord small experiment, no carbon was deposited on the small piece of
glass when it was held in the flame'
(Text adaptedfromFrafikchaplen, A Course in Intermediate Scienti,iic EnglishEvans Brothers Limited. London, 1981)

10

Section

l-

Vocabulary Activities

A. Give the meaning of the following words into Romanian:

1

air intake holes

6i

.,ii 'i';

.1.1t

i,r.] 'i,

rr

rL

'

5. COllar

t-

6. suck in
7. roaring

2. bench nlc,J.,ll
'
3. burner ct,atr',l,i
4. chimney lFr). i:1.1r.

sound
, i.
8. tap
'.

'r-,'',

..r t

i{,

B. There are verbs that do not change their form when used as nouns. Complete the sentences

using the words given in brackets, either as nouns or as verbs:

1. The gas sucks in air as it flpw; tp the chimney. (ELOW)

Z. "Furi is a j ., - i consisting of the limbstdne which forms as hard water evaporates, and
on the bottom and sides of the pan. (DEPOSIT)
itis . .- :'
.

3.A
4.

5.

leaf did not

'",'li rr

of colour was observed in the uncovered leaf, but the totally covered
(cHANGE)
the industrial
of natural rubber come from far away to

areas of Europe. (SUPPLY)

Drinking water is passed through several

and chlorine is added after

it

has been '

, '' (FILTER)
6. Contraction causes a , ' I in the volume of a solid, and when it expands it
' ;-. in volume. (INCREASE/DECREASE)
of lead was . ' , ,', inf6 4 bowl and it now floated because ln this
. A cube
r' .'' .,
it displaced more water. (SHAPE)
7

..i-

C. Some nouns are formed from verbs by adding the suffix -ion, -ation. Put the word in the

correct form, adding the necessary sutfix:

1.

When the droplets are heavy enough to

fall, precipitation

takes place.

(PRECIPITATE)

2.
3.
4.

of what takes place is the i,',. ", il'r of good examples.

(EXPLAIN/PROVIDE)
by
The 100 equal . ,
, are made after
of the boiling point of water and the melting point of ice.
@rVIDE/DETERMINE/OB SERV E)
of tiny droplets of
and the
of rain depends on the
ffus .;, ,' , ,:
(FORM/CONDENSE/COMBINE)
cloud.
water vapour in the
The best

5. The _

,' r,

and

.-

of water can be observed in everyday life.

(EVAPORATE/CONDENSE)

D. Find near synonyms in your text to the following words:

SYNO}ryMS

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

absorption/admission is similar in meaning.to

f'1 .,1 i;,1: ; I
densely is similar in meaning to
4)\fl
fluctuating is similar in meaning to
examine is similar in meaning to
actually is similar in meaning to
I ra'{_l'r
hardly is similar in meaning to
.i'.,
lro,.l
meaning
to
in
swiftly is similar

1t

intake

?..'
rr..:

_.

'

Section

ll Language Focus

introductonrli'1 tc crgan z trhat is

A. Severaladverbialphrases include infinitives which are used
being said.

e.g,Tobeginwith,I'llgothroughthecorrectstepsforlightingabunse:r
perform
M"atch the following infinitival phrases to the function thel' '",
i. : - :
to cut a long story short, to make matters worse, to put it attolnr

you are about to summarise points made earrter

'''':-' :::
you uaa comingto the end of a narratire and r "'
go into more detail
!o, ur. introducing a further problem or ditlicu"l
yo, ut. showing that something is true most cI :i'= l'r:'=
you u.. about to rephrase something alreadr sai;
you are being less critical than you could be

1. To sum up
2.

4.
5.
6.

adverbial phrases 0e
B. For which Phrases in the above exercise could the following
substituted?
f . in all honestY
2. in other words
3. concluding that
4. briefly speaking
5. handling tactfullY

of manner after the infinitive

c, lt is quite acceptable to split the infinitive by inserting an adverb
marker to.
all the gas'
e.g. There is not sufficient oxygen to completely oxidize

infinitives:
Build up sentences of your own by using the following split
refuse, to highh' recomrnend to
to
to fully appreciate, ,o ion*ty ,proL, to ciearly understind, Jlatly
q.uickly react.
D. When two actions depend on each other, or change

to each other, the idea is often expressed

as follows:
larger'
e.g. If the air holes are more open, the volume of the air is
much

opin"d, the larger the volume of the air'

Rewrite these sentences by using the double comparative:
l. The speed of settling depends on the size of the particles'
The more th"

*, h"lrt ,*

big

u, uto- is ,ery complex, its nucleus is larger'

2. ff -large
large
complex
higher as the wave gets shorter'
U.comes
*ur.
u
of
t.qu"*y
fn.
3.

4.

short
The smell

5.

of the water
The-speed of dissolving sugar depends on the heat

b".orn.. ,ttot geiaccording to how long the bottle

-quick
lons
hot

is left open.

strong

fast

-high
-

t2

Section

lll

Text Structure

A. Describi ng devices/objects

Describe the components of a bunsen burner referring to

composition, size, shape and function.
n\
Use the following words/phrases:

,\
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

It consists of three main parts

It is a device widely used in
It is fixed/fustened/connected/attached . It is shaped like a
It is made of metal/chinq/wood
- It has the height of./a diameter ofAt the top

the bottom

The purpose / function

role

of

-on
B. Describe the correct way to light a bunsen

in the middle of

-inside
burner. Remember, there are three steps.

Use the following words/phrases:

To beginwith / Next / Further on
First(y) / Second(y) / Third(y)

C. Describe the different types of bunsen burner flame by completing the table below,
of flame
is the,flame?
colour
What
Is the flame'ribisy or quiet?
Is the flame relatively hot or
relatively cool?

Air intake holes closed

Air intake holes

ls all the gas oxidized or

only part of it?
Is carbon dioxide produced
or only pure carbon?
D. Comparison and Contrast

Find similarities and differences between the two types of flame, by using the data in the table above'
Similarly, use the following indications:

In the first / second experiment

In contrast / Unlike / On the other hand
Consequently / As a result
This explains why

/ Thus

1.

Using a complete sentence, describe the flame that is obtained when the air intake holes are

2.

Using a complete sentence, describe the flame that is obtained when the air intake holes are
completely open.
Explain what happens if a piece of cool china is held at the top of the bunsen flame when the
air intake holes are closed.
Explain why this does not happen when the air intake holes are completely open.

closed.

3.
4.

l3

n-ir:it 3 : CF{EMtr S'fF"Y

PREPARING T0 READ: What is so special about

nucleic acids that they are commonly referred

to as the secret oflife?

h}UCLEIC ACIDS
NEW VOCABULARY
chromosomes
(deoxy)ribonucleic
genes
helix
nucleotides
pentose
purines
pyrimidines

USEFUL LANGUAGE
> So that
(clause of result)
e.g. DNA must first
replicate so that both

:i-''u :-j )"u

Wtry are your eyes, hair. and skin-rhe ci^::::,::1--=" ,:=\
:i:r''1 =i iies
l"---:
fron
L;:
genetic
naits
your
other
get these and all
;;i::-:-i
:
:-:i--:-:='
-- :. = -:11
acidsin the class of molecules called nucleic
":-:
nucleus that we know as DNA and L\A.

ffi

In his test-"#{P?%e Double Helir. James \\'ar-si: :.;.,-.- ', ::-: ..,grii:
{Sffi.v when at lunch Francis fhis co-uorker. Fran;r. i:-;i'' -."::-.:f: . tl
iell everyone within hearing distance that rre haii :;';i:::.; ::;:3: ;: tr:1e."
The "slcret" Watson and Crick discor ereC '!i:-i ::.= ::l-*;:-:e of
deoxyribonucleic acid. or DNA. the hereditary sn.f -: ::: :::: ---- -:--T--S c-rf
your cells that specifies vour senetic characteristi;s
DNA has two important functions First. uhen cle

ii -' :;: ;.-:s i'i:i:s. its

ui-, i::''e:hc same
resultine;.,-.
DNA must first replicate so that both

genetic information (DNA) as the orisinal cell. Se;cnd- D\.{.r;r3s a-i the
master bhieprint for making proteins. \\-ithin each chrc,niostrtrrl 3ri genes shorter sections of DNA that canl' the intbrmation tcr making specit-tc
proteins in the cell. This process of protei-n srnthesis a1s.-r dependS u-rfl th

other type of nucleic acid cailed ribonucleic acid. or k\A. The proteins
resulting cells will
your cells make, in turn, cause your genetic features to appear.
have_
DNA and RNA are polymers. Their monomer units. called nucleotides.
consist of three parts - phosphate, a pentose (five-carbon sugar). and a
(See G. Xlll. 3. 8.)
nitrogen-containing base. Two kinds of pentose sugars are found in
> lnfinitive of purpose
nucleotides: ribose (in RNA) and deoxyribose (in DNA). The nro tlpes of
nitrogen-containing bases are the single-ring pyrimidines and the doubleor for-to
ring purines. Nucleotide units link to form long-chain molecules of DNAanA RNa. Alternating phosphate and sugar units form a "backbone". u ith
e.g. &rgardissolves in
the various nitrogen bases extending outward from the chain. R\-1, usuaill'
water to make a solution I
is a single polynucleotide chain. But in 1953 Watson and Crick proposed
for making a solution
that DNA n-ormally ocour in cells in the form of a double helir consisting of
(See G. X. 1.)
two long strands of DNA wound around each other in a helix. The ''glue"
holdingihe two s#inds together is the extensive hydrogen bonding benreen
> Correlatives: not
polar groups in each pair of bases. Although these h1'drogen bonds are
only_but also;
weaker than the covalent bonds holding together nucleotides in each strand.
both_and
there are so many of them that they provide enough eners\ to hold the
double helix intact at body temperature. This model of D\A as a double
e,g. The modelhelps us helix with hydrogen-bonded base pairs brought a Nobel Prize to Siatson,
understand not onlyhow Crick and Wilkins in 1962. The model helps us understand not onlv how
DNA looks buf also how
DNA looks but also how it works.
it works.
(See G. Xl.2.)

(Text adaptedfrom
Califomia. 1991)

G.Tyler Miller Jr., Chemistry, wadsu,orth Publishing Companl.

14

Section

l-

Vocabulary Activities

A. Match the following words with the definitions:

backbone, blueprint, helix, gene, master, polymer,
pyrimidines, qnbdsy, strand, to wind, to wing
to

1.

wing

2.

..to travel or fly by means of wings

one of two families of nitrogenous
bases found in nucleotides
a spiral, especially a three dimensional one

3.
4.

each of the factors controlling heredity, carried by a chromosome

Il t, ,'

5.

6.

,r I .'i

'7.

,1

'-r ,r.

8.
9.
10.
11.

I ,,
.r

'$ ,i.1.,.

a blue photographic print

the column of small bones down the centre of the back
a single thread or strip of fiber
to turn or trvist something repeatedly, especially round an object
compounds {ormed by the joining of smaller units linked by covalent bonds
feeling slighii! sick
something from which copies are made

B. Use the word in brackets to complete the sentence.

Add the necessary prefix and/or suffix and put the word in the correct form.

l. A protein enzyme that helps

2.

a skin pigment can determine the

synthesize
(SYNTHESIS).
color of your skin.
| '',, t,: '
in their
differences between the nucleotide units in DNA and RNA
So
pentose units and their base units. (STRUCTURE)
11^ I
acids. (NUCLEUS)
The answer lies in the class of molecules called
featiirei to appear. (GENE)
The proteins your cells make cause your
':ir
(NUCLEOTIDE)
I
:rr'
chain.
.'
rt:",r
'
n
RNA usually is a single :
The "glue" irolding ttre t*o stn.anas iogether is thel;-------hydrogen bonding between polar
groups in each pair of bases. (EXTEND)
distance that we had found
Francis Crick winged in to tell everyone within

the

;"'

J.
4.
5.

6.

7.

the secret of life. GDAR)

C. Find 8 near synonyms and 3 near antonyms in your text to the following words'

SYNO}ryMS

1. quality/characteristic is similar in meaning to

2. nauseous is similar in meaning to
3. spine iS similar in meaning to
4. exteri-gr is similar in meaning to
5. twi6t8b/enfotleh is similar in meaning to
6. unidfith6A is similar in meaning to
7 . fiber/rope is iimilar in meaning to
8. copy itself is similar in meaning to

trail

:i)rr{L

ANTONYMS
f

2.

outside

inside is nearly opposite in meaning to

untie is nearly opposite in meaning to

15

i;

Section lll

Text Structure

A. Break this sentence down into short sentences, making

any necessary changes. Write one short sentence beside
each letter.

Although these hydrogen bonds are weaker than the covalent

bonds holding together nucleotides in each strand, there are so
many of them that they provide enough energy to hold the
double helix intact at body temperature.
1.

b.
c.
d.

B. Text organisers. This term covers a wide range of words and phrases which make text easier

to understand. A selection is given below:

not only-but also, also, etc'
whereas, etc.
although,
but,
however,
Contrast so that' so-that
consequently,
result,
as
a
Result - so,

Adding

point'also, both-and,

Find examples in your text of language expressing addition, contrast and result.
C. Analyzing paragraph organization.

Complete the partial outline given for each paragraph,

1.

Paragraph I : why are nucleic acids considered the secret of life?

- definition of nucleic acids
- discovery

2.

of

Paragraph2: DNA has two important functions

- first(ly), to begin with- second(ly)
- for example

3.

Paragraph 3: DNA and RNA are polymers

- nucleotides consist of
- nitrogen - containing bases ore of two types

4.

Paragraph 4: The structure of DNA

- backbone
- double helix
- glue, hydrogen bonds

5.

Paragraph 5: Model of DNA

- Nobel Prize

listing paragraPh.
pa[graph
iusing your own words. Begin the paragraph with sentences such as:
Write
D. Writing a

DNA is
functions-The first important function ofexampleThe process depends on-For
The seconifunction of DNA_

DNA is unique in its two

t7

UNit 4 : CHEMISTRY
PREPARING TO READ:

A common statement is..You

are

what you eat". In what way(s) is this true or not?

I.IUMAN NUTRITION
NEW OCABULARY

o
benzocaine
bypass

methylcellulose
processed foods
saturated fats
staplings
suppressants,
thyroid hormones

USEFUL LANGUAGE
> While / as clauses
e.g. Eating and drinking
provide the nutrients you
need, wlr'le breathing
supplies

(See G. Xlll. 3, 1.)

> Contraction of

whilelas clauses to an

-ing construction
e.g. ..while maintaining
healthful quantities of

water_

-:i;:-::1s lo
stay alive, your body is fu1i of chem:;a. :=E::.-i*i produce energy for activities, to replac u1rs1-t -: :--':=:'i= -'i l- rlltr\
',
waste prodr.it. Althorgh it recl'cles manr lll:x=l-'rj- - -- :':''' :"t:19
eventually use up al! the reactants for its ria;:r:l--' -:";i; ; - - :::-::ish
them. That is why you eat. drinli. and breathe Ea:-:. :;:: :::r*:r:::"ide
the nutrients you need, u'hile breathing =:::l:- :---: :'* ": x: :r:lp

ffi to

metabolize those nutrients.

While about 10 percent of the people in less j;-'c":;e: :::-::' hare

nutritional deficiencl' diseases. about ii prer;::-: :: ::-= :t--: = : :'re
developed -countries are o\ernourished EatinE :-=:; ' -i- :t' :=-iies'

r*#;-

f^tr{'igi},.rt1'e,t:una

pr..cessed

i;'--'J.

-: -:?-;il resh

vegetables, fruits, and fiber. these people hare an ir;r:a=d :rsr -:- JJ4b{=
ni[tr Utood pressure, stroke. heart disea-.e- intestinan ca:x;.r. :",i:], c:;ar and
other health problems.
The causes of obesity are complex and not tell underst"t'i- Ifi#itei-senetic
factors, metabolic disorders, and psychological conditions ma) aJl plai srgnificart
? r'{':i': { 4a
roles. ExperSt$8.5o*.ver. that a major cause of obes$ is .r" erear,r !
The most effective way to lose weight is to consume fe*er cai.-ri:s than

what the body needs. while maintaining heEJififfii quantities .'1 uatr.
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. A dailr detrCit of 1.039ai,
Cal through reduced calorie intake, increased enerS] .tSdfafrir.- or 65(f,t(
produces about a 2-lb (0.9 kg) weight loss per week. the ma-rimum
iecommended rate. To expect results from anything but this!ail1. dirficult'
undramatic Drocess is wishfu I thinking.
Nevertheless, in their .Hitf forp^ {nqgtc wpyi,lg fose ueight' people hare
used various d.ugs,ti8fr$fi.^Ttld.ffi hn8ffiptEff an incredible r arien of
jogging- aerobics'
fad diets, checked into resorts or "fat farms". and legun

or other exercise programs. Drugs used in the QtS$l lor quick and ea:1'
Wffitlb$g,l$iilO.i ( I tapper ite rupir6r*Y(; ( 2 ) thl'ro d ho rm on e s. to speed
metlbolism; (3) diuretics, to lose water (4) local analgesics. such as
i

(See G. Xlll. 3.9.)

> Unless versus if ...not

e.g. ...your body would
use up all the reactants
for its reactions unless
you replenish them.
(See G. Xll. 1.)

benzocaine, to numb taste buds; and (5) methyl cellulose. s hich su ells up in
the stomach to make it seem full. Surgical methods for rreight lt-rss include

wirineil4he iaws shut, surgically removing fat, and stomach staplings and

bTF*&k Diets include low-calorie, low- or high-carbohldrate. 1ou- or

tieh-fut, one food (such as the grapefruit, rice. potato. or \\ater diets). no
foia ffa?fifs). and cbunttess variations on these.
Sociai fr.rr"rr., to u. tilifthuve also driven many peoP-le 19 ea1l1qg-rlglqttt:
Bulimia is a cycle of eating binges followed bv pFftpEto eipelihe food
before it is metabolized. People with anorexia ngnosa hare an extreme fear
;;;"rrhiryd.ft.'il; il;tufr;,ffrooo ano 6ftsdfripurgine rihen thel do eat;
for some people, this condition is fatal'
(lext adapted from G. Tyler Miller Jr., Chemistry, \\'adsri onh Publishing companl
Califomia, 1991)
18

Section

l- Vocabulary Activities

tr)

"

"

'-{-L'

definitions:

A.

intake, to numb, stapling, stroke, suppressants,

to cause to feel nothing or no pain

a procedure in which the stomach is made smaller
the process of falling to a lower or worse state
a person's particular like or dislike, a qaze
anorexigenics or substances-that reduce the appetite
spending or using up

to gradually increase in fullness and roundness

the amount allowed to enter or taken in
connecting or fastening something with wires
when a blood tube in the brain suddenly bursts or is blocked
B. Use the word in brackets to complete the sentence.
Add the necessary prefix and/or suffix and put the word in the correct form.

L About
2.
a

J.

10 percent of the people in less developed nations have

nutritional deficiency diseases.

GTUTRITION)

To expect results from this daily, difficult, undramatic process

is

thinking.

(wrsH)

4.
5.

6.

(EAr).
Experts agree, however, that a major cause of obesity is
jaws
removing fat,
shut,
Surgical methods for weight loss include wiring the
and stomach staplings and bypasses/ (SURGERY)
supplies the oxygen to help metabolize those nutrients. (BREATFIE)

Ldrty d.f"it oi 1OOO Cal through reduced calorie intake produces about a 2-lb (0.9 kg)
er week. (LOSE).
weight
(ORDER)
8. Social p.ess*. to U. thin have also driven many people to eating-

7.

C. Find 6 near synonyms and 3 near antonyms in your text to the following words,

SYNONYMS
worn-out
used / deteriorated is similar in meaning to
to
in
meaning
similar
is
ultimately/finally
abstaining from food is similar in meaning to
behaviour indulged in excess is similar in meaning to
a place where people regularly go for holidays is similar in meaning to
expelling food before it is metabolized is similar in meaning to

ANTO].ryMS
sensitize is nearly opposite in meaning to
undernourished is nearly opposite in meaning to
disinherited is nearly opposite in meaning to

numb

-/C and -AL in your text. Not allwords ended in -AL are
adjectives. Which two of the words below cannot function as adjectives?
D. Find adjectives ended with

aerial

denial

immaterial memorial

official palatial

sundial

E. Of the five remaining words in the list above, which three can act both as adjectives

and nouns?

t9

Section

ll-

Language Focus

A.White/asisoftenusedtodescribetwoparallelactionsinprogressatthesametne't
used as a connecting adverb to introduce a contrast, Connect the sentences beiow by
while/as and specify whether it expresses simultaneity or confrasi.
e.g. Eating and drinking provide the nutrients you need. Breathing supplies

tl=

: r-'.

salso

ls

ng

i=:

to help metabolize those nuhients.

Eating and drinking provide the nutrients you need while breathing supplr=s :--"=
oxygen to help metabolize those nutrients. (s imult ane ityl
:--:a'6 i- 0r '^. ':?sl,
Comnine tlre two sentences by using whrle and specify whether it expresses s
1. Aboutl0percentofthepeopleinlessdevelopednationshavenurntionai ;;:-::.=-'"".:1s3trses.
About 15 percent of the people in more de.veloped countries 2r o\errrrurishe;
2. The choleiterol depositr-ur. buildirg up. The cholesterol deposits make th: i-;:r ''r ::\ l3rder
to pump blood through the nanower vessels.
3. Thymine occurs in DNA. Uracil appears in RNA'
4. Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with only th1'mine
with only cytosine.
5. The shoot slowly grows longer and turns green. The root gro\l's dorrnu ar,js
6. Codeine can be taken orally. Morphine must be injected.
7. These drugs are blocking the action of the enzyme monoamine orida-ie
the brain's level of serotonin.
B. Sometimes the clause introduced by while/as can be reduced to an -lng form to express

simultaneous or a consecutive/contrastive action.

e.g. The most effective way to lose weight is to consume fewer calories v'hile maintainiris
(while you maintain) healthful quantities of water.
Which sentLnces in exercise A can be reduced by means ol while + 'ing form? What condition
should be accomplished to reduce the while clause to an - ing construction?
C. You can use unless in place

ol if ...not in one of these sentences. Which one?

foodSnffs are not correctly stored, they decompose quickly'

b. Synthetic chemicals are harmful if they are not used as intended.
Specify the sentences in which you can use unless in place ol if ....not'
1. If you, are not allergic to aspirin, the most effective way to release a headache is to take the
cheapest brand of aspirin available.
2. Chemicals that appear to cause significant harm should not be removed from the market y'

e.g.

a.

If

their safety is ziol established.

3.
4.
5.

People who live in very hot climates would die if the human body did not have a method of
losing heat.
fthe soil is not lightenough, water will quickly soak through the sub-root levels.amounts'
ihe desert plants iannot survive the dry season frain does not fall in sufficient

D. What are the syntactic functions of the to-infinitive in the

following sentences?

1. To stay alive,yotr body is full of chemical reactions. - reduced clause o.f purpose
Z. your Lody is full of reactions /o produce energy for activitie s, to replace \\ orn-out materials,
3.
4.

or to move waste products.

The most effective way to lose weight is to consume fewer calories.
Social pressures to be thinhave driven many people to eating disorders'

20

Section

lll-

Text Structure

where
A. Three of these sentences contain a word that is wrong. Provide the right words
necessary and give reasons for your choice, Then check against the text.

l.

The most effective way to lose weight is to reduce calorie intake and increase energy

2.
3.
4.

your body would use up all the reactants for it's reactions unless you replenish them.
Social p..rru.", to be tliin have also drove many people to eating disorders'
People with anorexia nervosa have an extreme fear to gain weight.

expenditure.

B. Summarizing

jumbled order.
The sentences that follow provide a detailed summary of the text in
Number them in the correct order:

,1.
2.
3.
4.
5i
6.
7.
8.

ln order to lose weight, people have tried different kinds of diets.

perfect
Many people have b..n d.ir.n to eating disorders under the social pressure to have a
body.
In order to lose weight, people have appealed to surgical methods.

The most effective

*uy to lose weight is to

reduce calorie intake and increase energy

expenditure.
In order to lose weight, people have used various drugs'
Getting the necessary energy is the top priority for your metabolism, for Your bodY
alive.
Many people are obese, consequently being exposed to the risks of many diseases.
The causes of obesity are complex.

to

staY

C. personalizing the topic / Thinking about your personal connections to the topic.
Answer the following questions:

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7

Are you completely huppy with your weight? what about your body shape?
What are the major types of nutrients you must eat to stay healthy?
What are some key vitamins and minerals you need to be healthy?
What happens if you get too few or too many calories.or too little proteins?
Do you prefer natural foods or synthetic (processed) foods?
How do you manage to avoid the risk of food additives?
What do you do in order to keep fit and reduce the risk of obesity?

Writing assignment.
Express your own point of view on the following topic:

if

D,

rf

you get' how

Do you have control over your lifestyle? You can decide what you eat, how much exercise
to the sun's
yourself
much alcohol you consume, whether you smoke or not, how often you expose
important choices,
ultraviolet rays, and whether you p.u"ii"" safe sex. Concentrate on evaluating these
and less fearful life'
and you will irave a much gr.ut", chance of living a longer, healthier, happier
Use the following words/Phrases:

1. Personally / From my point of view/ There is no doubt that

2. I would like / believe / consider / think
3. It is important / imperative / necessary / essential / true
4. Anothir point infavour of / One of the main arguments supporting
5. One obiection to this argument / Afurther orgument against
6. Furthermore / Moreover / Besides / In addition
'7. In conclusion I can state that

2l

-r.r tr--

LJNit 5 : C}IE,MISTRY

fr

PREPARING TO READ: What do you consider to be the most

serious drug problem in our country today? What are the effects
of using drugs?

1..

-t

r-

f?t"

ri

DRIIG ABUSE: GETTf;NG I"iOOKED AND UNi-{C0KEl

NEWVOCABULARY

Ouring this century, drugs have saved millions of lirs =.J r=triered the
suffering of many millions of people. But many drugs are ml<use,i Drr,lg abu:e is

ffi

acetaldehyde
addiction
amphetamines
barbiturates
ethanol
ethylalcohol

the taking of a drug in a way that is not medicalli' or 1e-ea111 apprn e"3 .n a culture.
The causes are a complex mix of physiological. pqchological and r.xial lactors
that vary from drug to drug and from user to user.

habituation

disruption and economic loss than an1'of the more publiczed illegal drugs'
When cerlain drugs are taken over long periods of tLme ther mar produce a
type ofdependence known as addiction. The user has a strong need for the drug
and undergoes pronounced physical or emotional reactions uhen deprired ofa

The two most widely abused drugs throughout much of the ricrlJ are ethl'l
alcohol and nicotine. Although both dru-es are socialll acceprable in most
countries, they cause more illness. death. loss c-'f time &trrn s..rL tamily

hallucinogens
narcotics
withdrawal

USEFUL LANGUAGE

> Relative clauses

e.g, Drug abuse is the
taking of a drug in a way
that is not medically

approved

even death.

(See G, Xlll. 3. 10.)

> Although introducing

a contrasting clause.

e.g. Although both drugs

are socially acceptable,
they cause more

illness_
(See G.

Xlll.3.6.)

> /f clause type

e.g. if they drink

ethanol, they will
experience a pounding

headache-

supply, Psychological dependence (habituation) occurs if the user feels

uneasy, anxious, nervous or distressed when not using a particular drug such
as marijuana, cocaine or LSD.
Some drugs, like ethanol, barbiturates and narcotics produce ph1'sical
dependence. After long and heavy usage the user suffers not onl.v an
emotional disturbance but also a disruption in body functions uhen the drug
is withdrawn. Withdrawal symptoms vary from drug to drug and can include
severe muscle pain, cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions. tremor and
Drugs can help treat addiction in some cases. A strategy, called aversion
therapy, has been used to treat ethanol addiction. The most widely used drug
is disulfiram (Antabuse), which blocks the metabolism of ethanol and
causes acetaldehyde to accumulate; this produces very unpleasant effects.
Antabuse is a deterrent to drinkin5 L,uu,.ruS people taking this drug know
that if they then drink ethanol, they will experience a pounding headache,
nausea, vomiting, palpitations and other unpleasant effects.
Another characteristic of many drugs is tolerance, which means that a user
must take progressively larger doses to achieve the same effects. Tolerance
usually accompanies physical addiction, but it also can occur with
habituating drugs such as amphetamines. Tolerance is better uncierstood
chemically than addiction.
Although drugs are very valuable in medicine, their abuse is itself a major
medical problem. Depressants, antidepressants hallucinogens and the like
are all grossly overused. The answer to our personal, nonmedical problems
are not found inside bottles.
(Text adaptedfrom
Californi4 1991)

G.Tylet Miller Jr., Chemistry, Wadsworth Publishing Company,

(See G. Xll. 2.)

22

Section

I - VocabularyActivities

A. Match the following words/phrases with the definitions:

disruption, ddteruent, metabolism, diyfressed, relieved, abuse, gletting hooked, tyhhdrawal
1. getting hooked being addicted to or captivated by
termination or retraction of drug taking
2.
something that interferes with or delays action or progress
afflicted or marked by anxious uneasiness or trouble or grief
overuse of treatment that causes some kind of harm
the complete set of chemical reactions that occur in living cells
the act ofcausing disturbance or disorder
released ofpain or sorrow

J.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

B. Adjectives ending with -/CAL and -(l)AL. Form nouns from these adjectives.
1. medical - medicinie
2. psychological
3. physiological

7. illegal

4. social

10. substantial
11. physical

8. nutritional

9.

5. emotional
6. chemical

personal

12" surgical

C. Complete the following sentences by using one of the adjectives ended with

-/CAL and'(l)AL

from above.
1.

2.
-1.

4.

nonmedical problems are not found inside bottles'

The answer to our
' addiction, but it also can occur with habituating
usually
accompanies
Tolerance
drugs such as amphetamines.
and
Ethanol and nicotine cause more illness, death, loss of time from worh
drugs.
economic loss than any of the more publicized,
reactions when deprived of a
The user undergoes pronounced physical or
supply.

5.

6.
7.

The causes are a complex mix of

vary from drug to drug and from user to user.
problem.
Drug abuse is itself a major
To stay alive, your body is full of

--

and

reactions to produce energy.

D. Find 4 near synonyms and 5 near antonyms in your text to the following words.

SYNONYMS
1. alleviated is similar in meaning to
2. prevention/defence is similar in meaning to
3. to be retreated is similar in meaning to
4. hate is similar in meaning to
ANTONYMS

relieved

1. abstinence is nearly opposite in meaning to

2. to be safe/comfortable is nearly opposite in meaning to
3. willingness is nearly opposite in meaning to
4. independence is nearly opposite in meaning to
5. getting hooked is nearly opposite in meaning to
23

factors that

Section

ll-

Language Focus

A. ldentify the relative clauses in the following

sentences. Which words/parts of the sentence are
they modifying?
e.g. Drug abuse is the taking of a drug in a way that is
not medically or legally approved in a culture.

1.

The causes are a complex mix

of

physiological, psychological and social factors

that vary from drug to drug and from user to
user.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

People who frequently use barbiturates produce a greater amount of the liver enzymes that
metabolise those drugs.
The most widely used drug is disulfiram (Antabuse), which blocks the metabolism of ethanol
and causes acetaldehyde to accumulate.
Another characteristic of many drugs is tolerance, which means that a user must take
progressively larger doses to achieve the same effects.
Drugs that are used in the quest for quick and easy loss include appetite suppressants.
A strategy, which is called aversion therapy, has been used to treat ethanol addiction.

B, Shorten (contract) the above relative clauses by using -ing or -ed clauses,
e.g. Some tranquilizers are widely prescribed for people who have dfficulq," in falling asleep.
Some tranquilizers are widely prescribed for people having dfficulo in falling asleep.

C,

Make one sentence from two using although, which introduces a contrasting clause.
e.g. Drugs are very valuable in medicine. Their abuse is itself a major medical problem.
Although drugs are very valuable in medicine, their abuse is itself a major medical problem.
l. Nicotine and ethyl alcohol cause a lot of harm. They are socially acceptable in most countries.
2. Ethanol may be too toxic for humans to take. It may be a useful tool to study.
3. Sulfadrugs are still used to treat certain infections. They are now largely replaced by antibiotics.
4. This drug may cause heart problems. It is rather promising.
5. Antibiotics also have unwanted effects. They have saved millions of lives.
6. The search for an understanding of life processes has merely begun. It is easy to see why the
cracking ofthe genetic code is considered one ofthe great achievements ofrecentyears.
D. ln the following type of if clause, the condition relates to an event that is entirely possible but

uncertain.
e.g. Antabuse is a deterrent to drinking because people taking this drug know that f they then drink
ethanol, they will experience a pounding headache, nausea, vomiting, palpitations and other
unpleasant effects.

Complete the half - sentences as naturally as possible.

1. If we don't reduce pollution
2. People will soon be living to a much greater age if
3. If a user develops tolerance to drugs
4. A generation of non-smokers will appear one day if
5. If certain drugs are taken over long period of time

24

Section lll

Text Structure

A, Defining requires a precise explanation of the

meaning of a concept. Give definitions of the main

concepts encountered in your text by using the

following words/phrases :

Iite term/concept X is generally understood to mean

lhe term/coricept X refers to
,r broad chemical terms, Xcan be defined as
lhe term/concept X cal be characterized by
. lte term/concept X is applied in a situation when/where

1.

Addiction

2. Psychological dependence
3. Physical dependence
4, Drug tolerance
5. Aversion therapy
B, Summarizing

L Ten potential content points are listed below. Decide which four points best summarise the
arguments in the text.
i. Many drugs are overused or misused, causing severe medical problems like dependence/
addiction, mind-affecting diseases and even death.
2. Some drugs produce psychological dependence, which occurs when the user, during
withdrawal, suffers emotional disturbances.
3. Drug abuse can also cause severe medical problems like addiction, tolerance, even death.
4. Drug abuse produces psychological and physical dependence.
5. Drugs have saved millions of lives and relieved the suffering of many millions of people.
6. Some drugs produce physical dependence which occurs when the user, during withdrawal,
suffers a disruption in body functions.
7. Drugs are very valuable in medicine saving lives and relieving suffering (painkillers,
antidepressants, analgesics, etc.).
ln some cases, drugs can help treat addiction.
A characteristic of many drugs is tolerance, which occurs when a subject's reaction to a drug
(such asamphetamins) decreases so that larger doses are required to achieve the same effect.
10. Drugs are very valuable in medicine.

8.
9.

ll. Now arrange your resulting four content points in a logicalorder.

C. Summarize, in your own words as far as possible, the arguments FOR and AGAINST taking

drugs, using the following expressions and linking words / phrases:

The main / greatest (dis)advantage of is
One point / argument in favour of / against
lr could be argued that / A further common

criticism of-

\evertheless, however, still, yet, on the other hand

25

&

Ij;*it 1 2 : ijl\ \iilRCl'{}''4l;l}.rl-Al-

Sa I E]\rC:S

pREpARING TO READ: How can we help prevent premature extinction of the world's existing
species from human activities?
q
NEW VOCABULARY
biodiversity

to cull
ecosystem

endangered species
herd
keystone species
logging companies
niche

predator
scavenger

USEFUL LANGUAGE

f i{.i n{,'S I) i"i t. t rt Lt ilr{*

I

l-V

[ $ Tu

Y ff l-

CI'Vd $rT

f'l H'

At one time, the gray wolf, also known as

the eastern timber wolf, roamed over
most of North America. Then between
1850 and 1900, an estimated 2 million
wolves were shot, trapped, and poisoned
by ranchers, hunters and government
employees. The idea was to make the
West and the Great Plains safe for
livestock and for big-game animals prized by hunters'
It worked. when congress passed the U"S. Endangered Species Act in 1973,
only about 400-500 gruy *olr"t remained in the lower 48 states, primarily
in Minnesota and Michigan. h 1974, the U.S. Fish and wildlife Service
(USFWS) listed the gray wolf as endangered in all 48 lower states except
Minnesota.

> lnversion

e.g. tVot only did these

wolves cull herds of

bison(See G. XV1.2,,3.)

> Types of subordinate

clauses

In recent years, herds of elk, moose, and antelope have expanded' Their

large numbers have devastated some vegetation, increased erosion, and

thrlatened the niches of other wildlife species' Reintroducing a keystone
to help
species such as the gray wolf into a terrestrial ecosystem is one way
sustain the biodiveriity of tne ecosystem and prevent further environmental

subordinate clauses to
-ed and fo-

infinitive clauses
e.g,The gray wolf, also

(See G, Xl, 1., 2., 3.)

> Gerund as subject

e.g. Reintroducing a
keystone species
(See G. X.2. )

1987, the usFws proposed reintroducing gray wolves into the

Yellowstone ecosystem. what the suggestion did was bringing angry
protests. Some ranchers feared the wolves would attack their cattle and
,t ..p; one enraged rancher said that the idea was "like reintroducing
smalipox,,. Other objections came from hunters who feared the wolves
would kill too *uny uig-game animals, and from mining and logging
on wolfcompanies that worrild thi government would halt their operations

In

2., 3.\

> Reduction of

known as

foxes.
uneaten meat for scavengers such as ravens, bald eagles, ermines, and

degradation.

(See G. Xlll. 1.:

-ing,

Ecologists recognize the important role this keystone predator species once
playeiin parts if the West and the Great Plains. Not only did these wolves
tui freras of bison, elk, caribou, and mule deer, but they also provided

populated federal lands.

Since t9gS, federal wildlife officials have caught gray wolves in Canada
By
and relocated them in Yellowstone National Park and northern Idaho'
wolves
With
Yellowstone.
2005, about 850 gray wolves lived in or around
around, elk are latrrering less near streams and rivers. Their diminished
presence has spurred the growth of aspen and willow trees that atffact
L"ur..r. And leftovers of elk killed by wolves are an important food source'
The wolves have also cut coyote populations in half. This has increased
populations of smaller animals such as gtound squirrels and foxes hunted by
coyotes, providing more food for eagles and hawks'
(Text adaptedfrom G. Tyler

Miller, Jr., Environmental science, Thomson Higher Education,

usA, 2006)

50

l-

Section

Vocabulary Activities

A. Match the following words / phrases with the definitions:

aspen, beaver, big-game, cull, eagle, endanger, hawk,

scavenger
i.

4.
5.

to cause danger to
to select and kill
group of cattle or other animals feeding or staying together
ihe work of cutting down forest trees for timber
a kind of poplar with leaves that move in the slightest wind
the central wedge-shaped stone at the summit of an arch
a bird of PreY with rounded wings
I
in water
an animai with soft fur and strong teeth living both on land and

8.

9.
10.

i.

2.

13.

of PraY

animal PreYing uPon others

T.

a large bird

herd, livestock' logging, keystone, predator'

prefix and/or suffix

B. Use the
- word in brackets to complete the sentences. Add the necessary
and put the word in the correct form.

3
S

I
tr

il

3.

1.
5.

v
rg
"tS

lg
tf-

7.

attract beavers.(GROW)

following words'
c, Find 7 near synonyms and 4 near antonyms in your text to the

S\\ONYMS

to

l.

stop is similar in meaning

stimulated is similar in meaning to

'es

,1.

eo

farmer is similar in meaning to

5. principally is similar in meaning to

6. decreased is similar in meaning to
7, angry is similar in meaning to

3y

rct
e.

ed
by

I.\TO].IYMS

1.
l.
1

4.

ln

wonied the government

Other objections came from mining and logging companies that
federal lands' (POPULATION)
would halt their operations on wolfgray wolves in Canada and relocated
*ught
fru.r"
Since 1995, federal wildlife
them in Yellowstone National Park. (OFFICE)
gray wolves into . the Yellowstone
In 1987, the USFWS ProPosed
ecosystem. (INTRODUCE)
of aspen and willow trees that
The diminished presence of elks has spurred the

1.

da

states,

ermines, and foxes' (EAT)

IE

rd

48

1973, only about 400-500 gray wolves remained in the lower

Minnesota and Michigan.(PRIMARY)
trapped, and poisoned by
Between 1g50 and 1900, an estimated 2 million wolves were shot,
(EMPLOY)
.
ranchers, hunters and government
scavengers such as ravens, bald eagles,
for
meat
wolves
The timber
Provided

1. b

halt

dangerous is nearly opposite in meaning

higher is nearly opposite in meaning to
terrestrial is nearly opposite in meaning to
eaten is nearly opposite in meaning to

safe

Section

ll-

Language Focus

A. What do you notice about the order of the subject and verb in the following sentence?
e.g. Not only did these wolve s cull herds of bison, elk, caribou, and mule deer, but they also provided
uneaten meat for scavengers such as ravens, bald eagles, ermines, and foxes.

Rewrite the sentences below using inversion and the adverb given in brackets.
1. But only in the last century scientists were able to carry out experiments that converted this
hypothesis into a scientific theory. (not until)
Not until the last century were scientists able to carry out experiments
2. Carbon is not released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide for recycling as long as these fuels

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

are extracted or banned. (no sooner)

If the earth were much closer to the sun, it would be too hot for water vapour to condense
form water. (omission of ifl

and

The floods were so devastating that some areas may never recover. (so)
Governments could hardly agree on slowing global warming and reducing their greenhouse
gas emissions. (hardly)
Climate is affected by both global and local air circulation. (not only)
We should not care at all about the amount of solid waste we produce. (ittle)

B. ldentify the type of subordinate clause in italics in the following sentences:

i.

At

4.

one time, the gray wolf which was also lcnown as the eastern timber wolf, roal.rred over
most of North America. - non-defining relative clause
The idea was that the West and the Great Plains (should) be made safe for livestock.
Ecologists recognize the important role that was once played by this keystone predator species
in parts of the West and the Great Plains.
Reintroducing a keystone species such as the gray wolf into a terrestrial ecosystem is one way

5.

degradation.
In 1987, the USFWS proposed that gray wolyes (should) be reintroduced into the Yellowstone

6.
7.

ecosystem.
Wat the suggestion didwas bringing angry protests.
Some ranchers feared the wolves would attack their cattle and sheep.

2.
3.

that helps sustain the biodiversity of the ecosystem and prevent further environmental

C. Shorten the above subordinate clauses by using -lng clauses,

ed clauses or fo- infinitive clauses.

D. ldentify the subject in the following sentence:

e.g, Reintroducing a keystone species such as the gray

wolf is one way to help sustain biodiversity.

Supply two noun forms for each of the verbs in brackets:

l.

Discussing / A discussion

2. (include)
3. (prove)
4. (describe)
5. (develop)
6. (manase)
7. (laugh)
8. (speak)
9. (collect)
10. (relax)

of

the details ofthis contract is essential.

a new clause in the contract is essential before I can sign it.
guilt is never easy in a court of law.
what happened will be difficult.
your natural abilities is vital for success.
your own affairs comes with practice.
is supposed to be sood for the svstem.
develops naturally in most young children.
stamps is a hobby pursued by many people.
the muscles is important for pianists.

52

Section lll
A, What is

Text Structure

the difference between an endangered

.:ecles or threatened specles?

Listen'to the extract and try to complete the

;
'c llowing classification :
$
:-n endangered species could
become extinct;
&,;
to become extinct.
species is
' threatened
biological
toward
3rologists classifr species
endangered threatened.
:rtinction as
survivors that the species could soon become extinct
\t endangerrd tpui"t has
its natural range. A threatened species, also known asa--_--.ornumbers is
but because of
its natural
in
abundant
,...t."j. ttill
-individual
xe11,' to become endangered
ts. Give

definitions of the following terms encountered in your text:

in

ecosystem
keystone species

\:che
i:.-rdiversity
Jse the following wordslphrasesr

term includes / coyers up a variety of meanings

.;:is term can be defined as/ refers to/ represents

_;:e clefinition of this

j,

The sentences that follow provide a detailed summary of ,,Reintroducing Wolves to

iellowstone,, in jumbled order. Number them in the correct order.
1

2.
j.

The diminished number of gray wolves brought about changes in the ecosystem biodiversity
and environmental degradation.
protests
The reintroduction of g.uy wolves into the Yellowstone ecosystem generated angry
from ranchers, hunters and mining and logging companies'
In lgj3,when the gray wolf *uJi.t.d uiirdung.red species, there were only about 400-500
gray wolves left in North America'

-1. Ey'2005 the number of gray wolves living around Yellowstone doubled, restoring

the

ecological equillibrium.

5.
6.

elk,
The gray wolf played an important ecological role by killing surplus populations of bison,
caribou, mule deer and coYote.
Between 1850 and lgOO,2 million wolves were killed to make the plains of North America
safe for livestock and big-game animals.

D, Personalizing the toPic

"r,.hat

can you do to help prevent premature extinction of species?

: -.me things you can do are listed below.

1. do"nlt

2.
3.
1.

buy furs, ivory products, and other materials made from endangered or threatened

animal species
do not buy wood and paper products produced by cutting remaining old-growth forests in the
tropics
do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish, and other animals taken from the wild
do not buy orchids , cacti, and other plants that are taken from the wild

53

Lir:lil I -j : Ei..j',i iiliOl\i,,LI j'.1.,'ii.i_

Sl,'I'r::i.i',.ii_',::'',

PREPARING TO READ: What do you know about global warming?

Has the weather in your country changed recently?

r:'i::
NEWVOCABULARY

"r:,l1Fi*i

irF G[ fti'llllr \tril'.r,t'{i!itG

ffi It is hard to deal with climate change

becarse

to acknowledge
to cope with

persists regarding how it should be addressed.

far-reaching
flood
fossil fuels
issue
to phase out

USEFUL LANGUAGE
> lntroductory there

e.g. There are three

schools of thought....,.

it has many causes, its effects are

uneven and long{en4 and controversy
The problem has many complex causes.

It is generally agreed that carbon dioxide

in the air is the biggest problem. The
problem is also global. Dealing with this

threat will require

unprecedented

injgTational cooperation. we are all in the climate lifeboat together. ln

2000, 160 countries met in the Hague to discuss this problem, but nothing
was decided. Europe and china agreed that less carbon shourd be produced

but most countries, like the USA, Australia, Canada, Russia and

Japan

disagreed and proposed that more plants and trees should be planted.

while governments do nothing, the world is getting hotter. The USA has

already had the worst fires and Northern Europe its worst floods. polar bears

are dying near the North Pole because the ice is melting. In the next 100
years temperatures will go up even more quickly. The sea will be 88
(See G. 1.4.4,)
centimetres higher than it is now. Millions of people all over the world will
lose their homes in terrible floods. What can we do to stop it?
> Prepositions in -rng
The problem is a long-term issue. People generally respond well to shortterm problems, but we have difficulty acknowledging and coping with ronge.g. regarding,
term threats. There are three schools of thought concerning what we shouid
concerni ng, including,
do about projected global warming. The first suggests a wait-and-see
etc.
strategy, with many scientists and economists calling for more research and
a better understanding of the earth's climate system before we make far(See G. Xlll. 3.5.)
reaching economic and political decisions such as phasing out fossil fuels. A
second and rapidly growing group of scientists, economists, business
> Functions ot -ing
leaders, and political leaders (especially in the European union) believe that
we should act now to reduce the risks from climate change brought about by
e.g. Dealing with this
global warming. They argue that the potential for harmful economic,
threat will require.....
ecological and social consequences is so great that action to slow the rate of
change should not be delayed. The third approach is to act now as part ofa
(See G. X.2.)
no-regrets strategy. Scientists and economists supporting this position say
that we should take the key actions needed to slow global warming - even if
> Reported speech
the threat does not materialize - because such actions lead to other important
environmental, health and economic benefits. For example, a reduction in a
e.g. Most countries
countryr's use of oil would decrease its dependence on imported oil, which
proposed fhat more
threatens its economic and military security.
trees should be planted. Is there any hope for the future? Some people think
that solar and wind
enerry is the answer. Germany already has 100,000 solar roofs. The USA
(See G, XVll. 1.)
has plans for 1 million. But there are some problems - like carbon dioxide
that countries cannot solve alone. Let's hope that at the next meeting,
governments will stop fighting and start working together. If they don,t do
something now, what kind of world will there be for our grandchildren?
(Text adaptedfrom

G.Tyler Miller, Jr., Environmental science, Thomson Higher Education,

usA,2006)

54

Section

I-

Vocabulary Activities

l. Find words in your text that mean these things:

equal, flat or smooth

ro admit that something is true or valid

never having happened before

to direct one's attention to the problem

a great outpouring of water
to urge as if by commanding, to summon to get up
to bring gradually out ofuse
showing great foresight

il
I
9.

subject, problem

10.

to deal successfully with

o
5
t.
n

Many adjectives can be formed by adding the suffix -ic, -icalot -alto
a noun stem.
r g. economy > economic environment > environmental politics >
political

i a n you think of other adjectives ending in these suffixes?

There are a number of adiectives ending in -lcalwhich also

have anotherform, ending in -ic,
*'*'ich has.a slightly d.ifferent meaning. Use a dictionary
to help you check the meaningi of the
:.a rs of adjectives below.

I
I

i
S

.t

f
a
l"

classical

3. economic

4. historic

economical

historical

5. politic - political

3ompound nouns are very common in English. They help us describe

exacfly what we are talking
ii:*:ut. Many of them contain an -ing form. Look over tlie eximples and
define them as indicated.
: r. a \\'ait-and see strategy > a strategy which implies waiting and seeing
a far-reaching decision >
a short-term problem >
a no-regrets strategy >
a high-pitched sound >
a life-support system >
rapidly growing population >
wolf-populated lands >
water-short regions >

;
';

:l

I
t
)

:,

-:lssic

::mic - comical

nd 7 near synonyms and 4 near antonyms in your text to the following words.

lr\YMS
rvorldwide is similar in meaning to
to reduce the speed is similar in meaning to
planned is similar in meaning to
argument is similar in meaning to
caused is similar in meaning to
rise is similar in meaning to
manage is similar in meaning to
_-)\YMS
long-term is nearly opposite in meaning to
even is nearly opposite in meaning to
precedented is nearly opposite in meaning to
agreed is nearly opposite in meaning to
55

global

short-term

Section

ll-

Language Focus

A. lntroductory there expresses existence and gives focus to a notional

subject.
e.g. There are three schools of thought concerning whaf wii should do about
global warming.

ldentify introductory there and demonstrative there in the following sentences.

1. There are always limits to population growth in nature.
2. There can phosphate be deposited as sediment and remain trapped for millions of years.
3. What kind of world will there be for our grandchildren?
4. There have been serious droughts in North Korea, Afghanistan, Sudan and Ethiopia
5. Even those who never use the wilderness areas may want to know that they are there.
Sometimes the uses of rl and there are confused. Correct the sentences that are wrong.
1. It was a good show on television last night.
2. There are two miles to the station.
3. It was Andrew who won the race.
4. It is a strange man at the door.
5. There are two blocks to the post office.
B. What part of speech is regarding in the following sentence?
e.g. The effects of climate change are uneven and long-term, and controversy persistsregardinghow
it should be addressed.

Write sentences of your own using the following prepositions in -ing.

l. Conceming
2. Considering
3. Including
C. Specifythe syntactic functions of -ing in the following sentences.

1.

Dealing with this threat will require unprecedented international cooperation. (subject)

2. While governments do nothing, the world is getting hotter.

3. A rapidly growing group of scientists, economists, business leaders, and
4.
5.

political leaders

believe that we should act now to reduce the risks from climate change.
The first school suggests a wait-and-see strategy, with many scientists and economists calling
for more research and a better understanding of the earth's climate system.
Governments should makefar-reaching economic and political decisions such as phasing out
fossil fuels.

D. ls this sentence correct? Why?

e.g. Most countries, like the USA, proposed that more plants and trees should be planted.

Use the correct verb forms in the following sentences:

l.
2.
J.

4.

It is imperative that three conditions

(be accomplished) for
ofa
population by natural selection.
Recent studies indicated that the effect of global warming
(be) temporary.
It is likely that the global temperatures
(rise) several degrees over the next
hundred years.

Some studies suggested that larger amounts

s By th" r"te

of

carbon dioxide

in the atmosphere

"#i':;l#'J:f.::*iffillJ'rTi';:i;ff ::A#l ?ffliffi;"*.*

'e80s (contribute) to global warming.

56

Section

lll-

Text Structure

A. Explain in your own words what is meant by "we are a!!in the crimate
'eboat togethef'.

fI

3. Decide if the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according to the
{ormation in the text.

1. Climate change is not difficult to deal with because it has many solutions.
:. Most people agree on the fact that carbon dioxide in the air is the most important problem.
3. Japan agreed with Europe about global warming.
-1.

5.
6.
8.
9.
1

Nothing was decided at the llague-because some cormfies did not want to produce less carbon dioxide.
The USA are worried about global warming.
Russia believed that trees would stop global warming.
The sea will be less higher than it is now in the next 100 years.
China has already had unusually heavy rains.
The North Pole is colder than it has ever been before.

0. There are three schools of thought supporting different strategies for reducing the threat of
global warming.

What can people do to reduce the threat of global warming? Study the chart below and decide
niirich five of these solutions are the most important.
Prevention
tbssil
fuel
use (especially coal)
- -:

i ---tr from coal to natural gas

-:- prove energy effi ciency

:::lt
,

to renewable energy resources

:ansfer energy efficiency and renewable

:lerg'

technologies to developing countries

i.:Juce deforestation
5

- ie more sustainable

,;iculture
-:nit urban sprawl
..

juce poverfy
:u population growth

"

ffi
ffi
@
@

Cleanup
Remove carbon dioxide from smokestack
and vehicle emissions
Store carbon dioxide by planting trees
Sequester carbon dioxide deep
underground
Sequester carbon dioxide in soil by
taking crop land out ofproduction
Sequester carbon dioxide in the deep
ocean

Repair leaky natural gas pipelines and

facilities
Use animal feeds that reduce ammonia
emissions by belching cows

Personalizing the topic

Alhat can you do to reduce the threat of globalwarming?

1.

:.
-i.
{.
i.
5.

8.
9.

drive a fuel-efficient car, walk, bike and use mass transit

- efficient windows
- efficient appliances and lights
heavily insulate your house and sealall drafts
reduce garbage by recycling and reuse
insulate your hot water heater
plant trees to shade your house during summer
wash laundry in warm or cold water
use energy
use energy

use low-flow shower head

t!'ilrich things in this list do you do or plan to do?

57

UNit 14 : ENVIRCNh4ENITAI- SCIE}.{CES

PREPARING TO READ: How would you determine whether

particular species found in a

given area is a keystone species?

WI'IY SHOI.JLD WE CARH ABCIUT THE AMERICAN ALI.IGATOR?

NEW VOCABULARY
C}

bass
bream
extinction

alligalor would have

gator
habitat
keystone
nesting mounds

sustainability

USEFUL LANGUAGE

for_

e.g.lf itwere notfor

humans, the American
alligator would have no
natural predators.
(See G

Xll.2.)

> Correlative pairs

e.g. Other people hunted

alligators eifher for sport
or out of hatred.
(See G X|.2.)

Because introducing a
clause of reason
e.g. Some ecologists
classify the American
alligator as a keystone
species because of its
important ecological roles
(See G.

Xlll.3.4.)

no

natural

predators. This species, which has

survived for nearly 200 million years,
has been able to adapt to numerous
changes in the earth's environmental
conditions.

But matters changed when hunters began killing large numbers of these
animals for their exotic meat, for their skin, for leather goods. Before
hunting was controlled in 1970 an estimated l0 million alligators were

predator

> lf it weren't

M Ttre American alligator is one of

North America's largest reptiles. If it
were not for humans, the American

killed for their skins.

other people hunted alligators either for sport or out of hatred. Befween
1950 and 1960, hunters wiped o:ut 90%o of the alligators in Louisiana. By the
1960s, the alligator population in the Florida Everglades was also near
extinction.
People who say ,,So what?" are overlooking the alligator's important
ecological role - its niche - in subtropical wetland communities. Alligators
dig deep depressions, or gator holes. These holes hold fresh water during
dry spells, serve as refuges for aquatic life, and supply fresh water and food
for many animals. Large alligator nesting mounds provide nesting and
feeding sites for species of herons and egrets. This helps maintain
populations of game fish such as bass and bream. As alligators move from
gator holes Jo nesting mounds, they help keep areas of open water free of
invading vegetation. Without these free ecosystem services, freshwater
ponds and coastal wetlands found in the alligator's habitat, shrubs and trees
would fill in and dozens of species would disappear.
Some ecologists classif, the American alligator as a keystone species
because of its important ecological roles in helping maintain the structure,
function, and sustainability of the communities where it is found.
In 1967, the U.S. government placed the American alligator on the
endangered species list. Protected from hunters, the population had made a
strong comeback in many areas by 1975 - too strong, according to those
who find alligators in their backyards and swimming pools, as well as to
duck hunters, whose retriever dogs are sometimes eaten by alligators.
To biologists, the comeback of the American alligator is an important
success story in wildlife conservation. Conservation efforts have saved the
American alligator from the brink of extinction. The American alligator is in
good hands now, but we have to make an effort to protect it. Its survival is
directly linked to the survival of the other creatures in the ecosystem.
(Text adaptedfron G. Tyler Miller, Jr., Enyironmental Science, Thomson Higher Education,
usA,2006)

58

Section

l- Vocabulary Activities

Match the following words/ phrases with the

: efinitions:

' -./
,. rJ
animal preying upon others
to fail to observe or consider
a period of a certain type of weather
a small hill
a fish of the pereh family
a yellowish freshwater fish with an arched back
fish hunted for sport or food
to enter a territory forcefully in order to attack or occupy
the natural environment of an animal or plant
a swimming bird of various kind

I
i0.

"::
-*,

/....+',,S

"r7.

--J, trr/

.l

Make a compound word in each sentence by adding

one of the words given.

come

stone
system

land

life

water
yard

'-

communities.

-r---''

without these free eco

services, dozens of species wourd disappear.
Some ecologists classif, the American alligator u, u
species.
Protected from hunters, the popuration had *ud. u rt

iry_
org'-

ba.t in many areas by 1975.

Protected from hunters, the population had made a rtiongrcomeback
in rnuny u..u, by 1975
9o :qong, according to those who find alligators in their back

To biologists, the comeback of the American alligator

wild_

conservation.
Without these free ecosystem services, fresh
the alligator's habitat, would disappear.

i, *-irn[onunt success story in

ponds and coastal wetlands found in

: iil! ! near synonyms and 3 near antonyms in your text to the following
:':\ONYMS

shelter is similar in meaning to

destroy completely is similar in meanmg to
return is similar in meaning to
alligator is similar in meaning to
enmity is similar in meaning to
merchandise is similar in meaning to
cave/opening is similar in meaning to
edge is similar in meaning to

;TONM\4S
sustainability is nearly opposite in meaning to
usuaVnative is nearly opposite in meaninglo
destruction is nearly opposite in meaninglo

59

extinction

words,

Section

ll-

Language Focus

A. Why is were used in the following sentence rather than uvas?

e.g, If it were not for humans, the American alligator would have no natural predators.
Rephrase the following sentences using '/f lf weren't for''.
1. Without these free ecosystem services, dozens of species would disappear.
If it weren't for these free ecosystem services, dozens of species would disappear.
2. We have used technology to alter nature. Otherwise, we couldn't meet our growing needs and
provide basic support.
3. Without any control on the population growth, some species would cover the earth's entire
surface.

4.
5.
6.

Without amphibians, we wouldn't-be aware of the decline in environmental quality in many

parts of the world.
Shark species play an important ecological role. Without their services, the oceans would be
teeming with dead and dying fish.
Without pollinating insects, we would have very few fruits and vegetables to enjoy.

B. Rephrase the above sentences by omitting d.

e.g, If it were not for humans, the American alligator would have no natural predators.
Weren't it for humans, the American alligator would have no natural predators.
C. Study the following correlative pair and specify the parts of sentence or the type of clauses

they connect.
e.g. Other people hunted alligators either for sport or out of hatred.

Combine the sentences below by using correlative pairs.

l. Climate is affected by global circulation. Climate is affected by local air circulation.
Climate is affected by both global and local air circulation.
Climate is affected not only by global circulation, but also by local air circulation.
2. Much of this energy is reflected away. Much of this energy is absorbed by chemicals in the
planet's atmosphere.
3. Natural foods are not free of risks. Additives are not free of risks.
4. A warmer climate would have beneficial effects. A warmer climate would have harmful effects.
5. Changes in the earth's climate are not new. Changes in the earth's climate are not unusual.
6. The USA could not reach an agreement on reducing the emission of carbon dioxide. Australia
could not reach an agreement on reducing the emission of carbon dioxide.
D. Study this sentence and decide what type of clause is introduced by because.
e.g. Some ecologists classiff the American alligator as a keystone species because

ecological roles.
Finish these sentences as shown in the model below.
1. Polar bears are dying near the north Pole because
Polar bears are dying near the north Pole because the ice is melting.
2. Overfishing is a big and growing problem because
J. The use ofpesticides is controversial because
4. Removing salt from seawater will not probably be done widely because
5. This country experienced increased flooding because
6. Wildemess should be preserved because

60

of its

Section

lll-

Text Structure

Listen to the extract and try to complete the following definition of a keystone species:

Akeystoneisthewedge.-stoneplacedatthetopofastone-'Removethisstoneand
thearch-.lnsomecommunities,keystonespeciesSerVeasimilarrole.Thesespecieshavea
much larger effect on the types and _
of other species in a community than their numbers

u'ould suggest. Eliminating a keystone species may _

alter the structure and _
of a
community. The loss of a keystone species can lead to population _
and _
of other
species that depend on it for certain
services. According to
Edward O.
\\rilson, ,,The loss of a keystone species is like a drill accidentally striking a
line. It causes
lights
all over."

A. Summarizing
l, Ten potential content points are listed below. Decide which four points best summarise the
key ideas in your text.
1. After being placed on the endangered species list, the American alligator was protected from

2.

hunters and made a strong comeback.

Large alligator nesting mounds provide nesting and feeding sites for species of herons and
egrets.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Between 1950-1970, 10 million alligators were killed by humans

for

their skin, for sport or

out of hatred
The American alligator is the North America's largest reptile.
The comeback of the American alligator is an important success story for biologists in wildlife
conservation.
The survival of American alligator is directly linked to the survival of the other creatures in
the ecosystem.

a lot of free ecosystem services

Alligators do

preventing dozens

of

species from

disappearance.

Some ecologists classif, the American alligator as a keystone species because of its important

9.

ecological roles.

While moving from gator holes to nesting mounds, alligators help keep areas of open water
free of invading vegetation.
10. The American alligator has survived for 200 million years and has adapted to numerous
changes in the environment.

ll, Now arrange your resulting four content points in a logica! order.
B, Applying what you read

imagine the following situation:

S,-rme homeowners in Florida believe they should have the right to kill any alligator found on their
:roperry. Others argue against this policy, noting that alligators are a threatened species, and that
lousing developments have invaded the habitats of alligators, not the other way around. Others go
:urther and believe the American alligator species has an inherent right to exist. What is your opinion
:,n this issue? Express, in a paragraph of 50-70 words, your opinion FOR and AGAINST the
-\merican alligator, using the following expressions and linking words/phrases:
The main / greatest

/ (dis)advantage

of_,s_

point / argument infavour of / against_

It could be argued that / A further common criticism of _
Nevertheless / however / still / yet / on the other hand
In addition / Furthermore / Moreover
One

61

IJNit 15 : ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

PREPARING TO READ: What can you do to reduce your use and waste of water?
WATER CONFLICTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST
NEW VOCABULARY

o
dam
downstream
to emerge
headwaters
hydrologic cycle
pollutant
population growth
upstream
water-shortage

USEFUL LANGUAGE
> Defining and non-

defining relative
clauses
e.g. Three countries
use most water that

flows in Africa's Nile

River-

Water keeps us alive, moderates

climate, sculpts the land, removes and
dilutes wastes and pollutants, and is
recycled by the hydrologic cycle. You
could survive for several weeks without
food but only a few days without water.
Despite its importance, water is one of
our most poorly managed resources. We
waste it and pollute it. As Benjamin
Franklin said many decades ago, ,,It is not until the well runs dry that we
know the worth of water." Differences in average annual precipitation
divide the world's countries and people into water haves and have-nots.
Some places get lots of rain, whereas others get very little. Many countries
in the Middle East, with some of the world's highest population growth,
face water-shortages and conflicts over access to water because they share
water from three major river basins: the Nile, Jordan, and Tigris-Euphrates.
Three countries - Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt - use most water that flows in
Afiica's Nile River, with Egypt being last in line along the river. To meet the
water needs of its rapidly growing population, Ethiopia plans to divert more
water fiom the Nile. So does Sudan. Such upstream diversions would reduce
the amount of water available to Egypt, which cannot exist without irrigation
water from the Nile. Egypt could go to war with Sudan and Ethiopia for more
water, cut population growth, or improve irrigation effrciency.

(See G.

Xlll.3.

10.)

> Time expressions

e.g. Emerging water

shortages is one of the
three most serious
problems the world faces

during this century.

(See G. XlV.)

> lnversion in short

answers
e.g. Ethiopia plans to
divert more waterfrom the
Nile. So does Sudan.
(See G. XVl.3.)

The Jordan basin is by far the most water-short region, with fierce
competition for its water among Jordan, Syria, Palestine and Israel. Syria
plans to build dams and withdraw more water from the Jordan River,
decreasing the downstream supply for Jordan and Israel. Israel warns that it
may destroy the largest dam that Syria plans to build.

Turkey, located at the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers,

controls how much water flows downstream to Syria and Iraq before
emptying into the Persian Gulf. Turkey is building 24 dams along the upper
Tigris and Euphrates to generate electricity and inigate a large area of land.
If completed, these dams will reduce the flow of water downstream to Syria
and Iraq by as much as 35Yo in normal years and by much more in dry years.

Syria also plans to build a large dam along the Euphrates to divert water
arriving from Turkey. This will leave little water for Iraq and could lead to a
water war befween that country and Syria. Finding a solution in this and
other water-short areas will not be easy.
Currently, there are no cooperative agreements for use of 158 of the world's
263 basins that are shared by two or more countries.
To many analysts, emerging water shortages in many parts of the world - along
with the related problems of biodiversity loss and climate change - are the three
most serious environmental problems the world faces during this century.
(Text adapted

from G. Tyler Mille r, Jr., Enyironmental Science, Thomson Higher Education,

usA,2006)

62

..-

Section

l-

Vocabulary Activities

A, Find words in your text that mean these things:

substance causing pollution
a lack of something that is needed, insufficiency
to tum something from its course, to cause it to go by a different route
in the direction from which a stream flows
a barrier built across a river to hold back water and control its flow

1.

2.
1.
5.

violent in temper, manner or action

the streams forming the sources of a river
to discharge itself or its contents
coming up or out into view

6.
7.
8.

9.

3, Use the word in brackets to complete the sentences, Add the necessary prefix and/or suffix
and put the word in the correct form.

1.

Water keeps us alive, moderates climate, sculpts the land, removes and dilutes wastes and
_. (POLLUTE)
) Despite its importance, water is one of our most
managed resources. (POOR)
Many countries in the Middle East, with some of the world's highest population
, face water-shortaggs and conflicts. (GROW)
diversions would reduce the amount of water available to Egypt.
1. Such
(STREAM)
Egypt could go to war with Sudan and Ethiopia for more water or improve
. (EFFTCIENT)
irrigation
6. Syria plans to withdraw more water from the Jordan River, decreasing the
supply for Jordan and Israel. (STREAM)
of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, controls how
7. Turkey, located at the
Iraq. (WATER)
and
to
Syria
much water flows downstream
water shortages in manY parts of the world is one of the
8. To many analysts,
most serious environmental problems' (EMERGE)
C, Find 5 near synonyms and 3 near antonyms in your text to the following words.

S\NONYMS

1. yearly is similar in meaning to

2. reduce is similar in meaning to
3. deviate is similar in meaning to
4. value is similar in meaning to
5. fountain is similar in meaning to

annual

I.NTONYMS

1.
2.
3.

dead is nearly opposite in meaning to

unavailable is nearly opposite in meaning to

alive

upstream is nearly opposite in meaning to

Listen to the extract and supply the missing words.

water. This is becoming more and more precious
-{nother problem area is
the toilet accounts for a third of al1
save as much as you can.

so
water use, so

don,tflushrvouuog.ttingridofatissue,forexamp1e.Taked-insteadofa
while you wash, or clean your teeth. And don't use a
bath, and donl keep the water
-,
. Try putting some in a
n'hen there are water
63

-instead.

Section

ll-

Language Focus

A, Look at the following sentences and combine them into one:

e.g. Three countries use most water. Water flows in Africa's Nile River.
Three countries use most water that flows in Africa's Nile River. (defining relative clause)

Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into a single sentence, Make the second
sentence into a relative one and insert it into the first sentence. Note whether the relative clause
is a defining one or a non.defining one.

1. Such upstream diversions

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

would reduce the amount of water available to Egypt. Egypt cannot

exist without irrigation water from the Nile.
Turkey controls how much water flows downstream to Syria and Iraq. Turkey located at the
headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
Syria also plans to build a large dam alongthe Euphrates to divert water. Water arrives from Turkey.
Emerging water shortages in many parts of the world is one of the most serious environmental
problems. The world faces one of the most serious environmental problems during this century.
The low prices of water encourage even greater waste and pollution of this renewable resource. We
have no substitute for this renewable resource.
One of the most precious resources is fresh water. Fresh water flows across the earth's land
surface and into rivers, streams, lakes, wetlands, and estuaries.
The region is called its watershed or drainage basin. From this region, surface water drains
into a river, lake, wetland, or other body of water.

B. Try to combine the sentences below (1-7) with the most appropriate adverbials of time (a-g)
e.g. The human population tripled
during the last century. (7+c)

l.
water-short counties are likely to engage in conflicts
over access to water resources
great floods used to occur every 50 years
all
species become extinct or evolve into new species.
-r.
4. Scientists are creating a third green revolution by using
genetic engineering
5. _
the passenger pigeon disappeared for ever because
of human activities
6. Pesticide use has increased more than 50-fold
7. The human population tripled

2.

a. Eventually
b. By the end of the 196 century

_
d.

during the last century

c.

since 1950

e. In the past

f. In the near future

g._

these days

Comment on the compatibility verb tense-time adverbial and also on the position of the Iatter.
C. What does the following short-form sentence below express?
e.g. Ethiopia plans to divert more water from the Nile. So does Sudan.

Give short answers to the following statements, expressing (dis)agreement.

1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

Egypt uses most water that flows in Africa's Nile River.

Ethiopia.
Syria has no intention of increasing the downstream supply for other countries.
Israel

Turkey is building 24 dams along the upper Tigris and Euphrates to generate
Syria
the western USA.
The eastern USA met serious water problems in the past.
Sudan.
Egypt has not worked out water sharing agreements with other countries.

64

l-*

Section

lll- Text Structure

A, Reading for detail

Test your understanding
of this text by answering
these multiple-cholce reading
questions without lookiig
comprehension
ut.i riirrriext.

choose tr,.;il;rswer from

the choices risted.
.. Are the countries in Middle
East having problems because
of
a. droughts
b.

i.

floo-ds

Emerging water shortages

in --'..,J
many parts
e --of the world is
vqr'D
:his.century.

:.

:nvironmeni"r
.,

the world faces during

the most serious

p."il.-

"i:1',".T;HrTffJiT"f

3;ffi,i,ilXiJfi::ftT:serious 1.ll.,or,h,
diven,,o., *ut., rrom the N,e,
b.

_The

Jordan basin is shared

by

thus

two.olutior.
'ru'rurrJ

most serious

,."0I',:?il:Tfl"1T,0::1'",..
c'

three solutions

: rurkev shares irs waters with Svria *,

'

empties into the Persian

#;:fi,6iJJ:.**#::Il;#*?j:restine,
Gulf 'u.l. uriloi"
gz+ au^'" a,;;;.
c. is situated
rlvers

Tigris
and LuP,"atcs
-'D^ro 4,u
Euphrates rivers-

B, Writing a

list

;'J,llf.';:[imfrT:[ii;'J:1;3

fl:?:*Tdrink

Svria

at rhe Gua*uto.
of Tigris and Euphrates rivers

up the pond in which * rives,,think

about

3, Expressing your personal

point of view

you have a
t?'eral ways
-i-,,p'oi-t?
You c1n--rgduce your use and waste of
water. which four of these
"u 11*
'::jons do you believe
are the ,o.,
which
,rre rist do you do or pran
to do?
"-13re

"li"r, ",

What can you do?

Water Use and Wast*

:
"
'
'
.'
.
.

Shower instead of taking

baths, and take short showers
*t it. r.,,t ing [.tn, shaving or washing

i:ffT;[1,31.J.

water-saving toilets, showerheads,

and faucet aerators

Y:.
\\'ash

onlv full loads of cloth"t

lowest p"rriii, *r,er-rever
\\Iash a car from a bucket
sening for smarer loads
or.oupy *ut"r, and use the hose
for
rinsing
only
Replace your rawn with
native pr-*,rilu, need rittre
if any watering
\\'ater lawns and gardens
i, th"
*o*irg or evening
Use
L se

- se the

;;;;;he

drip irrigation for garden. ";;i;

urJ tio*".r.d,
recycled water for watering

lawns and houseplants

following expressions:

.:,i opinion /
:mportant

As far qs I am concerned
/ essential to bear in nind that

;;rling

the issue

.:.; d i t i on

*@ o,
/ F u r t he r m ir"Jiorc

of

'.:/t)')_Second(lil
h

65

IJNit 22 : PHYSICS
and physical changes of
To READ: what is the difference between chemical
matter?

'RE'ARTNG

PI.IYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

NEWVOCABULARY

m The kinetic

molecular

for
properties of the three physical -states of matter - solids, liquids,

theory helPs account

bond
bubble
to condense
to liquefy

and gases.

The main forces

between
metal
bonds,
particles are ionic
diPoletonds, hydrogen bonds,

to melt
rate

dipole forces, and

London
foices. The PhYsical state of a

to quiver
to solidifY
sublimation
to vaporize

on the strengrh of the bonds

lio[l;#'riffi;',;;;ru*r" dependsq'i't'
temperature..ut
;;;;;; dicles. rhe p;;i
"'"!'-111:'^,:1"19:-:t:'::
or sublimation temperature) also depends on

USEFUL LANGUAGE

it. .tteigtt of the bonds beflveen particles'are very close together and their

(_"d; I"'rri^["ilir;

> As introducing a

clause of ProPortion
e.g. As the temPerature
increases

(See G. Xlll. 3.7.)

> on...V'ingto rePlace

whenlif clauses

Particlesinaliquidt,u*urangeofenergiesandspeeds.buttheyhavea
somervhat like a gloup

rn.y

e.g. The reverse change,

from a gas to a liquid on

cooling, is known

as-

(See G, X.2.)

> Contraction of if /

when clauses

e.g When heated,a

solid absorbs heat

energy_
(See G. X.3.)

The atoms, ions, oru nof.*f"t in a solid

in place' When.heated' a solid
motion is restricted ptit"tify to quivering
begin-to vibrate more violently' At this
absorbs heat energy, ;rJlir li*fclls
il changes to a liquid' For a pure
;;;;; ;h; ;orid Inde'goes melting:
at a sinlle temperature known as the
substance, this hanstbination occurs
to a solid - is freezing or
melting point. And ,"i""-u.r.u - from a liquid
which for every pure
,oiiaif"i l"n. This change occurs at the freezing point,
the melting point- A few substances
substance is the sarne iJ.p".uto." as
canchangedirectlyfromasolidintoagas,aprocesscalledsublimation.An
r*u-pf.if .ubstance that sublimes is iodine'
are

fixed average speed at a given tJmperature.

party'
uumping into one another at a crowded
of people milling J;f,;J
a
together,
particles relativell, close
Although attractive forces tend to keep
state'
to escape into the gaseous
few near the surface have enough enetgy
ma)' escape outdoors
just as a few people near the door at a crowded party
for fresh air or to go home'
as
to the. gaseous or vapour state is known
Changing from the iiq'ia
its
and
rises,
increases. pressure
"utt
vaporization. e. tn" ie'mp.iutor" of a liquid
bubb]11
temperature'
some
,'1!:11rs
rate of vaporization- in"."ut"t' At
"tprocess
surface'.This
the
through
escape
and
liquid
the
tfrt"rghout
temperature at which the vapour
"pp.*
known as boiling. rL u',oiling point is the
of the atmosphere above the liquid'
pressure of the liquid equals tf,e pressure
liquid on cooling.- is known as
The reverse change - from a gas to a
fieezing and boiling points' E'g'
condensation. Subsiances have tifferent
;;;-rr*t solid or freezes at 1,528" ' Sulphur melts at 1 13o'
(Text

Wadsworth Publishing Compan-v'

adaptedfroz G. Tyler Miller Jr'' Chemistry'

Califomia" 1991)

90

Section

l- Vocabulary Activities

A. Find words in your text that mean these things:

1. something that binds, attaches or restrains, e'9. a rope

2. the quality of being strong
3. vibrating
4. appears
5. purification
6. moving round and round in a confused mass
as glass
7 . small balls of air in a liquid or in a solidified liquid, such
8. an extent, the limits between which something operates or varies
9. speed
10. knocking with a dull-sounding blow

B. Form verbs from these adjectives by adding -fy:

e.g. make solid = solidifY

1. make liquid
2. make pure
3. make bigger
4. make rare
5. make humid
C. Find the related forms of these verbs:

Verb
1) vaporize
2) condense

Adjective

Noun
vapour/vaporization

vaporized

3) liquifu
4) freeze
5) crystallize
6) melt
7) sublime
it.
D. Study this diagram and complete the sentences explaining

ffi
1.

ICE

-.tl

solidirying | -------

,1---too*g'*^n**'u' 1---

-.-

WATER

of mattst, -----,
e.g. There are
,gas' and
and
liquid
solid,
matter,
of
states
There are three
lf water is suffrciently cooled, it is said to
1.
is heated, it is said to
2. If water-states
If a liquid is heated, it is said to
4. If a liquid is cooled, it is said to
5. Ifice is heated, it is said to
91

liquetytng | --\
WATER VAPOUR

Section

ll-

Language Focus

A. Rewrite these sentences, using on ...ing in place of the when clauses:

e.g. The change from a gas to a liquidwhen the gas is cooled is known as condensation.
The change from-a'gas to a liquid on cooling is known as condensation.
Air rises when it is heated.
When water vapour condenses, it forms droplets of water.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

'7.

When it boils, water readily gives off water vapour.

When it meets a body of cold air, the water vapour in the atmosphere condenses.
When these droplets combine, they may become heavy enough to fall as rain.
When it is heated, water evaporates.
Water boils away when it is kept at a temperature of 100 degtees centigrade.

B. What type of clause does as introduce in the following sentence?

e.g. As the temperature of a liquid increases, pressure rises, and its rate of vaporization
increases.

Combine the following sentences by using as.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The temperature of a liquid increases. At the same time, pressure rises.

As the temperature increases, pressure rises.
The speed of diffusion increases. At the same time, the heat of the gas increases.
The frequency of a wave becomes lower. Simultaneously, the wave gets longer.
The focal length ofa convex lens decreases. In contrast, its thickness increases.
The frequency of a wave becomes higher whereas the wave gets shorter.
Melting points of the hydrocarbons tend to rise steadily. Simultaneouslr'. the molecules
become larger.

7.
8.
C.

The more the air holes are opened, the larger the volume of air that is sucked in by the gas
flowing rapidly through the chimney.
The heat released on burning a given hydrocarbon increases regularly with the increasing size
of the molecule.

After whenllthesubject and the verb to be may be left out, if the subiect is the same in both

parts of the sentence.

e.g. When a solid is heated, it absorbs heat energy.

When heated, a solid absorbs heat enerry.
Rewrite these sentences, contracting the when[f clauses.
1. Parallel light rays will diverge when they are reflected from a convex surface.
2. A card will show an inverted image if it is held at the focal point of a convex lens.
3. When it is part of a sphere, a mirror is known as a spherical mirror.
4. An image ii invariabiy inverted when it has been made by passing parallel light ra1's through a
5.
6.

convex lens.
If the minor is convex, it will reflect an image which is smaller than the object in front of it.
When it is struck by parallel light rays, a plane mirror reflects a laterally inverted but identical
image.

7.
8.

Mixtures of methane and chlorine when they are exposed to sunlight react rapidly, reaction
which, at appropriate concentration of the two gases may assume explosive proportions.
If a system in a dynamic equilibrium is subjected to a stress, the system u'ill change, if
possible, to relieve the stress.

92

Section
A.

lll-

Text Structure

and vice versa (Latin)

is often used in scientific writing at the end of a sentence to express

opposition.
e.g. At this point the solid undergoes melting: it changes to a liquid and vice versa.
At this point the solid undergoes melting: it changes to a liquid ond then it changes
back from a liquid to a solid.
Now express fully the meaning of and vice versa in these sentences:
1. Long waves have lower frequencies, and vice versa.
2. A poor heat insulator is a good conductor ofheat, and vice versa'
3. The moon reflects sunlight to the earth, ard vice versa.
4. A dull surface absorbs more heat and reflects less heat than a shiny one, and vice versa.
5. South poles repel south poles and attract nofh poles. and vice versa.
6. The image of an object in a plane mirror is identical, but the left side is on the right, and vice
versa.

B. Sentence Building
Join these sentences using the suggestions in brackets and making any necessary changes. The
first one has already been done for you.
i. Matter affects every part of your life. Energy affects every part of your life' (ike)
Like mafter, energy affects every part of your life.
you
need energy io t".p your heart beating. You need energy to cook food' You need energy
2.
to travel. You need energy to warm the buildings. You live in these buildings.
(comma / comma / comma, and / which)

3. Y",
(or

.arrot t"r.h

energy. You cannot pick up energy. You can use it to do work.

/ but)

4.

change water into steam. (when+v-ing

C. Defining
Look up four of the nouns describing

/ or / when+v-ing / and+v-ing )

a change of state in a dictionary of science, then write a

definition of each one.

A vapour
A gas
A liquid
A solid

D. Classify each of the following as a physical or a chemical change:

burns.
2. Snowflakes form.

6'

l. A candle

water.
can.

3. Sugar dissolves in hot

4. Deodorant spray escapes from a
5 A ham is

sliced.

Strawberries ripen'

7. Wax melts'
8. A solvent removes paint.
9. Paint dries'
10' Grapes ferment into wine'

93

Unit 23 : PF{YSXCS
PREPARING TO READ: Distinguish among

a scientific

1aw, a hypothesis, and a theory'

MATTHR, MASS ANN ENERGY

NEW VOCABULARY

o
angular
egress
hypothesis
inertia
ingress

ffi et the end of last century,

physical science

recognized

three major conservation laws:

the conservation of matter, the

conservation of mass and the

conservation of energY' Other
minor laws, such as those of the
conservation of linear and
momentum, momenta
angular momenta, need not
enter our discussion, since theY
USEFUL LANGUAGE
are mere deductions from the three major laws already mentioned.
of the three major laws, the conservation of matter was the most venerable'
> lnversion of word
It had been iLplied in the atomistic philosophy of Democritus and
order
Lucretius, which supposed all matter to be made up of untreatable'
content of
unalterabie and indestructible atoms. It asserted that the matter
e.g. So difficult was this
of any bit of
the universe remained always the same, and the matter content
problem fhat Einstein
except in so far as
the universe or of any region of space remained the same
could not solve it.
atoms'
of
it was altered by the ingress or egress
atoms-played
(See G. XVl.3.)
The universe was a sta"ge in wtrich always the same actors-the
change of
without
their parts, differing ii disguises and groupings, but
> Reported sPeech:
identiiy. And these actors were endowed with immortality'
modern
exceptions
The second law, that of the conservation of mass, was of more
have
to
substance
piece
or
body
every.
gr"*rf, Newton had supposed
-of
of
measure
gave
a
which
mass,
its
e.g. Newton had shown
associated with it u, unrurying quuniity,
to
another
of
power
engine
that this energY is
its 'inertia'. If one motor-ca.iqui,.t twice the
the
of
mass
the
twice
'conserved',
;qrrl control over its ,notion we say that it has

;;;r,

latter car.
(See G. lX.)

> Avoiding rePetition of

words: the former, the

latter
e.g. lt has twice the mass
of the latter car.
(See G. XlX.1.)

fw'o bodies are

The law of gravitation asserts that the gravitational pulls on
to their masses, so that if the earth's attlaction on two

in exact prJportion

p-r..

to be the same, their'masses' must be the,same'

the most recent of all'
that of conservation of energy,I is
! r -r- - -:*-t
^^+ :^ -,,-.
^
the simplest
Onergy cun er,ist in a vast variety of forms, of which
l:,t11:
of motion-the motion of a train along a level track, or of a billiard
energy is
"r..ff
ball over a table. Newton had shown that this purely mechanical
bodies

il;iltl;;.j;;tpL,
tconserved'.

treated merely
These three conservation laws ought of course to have been

asworkinghypotheses,tobetestedineveryconceivab]e-wayanddiscarded
did they seem to be
as soon *1frly showei signs of failing. Yet so securely
laws.
established that they were heated as indisputable universal
Compan'v'
(fext adapted from G. Tyler Miller Jr', Chemistry' Wadsworth Publishing
California, 1991)

94

Section

l-

Vocabulary Activities

A. Match the following words with the definitions:

angular, discard, egress, hypothesis, inertia' momentum' venerable
1. anguiar having sharP corners
aged, deserviing great resPect or honour

2.
3.

reluctance to change its motton

4.

get rid ofas useless

from an enclosed Place

6'suppositionputforwardtoaccountforcertainfactsandusedasabasisfor
further investigation

l.

the quantity

oi'no"*tnt

in a body' measured by multiplying its

mass by its sPeed

B. Use the word in brackets to complete the sentence'

correct form'
Add the necessary prefix and/or suifix and put the word in the
laws'
science recognized three major conservation
1. At the end of last century,
(PHYSICS)

from the three

mere
bther minor laws need not enter our discussion since they are
major laws. (DEDUCE)
way. (CONCETVE)
J. These laws ought to have been tested in every
. (GROW)
modern
4. The law of the conservation of mass was of more
philosophy of
implied in the
5. The law of the conservation of matter had been
Democritus and Lucretius. (ATOM)
of the universe remained always the same'
6. This law asserted that the matter

2.

(coNTAIN)

of forms. (VARIOUS)

Energy can exist in a vast

your text to the following words'

C. Find 5 near synonyms and 7 near antonyms in
SYNONYMS

1.

2.
3.

4.
5.

disguise

mask is similar in meaning

attraction is similar in meaning to
simply is similar in meaning to
widespread is similar in meaning to
conservation is similar in meaning to

ANTONYMS
putting uN-, /N-, or lM- in front of them'
Qpposites or negatives of many words are made by
ingress
1. egress is nearly opposite in meaning to
2. triatable is nearly opposite in meaning to
3. alterable is nearly opposite in meaning to
4. destructible is nearly opposite in meaning to
5. mortality is nearly opposite in meaning to
6. varying is nearly opposite in meaning to
7. disputable is nearly opposite in meaning to

95

Section

II- Language Focus

A, What's the basic difference

in word order between these two

sentences?

e.g. Yet so securely did the laws seem to be established that they were
treated as indisputable universal laws.

Yet the laws seemed to be established so securely that they were

treated as indisputable universal laws.

Rewrite these sentences by using the adverb so in initial position,

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

This problem was so difficult that Einstein could not solve it

So difficult uras this problem that Einstein could not solve it.
Steam is so hot that it expands the mercury rapidly.
A cube of wood is so light that it floats.
Bacteria, however, are so tiny that they can pass through even the finest filter.
The amount of chlorine added to water is so large that it can affect its taste ven' much
The expansion of water inside the bottle was so great that it overflou,ed the tube.

B. ls this sentence correct? Why?

e.g. Newton had shown that this purely mechanical energy is 'conseryed'.
Use the correct verb forms:

1.

The law of the conservation of matter asserted that the matter content of the universe

2.

Someone once said that the difference between a scientist and an artist
rro be) the
difference befween discoverv and creation.
(to be) the largest ofall planets.
I learned recently that Jupiter
Mendeleev discovered that if the elements were arranged in order of ilcreasing atomic

(remain) always the same.

J.

4.

5.

(have) similar properties.

every eighth element
The Apollo mission didn't succeed in demonstrating that there
moon.

(to be1 life on the

C. What meaning is conveyed by the latterin the following sentence?

e.g.

If

one motor-car requires twice the engine power of another to give us equal control o\,er
its motion we say that it has twice the mass of the latter car.

Read and rewrite these sentences by using fhe former

1.

/ the latter.

Electrons orbit the nucleus just as planets orbit the sun.

former rotate an elliptical orbit and so do the latter.

The

2.
3.
4"

5.
6.

Thenucleusofanatomismainlycomposedofprotonsandneutrons.Protons carn apositive

charge, while neutrons have no electric charge.

An atom of hydrogen

possesses a single proton, whereas an atom of uranium possesses 92.

Therefore, an atom of uranium is much heavier than an atom of hydrogen.
An element is composed of similar atoms, and a compound is composed of different atoms.
An element cannot be decomposed into other substances, but a compound can.
In any magnet there is a south pole and a north pole. The south pole repels a1l other south
poles and the north pole repels all other north poles.
A football will fall more slowly than a stone of the same size, because the,foorball has
a lower density than the stone.

96

Section

lll-

Text Structure

paragraph.
A. Divide the text into paragraphs specifying the introductory words of -eqch
Paragraph I At the end of last century

ParagraphZ
Paragraph 3
Paragraph 4
Paragraph 5

B. A well.written text should have a topic sentence that expresses the main idea of the text.
Can you find the topic sentence in your text?
C. Extract the main idea of each paragraph.
Paragraph

Paragraph2
Paragraph 3
Paragraph 4
Paragraph 5

from
D. What does the first law of thermodynamics state? Choose the most scientific statement
the variants presented below.
1. According to the first law of thermodynamics, we will never run out of energy.
Z. The first law of thermodynamics statis that energy can neither be created nor destroyed'source
3. The first law of thermodynamics asserts that we can harness energy from whatever
it usefully'
to
transform
enough
clever
we
are
if
on
so
gas,
and
naturai
geothermal,
solar,
4. ln all chemical and physical changes, energy is neither created nor destroyed but merely
transformed from one form to another.
5. The first law of thermodynamics says that the total energy of the system plus its surroundings

must staY the same.

E. Distinguish among the three laws of conservation using the following words:
The law refers to / asserts that / states that / says that
According to this la\Y
As far as this law is concerned
On the basis of this theory
nature
F. Exemplify some applications of the three laws of conservation from
G. Classify each of the following as a law, a theory, or a hypothesis:

1. All matter is composed of elements.

1 )+):a
3. Black cats bring bad luck.
4. The sun will set tonight.
5. The gravitational pult of the sun and moon causes tides'
6. It will rain tomorrow.
7. Heat flows spontaneously from hot to cold areas'
8. There will be aparty tonight on campus.
97

or everyday life.

rr

it 24 : ? l-l:r'S IC S

PREPARING TO READ: Can you avoid radioactivity?

nise *vffiffiY
NEW VOCABULARY

o
damp
to emit

emission

exposure
pitchblende
sample
shed

>Formal subjunctive
e.g. suggested that this

called-

(See G. XVll, 1.)

> Reported

questions
e,g. He wondered why
this happened.
(See G. lX. 1.)

> Passive voioe

e.g. Little was known
about

this-

(See G. Vlll.)

I
I

RAiiiffiAcTt\ti'i'\r

One winter day in 1896, Henri

Becquerel, a French PhYsicist, Put a
sample of uranium rock on toP of an
unexposed photographic plate in a desk
drawer; then he left for a brief vacation'

ffi

When he returned several days later, he

was surprised to find that the film in

the drawer had a faint image of the

uranium rock. He did not expect this

USEFUL LANGUAGE

he

0r

because the plate had been heavily wrapped to prevent accidental exposure'

Becquerel wondered why this happened. He concluded that somehow the

,.uriurn rock had emitted some highly energetic rar s that penetrated the
protective covering and exposed the photographic p1ate. \larie Curie, a
scientist working *ith B.rq.,erel, suggested that this phenomenon be called
radioactivity.
During the next few years, Marie Curie and her husband. Pierre. processed

pitchblende. Working long hours in an

abandoned shed, which was hot and smelly in summer and cold and damp in
winter, they eventually obtained a few tenths of a gram of tn'o new
elements, both radioaCtive. One was the element polonium (Po). which
Marie named for her homeland, Poland. The other u,as radium 1Ra), named
from the Latin word for raY.
Tlpes of radioactivity. Becquerel and other scientists discovered three types of
nuturul radioactive emissions. They were named after the first three letters in the
Greek alphabet - alpha (u), beta (0), and gamma (y). Alpha emissions are the
least penetrating arrd have a positive electrical charge; beta emissions have a
negative charge; and gamma rays, the most penetrating of all. have no charge.
These emissions come from the nuclei of atoms that haYe an unstable
combination of protons and neutrons. Such nuclei change their internal
structure by emitting one or more of these types of radiation. Some isotopes
are unstable, and ioln. u." not. An isotope that spontaneously emits
radiation is called aradioactive isotope, or radioisotope'
Effects of radioactivity. Scientists have slowly leamed. the hard way, how
radioactivity affects living things. Lifile was known about this at the turn of
last century when Marie Curie worked with radioactive materials in her
Paris laboratory. Because of her exposure to radioactiviry, she suffered from
anemia, had a miscarriage and eventually died of leukemia. The effects of
radioactivity on your body depend on the amount and frequency of
exposure, itr. typ. of radiation and whether the radiation comes from
ouiside or insidi your body. From the outside, alpha emitters are the least
dangerous because they cannot penetrate your skin. Beta emissions don't
p"rit ut. the skin well, either. Gamma rays are the most dangerous because
they easily pass through your skin and into your body'

and p-urified several tons

(Text adaptedfrom
Califomi4 1991)

of

G.Tyler Miller Jr., Chemistry, wadsworth Publishing companl'.

98

Section

I- Vocabulary Activities

A. Match the following words with the definitions:

ffi ct, amount, emis sion, exposure, mis carriage, penetrating,

pit chbl ende, pr ev ent, pr oc e s s ed, s ampl e
pitchblende

L
2.
3.
4.

an ore rich in uranium.

put through a manufacturing process

leaving something uncovered

abortion occurring without being induced
making a way into or through, piercing
the act of sending out heat, light, fumes, lava, etc'
a small separated part showing the quality of the whole
to have an effect on
to keep a thing from haPPening
the total of anything

5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.

B. Use the word in brackets to complete the sentence.

Add the necessary prefix and/or suffix and put the word in the correct form'

l.

2.
3.
4.

are the least dangerous because they cannot penetrate

From the outside, alPha

your skin. (EMIT)

Pass through your skin and into

Gamma rays are the most dangerous because they
your body. (EASY)
things' (LIVE)
Scientists have slowlY learned how radioactivity affects
discoveredthreetypesofnaturalradioactiveemissions.
Becquerel and other

5.
6.

(scrENCE)
shed, which
Marie curie and her husband Piene worked long hours in an
(ABANDON)
winter.
in
was hot and smelly in summer and cold and damp
xposure. (ACCIDENT)
The plate had been heavily wrapped to prevent
on top ora(n)
Henii Becquerer' atr'ffiHfL

i;:

,lT;J'?1"'""-".1:i;}ffi$k

words;
C. Find 8 near synonyms and 4 near antonyms in your text to the following
SYNONYMS

l.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

to

brief
short is similar in meaning
ultimately/finally is similar in meaning to
shelter is similar in meaning to
fade/colourless is similar in meaning to
packed is similar in meaning to
wet is similar in meaning to
specimen is similar in meaning to
marvelled/was surprised is similar in meaning to

ANTONYMS

1.
2.
3.
4.

exposed is nearly opposite in meaning to

voluntarily is nearly opposite in meaning to
lightly is nearly opposite in meaning to
intentional is nearly opposite in meaning to

unexposed

99

i*4

Section

Il-

Language Focus

A, ls this sentence correct? Why?

e.g. Marie Curie suggested that this phenomenon be called radioactivity.

Use the correct verb forms in the following sentences:

1. Thompson proposed that negatively charged particles
2.

all atoms.
It is imperative that the nucleus of an atom
protons and positively uncharged neutrons.
It is likely that a compound such as water
atoms combined in a specific, simple, whole number ratio-

(bel a fundamental part of

kontairy both positir ely charged

(consistl of

h1

drogen and oxYgen

(he rnade) in nafure.

(interpret) the data of the scientific lau's and theones'

4.

Scientists demanded that observations and measurements

5.

It was high time that

6.

It is imperative

scientists

that the radiation beam

area to minimize the damage to other cells.

(focusl precisell on the tumour

B. What type of clause does why introduce in the following example?

why this phenomenon happened.
Report the following questions, making any necessary changes.
1. How does radioactivity affect living things?
-

e.g. Becquerel wondered

2.

3.
4.

5.
6.
7.

Scientists learned how radioactivity affected living things.

Does the radiation come from outside or inside your body?
Scientists did not know
Why is the exposure to radioactivity harmful?
They wondered
Is there a special branch of medicine called nuclear medicine?
He enquired
How much exposure to radioactivity is harmful?
The sick woman wanted to find
Why do cancer patients exposed to radioactivity to kill cancer cell have nausea. diarrhea and
low white blood cell count?
I did not know
What are the beneficial uses of radioactivity?
They wondered

out-.

C. What is the difference in meaning between these two sentences?

e.g. The three emissi ons were named after the first three letters in the Greek alphabet.
Scientist s named the tree emissions after the first three letters in the Greek alphabet.

Rewrite these sentences in the active voice.

1. The plate had been heavily wrapped to prevent accidental exposure.
Becquerel hadheavily wrapped the plate to prevent accidental exposure.
2. An isotope that spontaneously emits radiation is called a radioisotope.

3.
t
i
I

t
I
I

4.
5.
6.

Physicists
Little was known about this at the turn of last century'
Scientists
This treatment must be strictly confined to the tumour area.
Phvsicians
Other isotopes are used to detect blockages.
Radiotherapy
Rapidly growing normal ce lls will also be killed wben exposed to radioactivitl.
Exposure to radioactivity
100

I
t

Section Ill

Text Structure

Rewrite these sentences as one sentence beginning with the word(s)

provided. Then check against the text.

A.

1.

Marie curie and her husband Pierre had been working long hours in
an abandoned shed. This was hot and smelly in summer.
This was cold and damp in winter. They eventually obtained a few tenths of a gram of two
new elements. These were both radioactive.

2.

Working
Marie Curie was exposed to radioactivity. She suffered from anemia. She had a miscarriage.
Evenhrally she died of leukemia.
Because

of

in the
Henry Becquerel returned sevbral days later. He was surprised to find. The fihn was
drawer. It had a faint image of the uranium rock.
When

the uranium rock emitted some highly energetic rays. They

penetrated the protective covering. They exposed the photographic plate.

4. Be.qrffiw

Becquerel concluded

B. The table below shows the important features of alpha, beta and gamma emissions.
Name

ldentity

Alpha (o)

Helium -

Beta (B)

nucleus
electron

Gamma

charge ^fi::"J

Velocity
5-10% ofthe

2+

soeed of I

up to 90% of the

of lieht

(y)

Penetrating
Power

High-energY
speed of light

radiation similar to

low
low to
moderate

high

X rays
Comparison and Contrast.
using the data in the
Find similarities and ditferences among the three types of emissions, by
table above. Similarly, use the following indications:
As compared to /In comparison with / In contrast to / W'hereas
X is dffirent / dffirs from Y in a number of respects
X is identical / similar to in a number of respects

It is worth noticing / mentioning

Consequently / As a result / Thus
This

That explains whY

C. Drawing conclusions.
Which emission is the most dangerous of the three types?
Which emission is the least dangerous of the three types?
Answer the questions using the following indications:
From the data in the table it can be inferred / concluded / estimated
In conclusion / To conclude / To sum up

101

Llmit 25 : PE-lYSiCS
pREpARING TO READ: Skim-read these two texts. In terms of subject-maner $'hat do they
have in common?

$qST'm,Rfitt$,
NEW VOCABULARY

o
to crash
to disrupt
to duck
extinction
strain
task force
to trigger

USEFUL LANGUAGE
> Although and but

e.g. Although there is no

record, a large asteroid
could destroy civilization.
(See G. Xlll. 3, 6.)

>Adj+ enough + inf

to reduce clauses of

Text 1.
A scientific task force has reported that
collisions with "near-earth objects", such
as asteroids and comets, are no longer the

stuffofscience fiction, but represent

a real

threat. US and French ashonomers

recently calculated that 900 asteroids, all 1

km acioss or larger, are whizzing around
the solar system on orbits that cross that of
killed b1 a comet or
the earth. Although there is no record of any person being
to the task force,
AccordLng
asteroid, a large one could destroy civilisation.
thus
Ln advance,
ears
gou.^**ts s"hould aim to detect a potential collision )
the
hit
space
Objects trom
ilrlrrg them time to take emergency measures.as shootir" stars. However, a
Jarth-all the time but most burn up harmlessly
uiggering al
100-metre object crashes into the planet every 10.000 1ears.
1 km in
object
.{n
ofr
let
ever
bomb
powerful
explosion larier than the most
most
The
100.000
everl'
iears.
diameter r.oi., a direct hit on the planet
65
million
dinosaurs
famous of these coincided with the ixtinction of the
hit solid earth u'ould lbrm a crater ten
v.*, ugo. An asteroid of this size that the
stratosphere $ ith dust. blotting out
times its own size and would shower
those $ho survived
the sun, shutting down all plant growth and condemning
to death by cold and starvation'

result

e.g. The dust and/or

vapour cloud could be
big enough to create a
,,nuclear winter".
(See G. lV. 5.)

Text 2.
a large asteroid, say
The press and Hollywood often focus on the impact of
impact
t tm in diameter, which would wipe out life within prorimitl' of the
The
ways'
in indirect
site. More seriously, it would affect the whole world
ocean
created by an impact to either the land or the
au.t unalor rupou,
and
"lord
.oriJ U" big enough to create a ,pucleai winter"' like a mini-ice age'
disruptclimatepatterns,adverselyaffectingmajorfood-grou'ingregionsof
such an impact is
the world and strainini world food supplfts. However.
greater
quite unlikely over the next thousand years, at least' Of much
are far
w'hich
range.
concern should be asteroids in the 30 to 200 metre
crater in Arizona, measuring roughly a km
;;;.; in number. The Meteornickel-iron
rock only about 30 metres across'
in diameter, was caused by a
until it's
That,s avery small asteroia *ni"n we couldn't see from telescopes
duck for
but
.igfri utor. ihe earth - when it's much too late to do anything
impact
ocean
an
.ou"I.. However, as,70/o of the Earth is covered by oceans.
mainly
would be much more damaging. An asteroid hitting land causes
localiseddamage'Theeffectsofanoceanimpactwould!eflitmuchfurther
propagation
u*uy tt un the Jffects of a land impact, due to the more effective
of water waves.
(TextadaptedfromFionaScott-Barrett,NewProJiciency,PearsonEducationLimited,
England, 2002).

102

Section

l- Vocabulary Activities

A, Match the following words with the definitions:

crash, disrupt, duck, emergency, extinction,let off, strain, taskforce, trigger, whizz
1.

taskforce

2
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.

9.
10.

military group formed for a short time to deal with a particular problem
to move quickly up and down, especially to avoid being seen or hit
serious happening or situation needing prompt action
to cause a vehicle or aircraft to have a collision
the process of extinguishing
to set in action
to make a sound like that of moving at great speed through air
to cause to explode
to interrupt the flow or continuitY
to stretch tightly, to make taut

B. Find in your text two different words with the meaning ,,to destroy completely"'
C, Gompound nouns are very common in English, They help us describe exactly what we are
talking about. Many of them contain an -ing form, Look over the examples and define them as

indicated.
e.g. near-earth objects > obiects that/which are near the earth
food- growing regions ->regions that/which grow food
Read and rewrite these as in the example above.

1. rope made by hand

2. an effect that lasts a long time

3. a job that consumes a lot of time

4. adrugthat
5.
6.

forms habit
a display that catches the eYe
a record that plays long

7. wire made of copper

8.
9.

a view that takes your breath away

a decision that reaches far

10. an event that shakes the world

1 1. a shark that eats man
12. envelopes that seal themselves

D. Find synonyms in your text to the following words:

damaging

harmful is similar in meaning to

importance is similar in meaning to
nearness is similar in meaning to
subject-matter is similar in meaning to
collide is similar in meaning to
transmittance is similar in meaning to
unfavourably is similar in meaning to
hunger is similar in meaning to

E. Find antonyms in your text to the following words:

1.

2.

J.
4.

harmless is nearly opposite in meaning to

smoothly is nearly opposite in meaning to
carelessness is nearly opposite in meaning to
probable is nearly opposite in meaning to

103

damaging

Section

ll-

Language Focus

A. Sentences with although and buf. Study the following

patterns:
e,g. Although there is no record of any person being killed bi' a
comet or asteroid, a large one could destroy civilisation'
There is no record of any person being killed by a comet or
asteroid but alatge one could destroy civilisation'

join them together as in the

Find the sentence in List B which matches a sentence in List A and
example above.
List A

List B

oil deposits are not very extensive

2. the majority of our engineering products
are made of iron and steel
3. ammonia will not catch fire in the air

a) heat rapidly causes the acid to distrl or er

b) it is a substance which fills up space
c) the efficiency of the engine \\,as not seriouslr

1. the

4. water is never manufactured

5. there is a small leakage of steam

6. in simple single-celled animals oxygen

is directly absorbed
7. air is invisible
8. lead is a base metal

affected
d) in larger animals this process u ould be

tc'ro

slow
e) it has many imPortant uses
fl other non-ferrous metals are sometimes used

g) it frequently has to be Purified

h) they are still worth exPloring

B. Compare these two ways of expressing the same idea:

or the ocean could
e.g. The dust and/or vapour cloud created by an impact to either the land
be so big that they might create a ,,nuclear winter"'
ocean could
The dust and/or rupo; cloud created by an impact to either the land or the
be big enough to create a ,,nuclear winter"'

+infinitive.
Rewrite the sentences by using adiective+enough
of industry'
1. The world,s supply of natural rubber is not so large that it can satisfy the needs
tube.
the
it
overflowed
great
that
so
Z. The expansion oiwater inside the bottle was
3. Steam is so hot that it expands the mercury rapidly'
4. These droplets may become so large and healy that they are precipitated as rain'

5.
6.
7.

A cube of lead is so hear'y that it sinks'

When steam touches a mirror, it becomes so cold that it condenses.
hearl that they fall'
When the tiny droplets in a cloud combine, they may become so large and

O LISTENING

Listen to the recording and fill in the gaps with the most appropriate text organizers
(but, however, etc.).

stone, comets are aggregates of ice and

are composed of metal
they hit the atmosphere the-Y start breaking up'
are weaklY held together -dust,
faster.
they get further down the pressure increases and they break up
a denselY PoPulated
over
A
blast
heat'
scorching
explosion
- with a brilliant flash and
area would kill 1.5 million people.
asteroids,

-afl
104

Section

Ill- Text Structure

A. Word-Order
One word is in the wrong position in each of these

sentences. Show with an arrow where the wrongly'

placed word should be. Then check against the text'

1.

The press and Hollywood focus often on the

impact of a large asteroid, say 1 km in diameter,
which would wipe out life within proximity of
the impact site.

Z.

be
The dust and/or vapour cloud created by an impact to either the land or the ocean cotrld
enough big to create a ,,nuclear winter".

B. Questions on the texts

1.
2.

4.

By using the phrase ,,are no longer the stuff of science fiction" what impression does

the

author give of the risks of collisions with near-earth objects?

,'?
What exactly was it that ,, coincided with the extinction of the dinosaurs
What is meant by ,,duckfor cover"?
Which phrases in Text i echoe the idea of ,,death by cold and starvation" mentioned in the

final line of Text

1?

C, Defining

Look up in-a dictionary of science, then write the definitions of near'earth objects.

Asteroids
Comets
Meteorites
D. Summarizing

potential
Eight content ploints are listed below. Decide which four points best summarize the
main ideas of the texts.

1.

A smaller asteroid landing in the

sea could create tsunami,

inflicting catastrophic damage to

coastal cities.

2. Asteroids are solar system bodies smaller than planets but larger than meteoroids'
3. 900 asteroids are whizzing around the solar system on orbits crossing the earth'
4. So far, many people have been killed by asteroids'
5. A potentiai collision should be detected years in advance to allow governments to take
measures.

6. ln the longer-term
7.
8.

the impact of a large asteroid could create major climate changes and

worldwide food shortages.

Collisions with asteroids represent a real threat.
The impact of large asteroid would destroy life in the immediate area.

E. Arrange the

four main ideas in logical order.

F. Writing a summary

Rewrite the four main content points in your own words, paraphrasing them if necessary.

105

m m m m E8 m m

Seria

Ea

m Eru m m

Eru EQ

Eg m

,nuto[ifact
Liana Pop
(coord.)

mmmmmm

EB

m m m m E0mm m m m Ee

Michaela Radu

Dorina Zaharescu

tEngfisfr
$2-C7

Chemistry
Computer Science
Environmental Science
Mathematics
Physics

CHltCIX