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Theodolite Surveying
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theodolite
state the fundamental lines of a theodolite
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Learning Objectives
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Introduction
In Chapter 3, we discussed compass surveying. A compass measures the direction
by measuring the angle between the line and a reference direction, which is the
magnetic meridian. A compass can measure angles up to an accuracy of 30 and
by judgement up to an accuracy of 15. The principle of working of the compass is
based on the property of the magnetic needle, which when freely suspended, takes
the northsouth direction. Compass measurements are thus affected by external
chapter, we will discuss another method of measuring directions of lines; a theodolite
is very commonly used to measure angles in survey work.
There are a variety of theodolitesvernier, optic, electronic, etc. The improvements (from one form to the other) have been made to ensure ease of operation,
better accuracy, and speed. Electronic theodolites display and store angles at the press
of a button. This data can also be transferred to a computer for further processing.
We start our discussion with the simplest theodolitethe vernier theodolite. Other
forms of theodolites are discussed at the end of this chapter.
The vernier theodolite is a simple and inexpensive instrument but very valuable
in terms of measuring angles. The common vernier theodolite measures angles up
to an accuracy of 20
in a compass, where the line of sight is simple, restricting its range, theodolites
are provided with telescopes which provide for much greater range and better accuracy in sighting distant objects. It is, however, a delicate instrument and needs to
be handled carefully. The theodolite measures the horizontal angles between lines
and can also measure vertical angles. The horizontal angle measured can be the
is the angle in a vertical plane between the inclined line of sight of the instrument
and the horizontal. In the following sections we will discuss the vernier theodolite
as well as its applications in surveying.
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14
12
13
15
16
6
7
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4
10
15
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10
11
14
6
7
4
5
2
3
17
2
3
1
18
18
Trivet
Tribrach
Foot screw
Inner axis
Outer axis
Vernier plate
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
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at
Lower plate
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Levelling head The levelling head is the base of the instrument. It has the provision to attach the instrument to a tripod stand while in use and attach a plumb bob
along the vertical axis of the instrument. The levelling head essentially consists
of two triangular plates kept a distance apart by levelling screws. The upper plate
of the levelling head, also known as the tribrach, has three arms, each with a foot
screw. Instruments with four foot screws for levelling are also available. In terms
of wear and tear, the three-foot-screw instrument is preferable. The lower plate,
also known as the trivet, has a central hole and a hook to which a plumb bob can be
attached. In modern instruments, the base plate of the levelling head has two plates
which can move relative to each other. This allows a slight movement of the levelling head relative to the tripod. This is called a shifting head and helps in centring
the instrument over the station quickly. The functions of the levelling head are to
support the upper part of the instrument, attach the theodolite to a tripod, attach a
plumb bob, and help in levelling the instrument with the foot screws.
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cylindrical part. The graduations are provided all around, from 0 to 360, in the
clockwise direction. The graduations are in degrees divided into three parts so
that each division equals 20. An axis through the centre of the plate is known as
the outer axis or the centre. Horizontal angles are measured with this plate. The
diameter of the lower plate is sometimes used to indicate the size of or designate
the instrument; for example, a 100-mm theodolite.
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Upper plate The upper plate is also a horizontal plate of a smaller diameter
attached to a solid, vertical spindle. The bevelled edge of the horizontal part
carries two verniers on diametrically opposite parts of its circumference. These
verniers are generally designated A and B. They are used to read fractions of the
horizontal circle plate graduations. The centre of the plate or the spindle is known
as the inner axis or centre. The upper and lower plates are enclosed in a metal cover
to prevent dust accumulation. The cover plate has two glass windows longer than
the vernier length for the purpose of reading. Attached to the cover plate is a metal
arm hinged to the centre carrying two magnifying glasses at its ends. The magnifying glasses are used to read the graduations clearly.
Two axes or centres The inner axis as mentioned earlier is the axis of the conical
spindle attached to the upper or vernier plate. The outer axis is the centre of the
hollow cylindrical part attached to the lower or circle plate. These two axes coincide and form the vertical axis of the instrument, which is one of the fundamental
lines of the theodolite.
Clamps and tangent screws There are two clamps and associated tangent or
slow-motion screws with the plates. The clamp screws facilitate the motion of the
instrument in a horizontal plane. The lower clamp screw locks or releases the lower
plate. When this screw is unlocked, the lower and upper plates move together. The
associated lower tangent screw allows small motion of the plates in the locked
position. The upper clamp screw locks or releases the upper vernier plate. When
this clamp is released (with the lower clamp locked), the lower plate does not
move but the vernier plate moves with the instrument. This causes a change in the
reading. The upper tangent screw allows for a small motion of the vernier plate for
in the horizontal plane. The construction of the clamp and tangent screws is shown
in Fig. 6.2.
Outer cover
Outer axis
Inner axis
Tangent
screw
Spring
box
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Lower clamp
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1
3
7 8
9 10
11
12
13
50
60
70
80 90
10 20
30
40
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40
30
0
20 1
90 80 7
0
60
50
Quadrants 090
(c) Main circle plate graduations
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Plate level The plate level is a spirit level with a bubble and graduations on the
provided. The spirit level can be adjusted with the foot screw of the levelling head.
The bubble of the spirit level can be moved with the foot screws of the levelling
head, which is a very fundamental adjustment required for using the theodolite.
A small circular bubble may be provided for rough adjustment before levelling.
Index frame The index frame, also known as a T-frame or vernier frame, is a
T-shaped metal frame. The horizontal arm carries at its ends two verniers, which
C and D. The vertical leg of the T-frame, known as the clipping arm, has clipping
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top of this frame. When the telescope is rotated in a vertical plane, the vertical
circle moves and vertical angles are measured on the vertical circle with the help
of these verniers.
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Standard or A-frame Two standards in the shape of the letter A are attached
to the upper plate. The horizontal axis of the instrument is attached to these standards. The clipping arm of the index frame and the arm of the vertical circle clamp
are also attached to the A-frame. The A-frame supports the telescope and the
vertical circle.
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Telescope The telescope is a vital part of the instrument. It enables one to see
stations that are at great distances. The essential parts of a telescope are the eyepiece, diaphragm with cross hairs, object lens, and arrangements to focus the telescope. A focusing knob is provided on the side of the telescope. Earlier, external
focusing telescopes were used. Today, only internal focusing telescopes are used
in theodolites. These reduce the length of the telescope. The telescope may carry
a spirit level on top in some instruments. The optics of the telescope and other
details have been discussed in Chapter 1.
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Vertical circle The vertical circle is a circular plate supported on the trunnion
or horizontal axis of the instrument between the A-frames. The vertical circle has
a bevelled edge on which graduations are marked. The graduations are generally
quadrantal, 090 in the four quadrants as shown in Fig. 6.2. The full circle system
of graduations can also be seen in some instruments. The vertical circle moves
with the telescope when it is rotated in a vertical plane. A metal cover is provided
to protect the circle and the verniers from dust. Two magnifying glasses on metal
arms are provided to read the circle and verniers. The cover has glass or plastic
Vertical circle clamp and tangent screw The vertical circle is provided with a
vertical circle, the telescope cannot be moved in a vertical plane. The tangent screw
allows for a slow, small motion of the vertical circle.
Altitude level
is used for levelling, particularly when taking vertical angle observations.
Compass
horizontal plates. Two plates with graduations are provided in the compass box for
ensuring that the needle ends are centred. The needle can be locked or released by
a pin. When released, the telescope can be turned in azimuth to make the north end
of the needle point to the north by making it read zero.
Tripod One accessory essential with the theodolite is the tripod on which it is
mounted when it has to be used. The tripod head is screwed onto the base or the
lower part of the levelling head. Its legs should be spread out for stability. The legs
of the tripod are also used for rough levelling.
Plumb bob A heavy plumb bob on a good string with a hook at the end is re-
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hook or other device projecting from the centre of the instrument in a central
opening in the levelling head.
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Main circle and vernier graduations In most of the instruments, the vernier
enables readings up to 20 of the arc. This is made possible by marking the graduations on the circle and the vernier suitably as follows. As shown in Fig. 6.2(b),
the main circle is graduated into degrees and each degree is divided into three
parts. Each main scale division thus represents 2. For the vernier, 59 main scale
divisions are taken and divided into 60 parts. 59 main scale divisions form 59
20. Therefore, each vernier scale division represents 59 20/60 minutes. As you
would have studied earlier, least count of the vernier = difference between a main
scale division and a vernier scale division = main scale division vernier scale
division. Hence, in this case,
Least count = 20 59 20/60 = 1/3 = (1/3) 60 = 20
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6.2 Terminology
It is important to clearly understand the terms associated with the theodolite
and its use and meaning. The following are some important terms and their
Vertical axis It is a line passing through the centre of the horizontal circle and
perpendicular to it. The vertical axis is perpendicular to the line of sight and the
trunnion axis or the horizontal axis. The instrument is rotated about this axis for
sighting different points.
Horizontal axis It is the axis about which the telescope rotates when rotated in
a vertical plane. This axis is perpendicular to the line of collimation and the vertical axis.
Telescope axis It is the line joining the optical centre of the object glass to the
centre of the eyepiece.
Line of collimation It is the line joining the intersection of the cross hairs to the
optical centre of the object glass and its continuation. This is also called the line
of sight.
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Centring Centring the theodolite means setting up the theodolite exactly over the
station mark. At this position the plumb bob attached to the base of the instrument
lies exactly over the station mark.
Transiting It is the process of rotating the telescope about the horizontal axis
through 180. The telescope points in the opposite direction after transiting. This
process is also known as plunging or reversing.
Swinging It is the process of rotating the telescope about the vertical axis for
the purpose of pointing the telescope in different directions. The right swing is a
rotation in the clockwise direction and the left swing is a rotation in the counterclockwise direction.
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Face-left or normal position This is the position in which as the sighting is done,
the vertical circle is to the left of the observer.
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Changing face It is the operation of changing from face left to face right and vice
versa. This is done by transiting the telescope and swinging it through 180.
Face-left observation It is the reading taken when the instrument is in the normal
or face-left position.
Face-right observation It is the reading taken when the instrument is in the
inverted or face-right position.
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3. To centre the plumb bob, shift the tripod legs radially as well as circumferentially. Moving any leg radially shifts the plumb bob in the direction of
the leg. This does not affect the level status of the instrument. Moving any
leg circumferentially does not appreciably shift the plumb. However, this
movement tilts the instrument and affects the level of the plate bubbles. By
moving the legs the plumb bob is brought over the station mark at the same
time ensuring that the instrument is approximately level. This saves a lot of
time for the next operation of levelling.
(or the instrument as a whole) to bring the plumb bob over the station mark.
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6.3.2 Levelling
After setting up and centring the instrument, levelling is done. Levelling has to
be done at every station the instrument is set up. By levelling the instrument, it is
ensured that as the instrument is swung about the vertical axis, the horizontal plate
moves in a horizontal plane. The instrument may have a three-screw or a four-screw
levelling head. The levelling operations differ slightly in these two cases as detailed
in the following sections. Most instruments have only one bubble tube, but some
instruments have two bubble tubes set at right angles over the plates.
Three-screw levelling head
When the theodolite has a three-screw levelling head, the following procedure is
adopted.
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1. Swing the theodolite and bring the plate bubble parallel to any two of the foot
screws. Centre the bubble by rotating the foot screws. To do this, hold the foot
rotate both either inwards
or outwards [see Fig. 6.3(a)]. Also note that the bubble moves in the direction
of movement of the left thumb during this operation.
2. Once the bubble traverses (or comes to the central position from the graduation of the tube), swing the instrument and bring the bubble over the third foot
screw. In this position, the bubble tube is at right angles to the earlier position.
Centre the bubble by rotating the third foot screw alone.
Foot screw
Level
Bubble
movement
Level
Level
Thumb
movement
(a)
(b)
256
3. Bring the plate bubble to its previous position by swinging the instrument back.
Check whether the bubble traverses. If it does not traverse, bring the bubble to
the centre using the two foot screws as before.
4. Repeat the procedure till the bubble traverses in both these positions.
5. Swing the instrument through 180 and check whether the bubble traverses.
The bubble should traverse in all positions if the instrument has been properly
adjusted.
If two plate bubbles are provided [see Fig. 6.3(b)], the procedure is the same
except that swinging the instrument through 90 is not required. When one plate
level is kept parallel to a pair of foot screws, the other plate level is over the
third foot screw (in a perpendicular direction). The third foot screw is adjusted
alternately by the same process using the foot screws over which they are parallel.
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When the theodolite has a four-screw levelling head, the following procedure is
adopted.
1. After setting up and centring the theodolite, bring the plate level parallel to
any one pair of diagonally opposite foot screws. Operate these foot screws to
centre the bubble (Fig. 6.4).
2. Swing the instrument to bring the plate level parallel to the other pair of foot
screws. Centre the bubble.
3. Swing it back to the previous position. Check whether the bubble traverses.
If it does not, centre it with the foot screws to which the level is parallel.
4. Swing it back, check the position of the bubble, and repeat the procedure.
5. Once the bubble traverses in the two orthogonal positions, swing it through
180. The bubble should traverse in this position or in any other position.
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If two plate levels are provided, the procedure is the same. Bring one plate
level parallel to a pair of opposite foot screws. The other pair will be parallel to the
remaining pair of foot screws. There is no need to swing the instrument. Bring the
bubble to the central position alternately and check in the other positions.
taking the readings, this has to be done only once. To focus the eyepiece, use the
following procedure.
1. Keep a piece of white paper in front of the telescope or direct the telescope
towards a clear portion of the sky.
2. Looking through the telescope, adjust the vision by rotating the eyepiece till
the cross hairs come into sharp and clear view.
3. If the eyepiece has graduations, note the graduation at which you get a clear
view of the cross hairs. This can help in later adjustment if required.
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258
8. To set the instrument to zero at the plate circle, release the upper clamp and
rotate the instrument about the vertical axis. On the vernier A, make the zero
of the circle coincide with the zero of the vernier. Tighten the upper clamp and
using the upper tangent screw, make the zeros exactly coincide. This can be
tions on either side are symmetrical. Verify the condition on vernier B as well,
where the 180 graduation should coincide with the zero of the vernier.
9. While bisecting the signals or setting the zero reading, keep the line of sight
in such a position that the tangent screw moves the sight in the same direction
as the movement of the instrument. If the movement is clockwise, then the
tangent screw is adjusted to move the cross hairs from left to right.
10. Operate a tangent screw only after clamping the corresponding clamp screw.
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Read the circle by bringing the glass over the reading and looking directly over
the reading to avoid any parallax error.
12. While bisecting stations with the theodolite, the station mark should be very
clear and must be a point. Bisect either the cross marks on pegs at their intersection or the ranging rod and arrow at their lowest pointed end.
13. Clamp screws and tangent screws need careful handling. Do not apply great
force on these screws and handle them delicately during survey work.
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5. Read both the verniers A and B. The reading at A will give the angle directly.
The reading at B will be 180 + POQ.
6. If there is any difference, take the average of the two values as the correct
angle.
Horizontal angles are measured this way for ordinary work. The accuracy can be
improved by reading the angles with face-left and face-right observations and taking
the average of the two. For more precise work, the angles are repeatedly measured
with both the faces and the average taken. This method is known as the repetition
method and is described below.
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1st
123 25
40 Q
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(a)
20
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61 112
123
2nd
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00
0
O
42
00
40
5
20
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3rd
Q
(b)
185 08
20
(c)
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1. Angle POQ is to be measured. Set up, centre, and level the theodolite at O.
Ensure that the instrument is in the normal position, i.e., face left.
2. Set the instrument to read 0 00 00. For this release the upper clamp and
bring the zero of the vernier (at vernier A) very close to the zero of the circle.
Clamp the upper plate and using the upper tangent screw, coincide the two
zeros exactly.
3. Loosen the lower clamp and rotate the instrument so that the left signal at P is
approximately bisected. Tighten the lower clamp and using the lower tangent
screw, bisect the signal at P exactly. Read the verniers at A and B. The reading
should not change and they should read zero and 180.
4. Loosen the upper clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to approximately
Q exactly.
5. Read the verniers at A and B. The reading at A gives the value of the angle
directly. The reading on the vernier at B will be 180 + the angle. Record both
the readings.
6. Release the lower clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise to bisect the sig-
260
7.
8.
9.
10.
exactly. Check the readings on the verniers at A and B. They should remain
the same as recorded.
Release the upper clamp and rotate the instrument to bisect the signal
approximately. Lock the upper clamp and bisect the signal exactly with the
upper tangent screw. Read the verniers A and B. The readings should be twice
the angle. Record the readings from both the verniers.
Repeat the procedure once more. We thus have three repetitions of the value.
Record the readings of both the verniers.
Change the face of the instrument. Invert the telescope and make it face right.
Repeat the above procedure to have three more readings of the angle.
The average of the face-left readings and the average of the face-right readings
are averaged to get a very precise value of the angle.
Table 6.1
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In works requiring greater precision, sets of readings are taken. One set may consist
of six face-left readings and an equal number of face-right readings. The readings
may be taken in clockwise and counterclockwise directions with different faces.
A number of similar sets may be taken. Sets may also start with a different initial
00, and so on. The average
of the average readings from the various sets will give a very precise value of the
angle. Such sets are taken in triangulation work. The readings can be recorded as
shown in Table 6.1.
Recording of observations by repetition method
Set 1
Instrument Sight
Face/swing
at
to
repetition number
P
Q
1
P
Q
2
P
Q
3
Mean value of the angle = 61 42 47
0
61
61
123
123
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Left/right
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Reading at
A
00
42
42
25
25
08
00
40
40
20
40
20
Mean reading
00
42
42
25
26
08
00
0
40 61
40
20 123
40 123
20 185
00
42
00
45
25
26
08
20
40
20
Set 2
Instrument
at
Sight
to
Reading at
A
P
Q
P
Q
P
Q
00
61
00
42
00 00
40 42
00
40
123
25
40 25
40
185
08
00 08
00
Right/left
O
Mean reading
185
08
00
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40
at
130 13 00
7 2
0
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233
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68
00
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S
of sight is brought back to P, i.e.,
the line of sight is made to close
Fig. 6.7 Reiteration method
the horizon. The instrument is
turned through 360. Obviously, the instrument should read, upon closing the horizon, the same reading set initially at P. The procedure is as follows.
1. Set up and level the theodolite at O. Keep the instrument in the normal position, i.e., face left. Set the vernier at A to read zero using the upper clamp and
upper tangent screw. Check that the vernier at B reads 180.
2. Loosen the lower clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the station mark at
3.
4.
5.
6.
at P. Check that the verniers at A and B read zero and 180, respectively.
Release the upper plate with the upper clamp, swing the instrument clockwise
to bisect the signal at Q. Tighten the clamp and using the upper tangent screw,
bisect the mark at Q exactly.
Read the verniers at A and B and record both the readings.
Release the upper clamp screw, bisect the signal at R. Tighten the clamp and
bisect the mark at R exactly with the upper tangent screw. Read the verniers at
A and B and record the readings.
Continue the procedure with other stations.
262
7. After the last angle has been recorded, release the upper clamp and swing the
instrument to close the horizon and bisect the station mark at P. Check that the
verniers at A and B now read the initial reading set while starting. If there is
the lower
clamp and the lower tangent screw should not be touched during the entire
process after bisecting the station mark at P.
9. Each angle is calculated from the mean value of the readings of verniers A and
B at each station. The difference between these mean values gives the value of
the required angle.
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Table 6.2
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the angle.
As in the repetition method, sets of values can be obtained and averaged for more
precise work. The readings can be recorded as shown in Table 6.2.
00
32
13
07
00
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P
Q
R
S
P
00
68
130
233
00
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Reading at
A
00
40
00
20
00
Value
00
32
13
07
00
00
40
00
20
00
00
32
13
07
00
00
68
130
233
00
00
40
00
20
00
POQ
QOR
ROS
68 32 40
61 40 20
102 54 20
Sight
to
Reading at
A
Mean reading
Angle
00
00
00 00 00 00
00 00
68
32
20 32 20 68
32 20
POQ
130 13
20 13 20 130 13 20
QOR
233 07
40 07 40 233 07 40
ROS
00
00 00 00 00
00
Value
00 00
68
32
20
61
41
00
102
54
20
POQ = 68 32 30,
6.5
QOR = 61 41 10,
ROS = 102 54 20
A vertical angle is made by an inclined line of sight with the horizontal. The line
of sight may be inclined upwards or downwards from the horizontal. Thus one
may have an angle of elevation or depression. See Fig. 6.8. For measuring vertical
angles, the theodolite is levelled with respect to the altitude bubble.
P
8 46 20
12 32 40
Horizontal line
R
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6 52 40
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arm. This bubble is generally more sensitive. The procedure for levelling is
the same. Bring the altitude level parallel to two foot screws and level till the
bubble traverses. Swing through 90 to centre the bubble again with the third
foot screw. Repeat till the bubble traverses.
3. Swing the telescope to approximately direct the line of sight towards the signal
at P. Loosen the vertical circle clamp screw and incline the line of sight to bisect
P. Clamp the vertical circle and bisect the signal exactly with the horizontal
cross hair.
4. Read the verniers C and D. The average of these readings gives the value of
the angle.
This procedure assumes that the instrument is properly adjusted. If there is an index
error, the instrument does not read zero when the bubble is in the centre and the
line of sight is horizontal, the adjustment is done by the clip screw. There may be
a small index error, which can be accounted for in the value of angle. The readings
can be recorded as shown in Table 6.3.
6.5.1 Measuring Vertical Angle Between Two Points
The two points may be above the horizontal or below the horizontal or one may be
above and the other below. In all cases, the vertical angles between the instrument
and the points are measured. If the points lie on the same side of the horizontal, the
vertical angle between the points is the difference between the measured angles. If
they lie on either side of the horizontal through the instrument, the vertical angle
between the points is the sum of the angles measured.
264
Table 6.3
Face left
Instrument at
Sight
to
Reading on vernier
C
Mean angle
Vertical angle
12
32 40 32
40 12
32
40
46 20 46
20 8
46
()6
52 40 52
40 ()6
52
20
46
20
40
19 25
20
Face right
Reading on vernier
Vertical angle
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12
32 20 32
20 12
at
32
20
46 20 46
20 8
46
() 6
52 20 52
20 ()6 52
20
46
00
20
19 24
40
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Mean angle
Sight
to
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Instrument at
between P and R = 19 25 00
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N
Q
Magnetic
bearing
release the upper plate and swing the Fig. 6.9 Measuring magnetic bearing
instrument to set the reading on vernier A to read zero approximately. Clamp
the upper plate and with the upper tangent screw, make the zero of the vernier
and the circle coincide exactly.
3. Release the lower plate and the magnetic needle of the compass. Swing the
instrument so that the magnetic needle is nearly at the centre of its run, with the
north end of the needle pointing to the zero of the graduations on the compass.
Tighten the lower clamp and using the lower tangent screw, bring the magnetic
needle to read exactly zero at the north end. Check the verniers at A and B. They
should read zero and 180 as set earlier.
4. The line of sight of the instrument is in the direction of the magnetic meridian
at P. Release the upper clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at
tangent screw, bisect the signal exactly at Q.
5. Read both the verniers. The average of the two readings gives the magnetic
bearing of the line PQ.
6.6.2 Prolonging a Given Line
Let PQ be the line given. It is desired to prolong the line to another point T in line
with it and establish intermediate points R and S (Fig. 6.10). There are many ways
to do this. The following three methods are common.
S
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Direct method
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266
This method also assumes that the instrument is properly aligned. If not, when the
instrument is transited, the line of sight may not be along PQ and dotted lines will
be the result.
Double sighting
R
R
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The double sighting method is used when the instrument is not properly aligned
and does not give precise results. The procedure is as follows (Fig. 6.12).
1. Set up the theodolite at Q and level the theodolite. Release the lower plate,
swing the instrument, and take a back sight on P.
2. With both the plates clamped, transit the telescope and establish a point in line
with the line of sight.
3. Change the face of the instrument and again take a back sight on P.
4. With both motions clamped, transit the telescope. The line of sight should now
bisect the station mark established earlier. If not, mark a second point in line
with the earlier point.
5. Point R was established with the left face and point R is established with the
right face. Take the midpoint of R and R and mark this point R.
6. Shift the instrument to R and repeat the process of double sighting to establish
other points till the point T is reached.
Fig. 6.12
Double sighting
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There are three methods for laying a straight line between two given points depending upon whether the two stations are intervisible, intervisible from an intermediate
point, or are not intervisible from any intermediate point.
When the stations are intervisible When the two given stations are intervisible,
the procedure is simple, as follows (Fig. 6.13).
1. Set up and level the theodolite at P.
2. Sight the signal at Q and clamp both the motions. Finely bisect the signal at Q
using the lower tangent screw.
4. PRSTQ is a straight line.
P
When the stations are visible only from an intermediate point In this case a
method known as balancing-in is used. The procedure is as follows (Fig. 6.14).
1. Determine a point midway between P and Q from which both P and Q are visible.
2. By judgement, establish a point R in line with P and Q.
R1
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R2
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When the stations are not visible from any intermediate point In this case the
random line method is used. The procedure is as follows (Fig. 6.15).
1. Run a random line at any angle to one side of the line joining the two stations
P and Q.
2. To do this, set up the theodolite at P. Centre and level the instrument.
3. Take a line of sight along PQ and establish point Q such that Q is visible from
Q and the distance QQ can be measured.
, S, etc. along the line of
sight of PQ.
5. Measure QQ, PQ, PR, PS, etc. accurately with a steel tape.
6. Set up and level the instrument at Q. Measure angle PQQ = a accurately.
7. Set up the instrument at R and level it. Swing the instrument and lay off an angle
equal to a. The point R on line PQ can be obtained by measuring a distance RR
on the line laid at angle a. (The method to lay off an angle is given later.)
8. The length of this line can be determined using similar triangles PQQ and
PRR. RR is equal to QQ PR/ PQ.
9. Repeat the same procedure with points S, etc. PRSQ is a straight line between
P and Q.
R
P
268
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The procedure for setting an angle on the ground is as follows (Fig. 6.17).
1. Let the angle to be set be 38 47 20 with
Q
a line PQ.
0
0
2. Set up the theodolite at P, centre it, and level
0
0
0
it with reference to the plate level.
3. Release the upper clamp, swing the instru38 47 20
R
ment to make vernier A read 0 00 00. Set P
Fig. 6.17 Laying out an angle
the reading exactly to zero with the upper
tangent screw. Read vernier B, which should register 180 00 00.
4. Release the lower clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at Q.
Exactly bisect the signal at Q with the lower tangent screw. Check the reading
on both the verniers, which should be the same as set before (0 00 00).
5. Release the upper clamp and swing the instrument clockwise. Set vernier A to
read approximately the given angle and clamp. Set the angle to the given value
exactly using the upper tangent screw. Check the angle on vernier B.
6. Set a point R along the line of sight. Angle QPR is the given angle.
Laying off a given angle by repetition
If greater precision is required in setting the angle, the method of repetition can be
used. While a given angle can be measured by the method of repetition directly,
there is no corresponding direct method to set an angle. An indirect method is
employed. The procedure is as follows (Fig. 6.18).
1. Let the angle to be set off be 54 36 35 with the line OP.
2. Set up and level the theodolite at O. Set the instrument to read zero using the
upper clamp and the upper tangent screw. Check vernier B also.
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P
3. Release the lower clamp, bisect the station
mark at P, and exactly bisect the mark with
the lower tangent screw. Check the readings
on both the verniers; they should remain the
same.
4. Release the upper clamp, swing the instrument
54 36 00
clockwise, and set the instrument to read 54
Q
O
36 00. With the upper tangent screw, make
Q
the readings exactly 54 36 00. Make a sta- Fig. 6.18 Laying out an angle
tion mark along the line of sight. Point Q is
by repetition
established.
5. Measure the angle POQ by the repetition method. Take three readings with
face left and three readings with face right. Find the average value of the angle
from these observations. Let the average value be equal to 54 36 12.
6. The difference between the angle to be set and this angle is 23. The angle is
corrected by linear measurements, as the difference in angles is too small.
7. Let the length of the line OQ be 100 m. Then QQ = 100 tan (23 ) = 0.011 m.
8. Measure this distance accurately along the perpendicular with a steel tape to
get point Q. Angle POQ is the required angle.
9. Measure the angle POQ again by repetition to check.
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angles, or external angles of a traverse, with the distances measured using a tape.
Open and closed traverses can be surveyed accurately with a theodolite.
Pr
270
Q
R
N
N
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7.
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5.
6.
4.
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before measuring the bearing of PQ. This can be used for checking.
Table 6.4
Instrument Sight to
at
Reading on
vernier A
Line
00
00
00
00
00 00
62
42
20
242
42 20
Bearing
PQ
62
42 20
201
59
40
21
59 40
334
53
40
154
53 40
QR
154
53 40
202
32
40
22
32 40
RS
202
32 40
101
43
20
281
43 20
ST
281
43 20
21
59
40
201
59 40
TP
21
59 40
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T
Q
Reading on
vernier B
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272
8. Shift the instrument to the next station and repeat the procedure.
The following point may be noted in this method: the instrument is transited at
every station to orient it with the line of sight.
Back bearing method
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In this method the instrument is set to the back bearing of the line to get the correct
orientation of the line. The procedure is as follows.
1. Set up and level the theodolite at P. With the upper clamp and upper tangent
screw, set vernier A to read zero. With the lower clamp and lower tangent screw,
bring the line of sight to the magnetic meridian by releasing the magnetic needle.
When the needle reads zero, clamp the instrument.
2. Release the upper clamp, swing the instrument to bisect the signal at Q, and
bisect the signal exactly with the upper tangent screw. Read vernier A and
record the reading as the bearing of PQ.
3. Shift the instrument to Q. Calculate the back bearing of line PQ. With the upper clamp and the upper tangent screw, set the reading of vernier A to the back
bearing of PQ. Release the lower clamp and take a back sight on P. With the
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oriented.
4. Release the upper clamp, swing the instrument, and bisect the signal at R. With
the upper tangent screw, exactly bisect the signal. Read vernier A. This reading
gives the bearing of line QR.
5. Shift the instrument to other stations and repeat the procedure.
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Figure 6.21 shows the interior and exterior angles of a traverse. If the traverse is
covered in the clockwise direction, the angles measured are interior angles. If we
go counterclockwise over the traverse, we measure the exterior angles. The general
procedure in either case is as follows.
Q
R
P
T
S
T
S
(a) Interior angles
Fig. 6.21
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Table 6.5
Traversing by angles
Q
T
R
P
S
Q
T
R
S
P
Q
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00
139
00
87
00
132
00
100
00
79
Reading on vernier
A
B
00 00
00
17 20
17
00 00
00
48 40
48
00 00
00
21 00
21
00 00
00
49 00
49
00 00
00
44 00
44
00
20
00
40
00
00
00
00
00
00
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Instrument at
TPQ
139
17
20
PQR
87
48
40
QRS
132
21
00
RST
100
49
00
STP
79
44
00
Pr
P
Q
R
S
T
T
Q
P
R
S
Q
T
R
P
S
Reading on vernier
A
B
00 00 00 00 00
139 17 00 17 00
00 00 00 00 00
87 48 20 48 20
00 00 00 00 00
132 21 20 21 20
00 00 00 00 00
100 49 20 49 20
00 00 00 00 00
79 43 40 43 40
Angle
Horizontal
angle
Mean angle
TPQ
139 17 00 139 17 10
PQR
87
QRS
132 21 20 132 21 10
RST
100 49 20 100 49 10
STP
79
48 20 87
43 40 79
48 30
43 50
274
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1. Set up and level the theodolite at the starting station P. Measure the magnetic
bearing of line PQ as per the procedure outlined earlier. With the upper clamp
and the upper tangent screw, set the instrument to read zero on vernier A. Check
the reading on vernier B. Record both the readings.
2. Release the lower clamp and swing the instrument to sight the station mark Q.
Bisect the signal exactly with the lower tangent screw. Check that the reading
on both the verniers has not changed. Release the upper clamp and swing the
instrument to bisect the station mark at T. Exactly bisect the signal at T with
the upper tangent screw. Read verniers A and B and record the observations.
This gives the interior angle at station P.
3. Shift the instrument to Q, set it up, and level it. Set the vernier readings to zero
again with the upper clamp and the upper tangent screw. With the lower clamp
and lower tangent screw, bisect exactly the station mark at R. Check the readings on the verniers, which should read zero and 180.
4. Release the upper clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at P. Read
verniers A and B and record the readings. This will give the interior angle at Q.
5. Repeat the procedure at all stations of the traverse.
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The readings can be recorded as shown in Table 6.5. To achieve greater accuracy,
the angles can be measured at a station with both faces, face left and face right.
For high, precision work, angles can be read by the method of repetition with three
repetitions for each face. When you go counterclockwise and measure the angles
from the previous station to the forward station, you measure the exterior angles.
The procedure is exactly the same.
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T
S
4. Shift the instrument to Q, set it up, and level it. With the upper clamp and tangent
screw, set vernier A to read zero. With the instrument reading zero, release the
lower clamp and swing the instrument to bisect the signal at P. Exactly bisect
the signal with the lower tangent screw.
5. Transit the telescope. Release the upper clamp and swing the instrument to
bisect the signal at R. Clamp the upper plate and, with the upper tangent screw,
exactly bisect the signal. Read both the verniers and record.
6. Repeat the procedure at all the stations.
The observations can be recorded as shown in Table 6.6. It should be noted that
right, when the next line is to the right of the continuation of the previous line. A
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Table 6.6
Reading on vernier
A
00
00
00
61
46
20
46
20
00
00
00
00
00
R (R)
15
36
40
36
20
00
00
00
00
32
20
36
40
00
00
00
00
00
54
28
40
28
40
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00
44
S (R)
S
00
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00
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P
Q
Mean value
Sight to
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at
at
Face left
61 46
20
15 36
30 15 36
30
44 36
30 44 36
40
54 28
40 54 28
40
Pr
T (R)
S
Q
N
P
276
2. Shift the instrument to Q. Set up and level it. Set vernier A to read zero using
the upper clamp and upper tangent screw. Check vernier B also.
3. Release the lower clamp and swing the instrument to take a sight on the station
mark at P. Exactly bisect the signal with the lower tangent screw.
4. Release the upper plate with the upper clamp and swing the instrument clockwise to bisect the signal at R. This reading gives the angle between the lines
QP and QR.
5. Shift the instrument to other stations and repeat the procedure.
Closed traverse with central angles
Q
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P
In the case of a closed traverse, another
procedure can be adopted to survey the
skeleton of the traverse. The method
of reiteration can be conveniently employed here. The procedure is as follows
O
T
(Fig. 6.24).
1. Select a convenient point O within the
traverse from which all the points of
the traverse are visible and chaining
S
to those points is possible.
R
2. Set up and level the theodolite at O.
Set the instrument to read zero with the Fig. 6.24 Closed traverse by
central angles
upper clamp and upper tangent screw.
Vernier A should read zero and vernier B should read 180.
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Recording of observations
Face left
Instrument at
Sight to
P
Q
R
S
T
P
Reading on vernier
B
00 00 00
43 40 43
38 00 38
53 40 53
15 00 15
59 40 59
Angle
00
40
00
40
20
40
POQ
QOR
ROS
SOT
TOP
Horizontal angle
62
57
72
80
86
43
54
15
21
44
40
20
40
10
50
Interconversion of Angles
6.7.3
00
62
120
192
273
359
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The theodolite measures the whole circle bearings of lines. These can be converted
to reduced bearings by the methods discussed in Chapter 3. Also, one can calculate
included angles from bearings and vice versa. Included angles can also be calculated
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The following relationships of the angles of a closed traverse are known from
geometry:
(a) sum of the interior angles = (2n 4) right angles
(b) sum of exterior angles = (2n + 4) right angles
It is desirable to draw a rough sketch of the traverse before attempting to solve
problems. The following examples illustrate these principles.
The whole circle bearings of the lines of a closed traverse are given below.
Find the included angles of the traverse.
Line
AB
BC
CD
DA
Bearing
78 40 20
152 31 40
251 18 40 3 44 15
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Example 6.1
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Solution It is desirable to draw a rough sketch of the traverse as shown in Fig. 6.25. The
solution is shown in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8
Angle at
258 40 20
105
03
55
152 31 40
332 31 40
106
08
40
CD
251 18 40
71 18 40
81
13
00
DA
3 44 15
183 44 15
67
34
25
Line
Fore bearing
AB
78 40 20
BC
Back bearing
First we calculate the back bearings of the lines. The included angle is the difference between
the back bearing of a line and the fore bearing of the next line. Thus,
DAB = bearing of DA bearing of AB = 183 44 15 78 40 20
= 105 03 55
ABC = bearing of BA bearing of BC = 258 40 20 152 31 40
= 106 08 40
278
87 48 40
N 62 42 20
152 31 40
78 40 20
P 139 17 20
at
251 18 40
79 44 00
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C
3 44
132 21 00
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100 49 00
S
20. The
included angles of the traverse are given below. Calculate the whole circle bearings of the lines.
Example 6.2
P
Q
139 17 20 87 48 40
R
132 21 00
S
100 49 00
T
79 44 00
Station
Angle
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Solution A rough sketch of the traverse is shown in Fig. 6.26. The solution is given in
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Table 6.9.
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Table 6.9
Fore bearing
Back bearing
139 17 20
PQ
62 42 20
242 42 20
87 48 40
QR
154 53 40
334 53 40
132 21 00
RS
202 32 40
22 32 40
100 49 00
ST
281 43 40
101 43 40
79 44 00
TP
21 59 40
201 59 40
A closed traverse ABCDEA was conducted and the included angles mea 20
vertex and the bearings of the lines.
Station
A
B
C
D
Angle
105 03 55
106 08 40 81 13 00
67 34 25
Example 6.3
Solution A rough sketch of the traverse is shown in Fig. 6.27. The solution is given in
Table 6.10.
Station
A
B
C
D
Included angle
105
03 55
106
08 40
81
13 00
67
34 25
Line
56
51
47
25
74
73
98
112
05
20
00
35
AB
BC
CD
DA
Bearing
78 40 20
152 31 40
251 18 40
3 44 15
Example 6.4
B
106 08 40
78 40 20
105 03 55
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81 32 40
65 54 20
72 14 30
68 25 50
81 13 00
C
67 34 25
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Solution
at
A
B
C
D
E
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20
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A
81 32 40
98 27 20
B
65 54 20
114 05 40
C
72 14 30
107 45 30
D
68 25 50
111 34 10
E
71 52 40
108 07 20
As a check, sum of the included angles = 540 00 00.
Example 6.5
A traverse was conducted and the exterior angles were measured. Find the
Station
A
Exterior angle 254 56 05
B
253 51 20
C
D
278 47 00
Solution The sum of the exterior angles of a closed traverse = (2n + 4) right angles. This
condition can be used to evaluate the unknown exterior angle.
(2n + 4) right angles = (2 4 + 4) 90 = 12 90 = 1080
Sum of given angles = 787 34 25
Exterior angle at D = 1080 00 00 787 34 25 = 292 25 35
A: 74 56 05,
B: 73 51 20,
Example 6.6
30.
C: 98 47 00,
D: 112 25 35
280
P
Q
R
S
T
62 44 20
48 22 00
57 36 40
71 15 20
120 01 40
20
00
40
20
40
PQ
QR
RS
ST
TP
54
102
160
231
351
Bearing
25
47
24
39
41
30
30
10
30
10
at
P
Q
R
S
T
44
22
36
15
01
Line
62
48
57
71
120
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Station
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A point can be located with an angle to the station along with the distance from that
station as shown in Fig. 6.28(a). The angle is preferably measured from the same
reference line to avoid confusion. A sketch with the line and the distance and angle
measured will help in plotting later. A road can be located as shown in Fig. 6.28(b).
Angles to a number of points are measured and with each angle two distances are
measured to locate the road.
Angle from one station and distance from another
If for any reason, it is not possible to measure the angle and distance to an object
from the same point, it may be possible to locate the point by measuring angles
from one station and distances from the other. The recorded data should clearly
indicate the stations from which the angle and distance are measured. Figure 6.28(c)
shows this method of measuring. The angle is measured from station A to point
P. When the instrument is shifted to B, the distance to point P is measured from B
with a steel tape.
Angles from two stations
If for some reason, it is not possible to measure distances, then angles from two
stations are enough to locate a point. As shown in Fig. 6.28(d), the point P is located
by measuring angles to point P from stations A and B.
P
d
q
O
(b)
P
(a)
P
d
q
A
(d)
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(c)
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b
(e)
(f)
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If the stations are far away, any of the above methods can be used to locate details
from any one or two selected points on the main line. The angle and distance or two
angles from two different points can be used to locate points. The end of a chain
indicate the points and the angles and distances from the points.
Offsets
As in the case of chain surveying, details can be located by offsets with the offset
rod or tape as described earlier from the main chain lines. This is suitable when a
number of points have to be located along the chain line.
282
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Cross hairs
Vertical axis
Trunnion axis
Eyepiece
Optical centre
Line of sight
Vertical circle
Objective
Axis of bubble
Bubble axis
Altitude level
Plate bubble
Horizontal plate
Instrumental Errors
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(i) Maladjustment of the plate level When the axis of the plate level, which is
a line tangential to the bubble tube at its centre, is not perpendicular to the
vertical axis, the horizontal circle is inclined when the bubble traverses. The
angles measured are not in a horizontal plane and an error will be introduced
in the measurements. This error becomes serious when the angle is measured
between two points at different elevations. A permanent adjustment has to be
carried out to set this right. The instrument can also be levelled with respect to
the altitude level, which is a more sensitive bubble tube.
(ii) Line of collimation not at right angles to the trunnion axis In this case, when
the telescope is transited (rotated in a vertical plane), it does not move in a
plane. The error can be eliminated by taking face right and face left observations and averaging the two.
(iii) Horizontal axis not perpendicular to the vertical axis When the horizontal axis
is not perpendicular to the vertical axis, an error is introduced, as the line of
sight will not move in a vertical plane but along an inclined plane. This error is
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6.10.2
Personal Errors
Personal errors arise due to faulty manipulation of the instrument controls and errors in sighting, reading, and recording.
284
taken to see that the plumb bob is exactly over the station mark before taking the
reading. The effect of wrong centring can be derived as follows. In Fig. 6.30, let C
be the station mark. Due to inaccurate centring, the centre of the instrument is at
C1. In such a case, instead of the correct angle PCQ, the angle measured is PC1Q.
The correct angle PCQ is given by
PCQ = PC1Q a b = PC1Q (a + b )
Q
P
a
C1
C
(a)
C1
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(b)
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Table 6.12
10
15
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20
Angular error
41
50
21
25
1 22
50
41
25
50
25
2 45
50
1 22
Pr
On the other hand, if the centring is done over C2 on the other side, then
Correct PCQ = PC2Q + (a + b )
The error due to centring, (a + b ), depends upon the length of sights and the error in centring. Table 6.12 shows the error due to centring and how it varies wih the
length of sights.
Slip
error can also result from the clamps not being properly tightened or the shifting
head not being properly clamped.
Wrong manipulation of controls
This is a common error. Clamping the instrument and operating the wrong tangent
screw can result in erroneous zero setting or reading of the angle. The remedy is to
familiarize oneself with the controls, operate them carefully, and verify the readings frequently.
Inaccurate levelling
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The ranging rod or other object held over a station has to be truly vertical. Otherwise an error is introduced in the reading. The error is inversely proportional to
the length of sight. The error is given by tan e = error in verticality/length of sight.
at
Displacement of target
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All stations should be properly marked. If the target is misplaced or shifted during
surveying, serious error can occur.
Parallax
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To avoid parallax, the eyepiece should be focused properly. The focusing of the
objective should be done at every sight to get a sharp and clear image.
Mistakes in setting and reading
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Mistakes in reading the main and vernier scales are common. These could be due
to reading the vernier in the wrong direction, inaccurate adjustment of the vernier,
or reading the main and vernier scales at an angle instead of directly over the
graduations.
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286
CC2 = l tan da; C1C2 = n. Equating the two, tanda = l/n. Linear error is usually
expressed as 1 in L
various angles.
Table 6.13 Relationship between linear and angular error
Angular error
10
20
30
45
60
1/L
1/206,26
1/103,13
1/6875
1/4584
1/3438
Linear error
1 in 500
1 in 3000
1 in 5000
1 in 10,000
1 in 25,000
Angular precision
6 50
1 8
41
21
8
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this value is 1/20626 which is the corresponding linear error. If the linear error is
1 in 500 (1/500), tan1
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following points should be taken care of to maintain the instrument in good condition.
(a) The instrument should be properly kept in the box supplied with the
equipment. The clamp screws are loosened to enable movement and the instrument is then kept in the proper position in the box. The instrument is kept
in a tight position within the box by appropriate holding knobs or plates. The
instrument should not move around when it is carried in the box.
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(c) It should be protected by a plastic cover or any other similar arrangement when
kept at a station while taping or locating details.
(d) Depending upon the extent of usage, the instrument should undergo permanent
adjustments frequently.
prevent it from falling off the tripod.
(f) Anti-moisture gel must be kept in the box to prevent damage to the optical
parts due to excessive humidity.
(g) The instrument should be dusted to remove dust and moisture before keep
ing it in the box after the days work.
If proper care is taken the theodolite can provide good service for a long time.
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and sharper by this technique. Both the horizontal and vertical circles are made
of glass and generally graduated to 10.
(b) Light passing through the circle at the point of the reading is taken through a
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of view. This is an advantage, as the readings of both the circles can be taken
at the same time. Some manufacturers make a switching arrangement so that
the horizontal or vertical circle reading can be seen along with the micrometer
reading.
(d) The optical micrometer is used to read fractions of the main scale division.
Depending upon the reading system, angles can be read up to 10 or less.
(e) The circles are generally graduated to 10 or 20 of the arc. The micrometer
can be read after coinciding the index with the nearest main scale division.
The fractions are then read from the micrometer scale, which is also seen in
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(f) A small, separate reading telescope is provided besides the main telescope. It
eliminates the need to move while bisecting an object and taking the reading.
(g) In most instruments, diametrically opposite ends of the circle are brought
Reading telescope
Micrometer
Vertical
circle
B
Horizontal circle
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Fixed photodiode
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Coded circle
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Movable
photodiode
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Graduated circle
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The graduated circle is made of glass as in an optical theodolite, but the graduations
are made in a special code to be read by photodiodes. The photodiodes convert the
readings into electrical signals that are processed by a microprocessor into angles
that are digitally displayed on an LCD or LED panel. The graduated circle can be
encoded in two waysthe incremental system and the absolute encoding system.
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zero of the circle. As the telescope is turned in azimuth, the other photodiode moves
along with the telescope. The circle does not move. The photodiode measures the
movement of the alidade from the code etched on the circle and the signal is sent to
a processor for converting the measurement into an angle for display and storage.
Absolute encoding system In this system, each position on the circle is uniquely
encoded. The circle is illuminated by an internal source and this light passes through
the circle onto an array of photodiodes, which convert the light into an electric signal.
This signal is processed by a microprocessor for display as an angle and storage.
Compensator
Most optical and electronic theodolites have a compensator system to ensure that
any deviation of the axis from the true horizontal does not affect the reading. Single
or dual-axis compensators are employed. Electronic theodolites are levelled as in
the case of vernier theodolites. The vertical axis may not exactly coincide with the
true vertical. To make the levelling process simple, compensators are provided.
The theodolite is only approximately levelled and any small tilt of the instru-
ment is taken care of by the compensator. The compensator systems are shown in
Fig. 6.34.
Photodetector
Excitation coil
Level vial
Level vial
Detection coil
Collimator
Collimator
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The single-axis compensator measures the tilt of the vertical axis and compensates by adjusting the vertical angle. The dual-axis compensator measures the
tilt of the vertical axis as well as the trunnion axis. The horizontal angle is also
adjusted for any tilt in the trunnion axis. Single-axis compensator systems are of
liquid or magnetic type. Current is passed through the central coil known as the
excitation coil. This generates a current in the other two coils. The current values
will be equal if the instrument is level and different if there is any tilt in the vertical
axis. This difference is measured and converted into a tilt angle. The measured angle
is also compensated for this tilt by the processor before displaying the angle.
In dual-axis compensators, light from an internal source is passed onto a lens
for evenly distributing the light onto a liquid vial. A photodiode divided into four
sections receives this light. The light falling on the various sections of the photodiode will be even if there is no tilt in the axes and uneven if there is any tilt in
the axes. The difference in light intensity is converted into tilt angles for both the
axes by the processor. The horizontal and vertical angles are also corrected for tilt
before displaying.
Display consoles may be provided either on one side or on both sides. Most
electronic theodolites have a zero set facilitychanging the direction of the reading from clockwise to counterclockwise, a display of angles, a display of grades,
etc. The angles are measured and displayed within a few seconds of pressing a
button. The batteries last for about 75 to 100 hours of operation. The data from the
theodolite can be transferred to a computer for further processing.
Digital theodolites
The instruments are light weight and are similar to electronic theodolites in construction.
The instrument is set up over a station as in the case of normal theodolites. They
will have extendable tripod legs which can be adjusted for comfortable viewing.
The centring and levelling operations are done with a circular vial for coarse setting
one has to press only a measure button to get the readings of angles and distances.
Some models also have a laser pointer for easy alignment in critical cases and for
staking out operations. With the arrival of total stations, these theodolites have less
demand though they are cheaper compared to a total station.
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objective lens 45 mm
Field of view 130 Minimum focus distance 1m
Stadia values: Multiplying constant 100; additive
constant 0
Also see Plate 1
Laser pointer coaxial with telescope; 633 nm class II
laser; Method focusing for alignment and stake out operations
Display on both sides; 7-segment LCD unit
Display and reticle illuminated
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Power supply 4 AA size batteries; Operating times Theodolite only 140 hours
Laser only 80 hours; Theodolite + laser 45 hours
Weight 4.2 kg
Optical plummet
Standards
Tribrach
Prism
Eyepiece
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Most instruments are provided with an optical or laser plummet for accurate centring.
The plummet system is shown in Fig. 6.35.
A small telescope is provided at the tribrach
level. The station point can be seen through
the telescope very accurately. The image of
the station point is brought to the view of the
Pickup lens
(b) The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the horizontal axis. The line of
collimation, the vertical axis, and the horizontal axis must intersect at a point.
(c) The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(d) The axis of the altitude bubble must be parallel to the line of collimation.
(e) The vertical circle should read zero when the line of collimation is horizontal.
Cross hair
Horizontal or
trunnion axis
Vertical
circle
Line of collimator
Optical centre
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Parallel
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Vertical axis
Horizontal circle
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5. Telescope bubble test to centre the telescope bubble when the line of sight is
horizontal.
6. Vertical vernier test to ensure that the vertical circle reads zero when the line
of sight is horizontal.
6.15.1
The plate level test is intended to make the vertical axis truly vertical. The steps are as
follows (see Fig. 6.37).
Test
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Bubble axis
B
(90 a)
Vertical axis
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Vertical axis
a
True
vertical
True
vertical
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Horizontal plate
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Adjustment
1. Shift the bubble towards the centre by n/2 divisions using the capstan-headed
screws at the end of the bubble tube. Bring the bubble to the centre of its run
using the foot screws.
2. Repeat the test and adjustment till the instrument is in adjustment.
Alternative method The altitude level on the telescope or on the T-frame is more
sensitive than the plate level. This is used for adjustment. The procedure is as follows.
Test
1. Turn the telescope parallel to any two foot screws. Bring it to the centre of its
run using the two screws. Turn the telescope through 90 and bring the level
over the third foot screw. Bring it to the centre of its run. Repeat until the bubble
remains at the centre in these two positions.
the number of divisions by which the bubble is off centre. Let the bubble be
off centre by n divisions.
Adjustment
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1. Bring the bubble halfway (n/2 divisions) by means of the clip screw or the
vertical circle tangent screw. Bring the bubble to the centre of its run (correct
the remaining n/2 divisions) using the foot screws.
2. Bring the bubble over the third foot screw. Check whether the bubble traverses.
If not, adjust with the third footscrew.
3. Repeat the test and adjustment till the altitude bubble traverses in all positions.
4. The vertical axis has now been made truly vertical. If the plate level is off centre, bring it to the centre by means of the capstan-headed screws. The bubble
should now traverse in all positions.
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The cross hair ring adjustment test is done to make the line of collimation coincide
with the optical axis of the telescope. The vertical and horizontal hairs are adjusted
separately.
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For the adjustment of the horizontal hair, proceed as follows [see Fig. 6.38(a)].
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Test
1. Select two points P and Q about 100 m apart. Select a point R about 10 m from
P in line with P and Q on the line PQ.
2. Set up the theodolite at P and level the instrument carefully.
3. Keep a levelling staff each at R and Q with face left and take readings. Let the
readings be r1 and q1.
4. Transit the telescope and swing it through 180 to get the face right.
5. Set the horizontal hair to the earlier reading r1 obtained on the staff at R.
6. Again take the reading on the staff at Q. If the reading is the same as that obtained earlier, q1, the instrument is in adjustment as far as the horizontal hair
is concerned. If not, let the reading be r2. Adjustment is required for the hair.
Second line
of sight
r1
First line
of sight
q2
q1
R
Q
(a) Horizontal cross hair test
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q2
q1
100 m
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100 m
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Adjustment
1. With the top and bottom screws on the diaphragm, bring the reading to the
mean reading (r1 + r2)/2.
2. Repeat the test till the instrument is in adjustment.
Test
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1. Select two points P and Q about 100 m apart from each other. Set up and level
the instrument at P.
reading of the vertical angle.
3. Transit the telescope and turn it through 180 to sight the staff again at Q with
the alternative face. Set the reading on the vertical circle to the same angle.
Read the staff. If the reading is the same as q1, the instrument is in adjustment.
If not, let the reading be q2.
Adjustment
1. The adjustment is done using the diaphragm screws by setting the reading to
the mean of the two readings, (q1 + q2)/2.
2. Repeat the test and adjustment until the instrument is in adjustment.
Adjustment of the vertical hair
Vertical adjustment is done to ensure that when the telescope is transited, it generates
a vertical plane. If the adjustment is not done, it will generate a cone with its axis
as the horizontal axis. We proceed as follows for this adjustment [see Fig. 6.38(c)].
Test
1. Select a point R such that about 100 m of level ground is available on either
side of R. Set up and level the instrument at R. This is to ensure that the test
is not affected by the difference in elevation between the points on either side.
Any further adjustment of the horizontal axis, even if it is not strictly horizontal,
will not affect the adjustment.
2. Select a point P about 100 m from R. Keep a ranging rod at R and bisect it
accurately with the telescope. Keep the upper and lower motions clamped.
3. Transit the telescope. Keep a ranging rod at about 100 m from R on the other
side of P in the line of sight. Place the ranging rod accurately in line with PR.
4. Transit the telescope again. Check whether P is in the line of sight. If P is sighted
accurately, the instrument is in adjustment. Otherwise, the vertical hair has to
be adjusted.
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Adjustment
1. Place a ranging rod in the line of sight beside P. Let this position be P. Measure PP.
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Second mark
Correct
Third mark
Test
1. Set up the instrument at 1020 m from a building or any structure that has a clearly
2. Set up and level the instrument at this point. With face left, sight the high point.
Clamp the motions and depress the telescope. Mark a point on the ground or
on the wall. It may be better to use a levelling staff placed horizontally below
the high point. In such a case, note the reading on the staff.
3. Transit the telescope, turn it through 180, and again sight the point on the top.
it is the same as the previous one, the instrument is in adjustment; otherwise,
adjustment is required.
Adjustment
1. If points are marked, measure the distance between the points on the wall or
ground. Find the point midway between the two marks. If a staff is used, take
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the mean of the two readings to get the point midway between the two readings.
Sight this point with the telescope. Clamp both motions.
2. Raise the telescope and check whether the high point is sighted. It will not
bisect the point.
3. With the horizontal axis adjustment screw on the standards, adjust the horizontal
axis so that the point is sighted.
4. Repeat the test and adjustment till the instrument is in adjustment.
6.15.4 Collimation Test
The collimation test ensures that the line of sight coincides with the optical axis
of the telescope. The test procedure is the same as the two-peg test described for
a level.
Alternative method The procedure is the same as in the two-peg test except
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3.
4.
5.
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2.
plate bubble.
Bring the altitude bubble to the centre of its run with the help of the vertical
circle tangent screw.
Read the vertical circle. If it reads zero, the instrument is in adjustment.
If the vertical circle does not read zero, note down the reading. This is the
index error, which should be added to or subtracted from the vertical angles
measured.
To make the vertical circle read zero, the screws attaching the vernier arc
to the standards are loosened and adjusted to make the vertical circle read
zero.
Points to Remember
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truly horizontal. The measurement of horizontal angles is not affected except when
using the method of repetition.
The second adjustment is that of cross hairs. The adjustment of the horizontal
hair is important for measuring vertical angles and also when the theodolite is used
as a level. If the horizontal hair does not lie on the optical axis of the telescope, its
position will change during focusing. This, however, does not affect the measurement of horizontal angles. The adjustment of the vertical hair is important in many
operations such as prolonging a line by transiting, measuring horizontal angles,
and measuring with the telescope in inclined positions. The errors caused can be
eliminated by face-left and face-right observations.
The third adjustment to make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical
axis becomes important in all operations involving the motion of the telescope in a
vertical plane. The telescope should generate a vertical plane during such motion,
which is ensured by this adjustment.
The fourth adjustment, of the altitude level, is important for accurate measurement of vertical angles and for using the theodolite as a level.
The index error adjustment of the vertical circle and vernier is done for convenience only. It is possible to apply corrections to the measured angles after noting
down the index error.
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Theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. A theodolite consists of a base levelling head for levelling the instrument and can be screwed on to a tripod stand. The horizontal
circle is graduated from 0 to 360 degrees and has a vernier to read angles up to 20. Magnifying
glasses are provided to read the two verniers provided 180 degrees apart.
The A-frame on top of the levelling head carries the telescope and the vertical circle graduated
from 0 to 90 degrees in the four quadrants. There is an altitude bubble for levelling which is
more sensitive than the horizontal bubble on the levelling head. The telescope can be transitted
or rotated in a vertical plane and can be moved horizontally.There are locking screws and tangent
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Many other operations like prolonging a line and ranging of a line can be performed using the
theodolite.
Traversing is the main operation done using a theodolite. Traversing is done by measuring interior
In a closed traverse, interior angles must add up to (2n 4) right angles; exterior angles must
In adjusting a traverse, any difference in angles is equally distributed among the angles.
The fundamental lines of a theodolite are: vertical axis formed by the inner and outer axes of
the leveling head, trunnion axis on which telescope is supported, bubble tube axis of the plate
level and altitude level and the line of collimation of the telescope.
Modern theodolites
angles through the main or an additional reading telescope. The view of the circles are brought
glass circles read by photodiodes. The display panel shows the angles. For centering, an optical
plummet is generally used.
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Exercises
Multiple-Choice Questions
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9.
10.
14.
17.
.
18.
19.
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13.
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11.
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Review Questions
1. Draw a neat sketch of a vernier theodolite. Describe its main parts and their functions.
lines and the effects if such relationships are not maintained.
3. With a neat sketch, explain how the main scale and vernier scale are graduated to obtain a least
count of 20.
4. Explain the temporary adjustments of a theodolite.
5. Explain the steps involved in measuring horizontal angle with a theodolite.
6. Explain the repetition method to measure horizontal angles and how readings are recorded.
7. Explain the procedure for the reiteration method of measuring horizontal angles.
8. Explain the step-by-step procedure to measure the vertical angle between two points.
10. Explain the procedure to measure the bearing of a line with a theodolite.
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12. Describe a method to range a line between two points when the stations are not intervisible from
an intermediate point.
13. Explain the different methods to prolong a line.
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Problems
A
102 30 40
B
124 10 40
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Station
Angle
280 27 30
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Bearing
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1. The following included angles were measured in a closed traverse. If the bearing of the line AB is
70 40 30
Station
A
B
C
D
E
Angle
78 42 30
104 15 20
92 44 40
112 36 10
131 41 20
2. The bearings of lines measured in a theodolite survey are given below. Find the included angles
of the traverse.
Line
PQ
QR
RS
Bearing
160 33 20
58 47 40
320 46 30
traverse.
Station
Station
A
20
D
10
225 52 40
C
96 08 20
B
70 18 40
E
82 31 30
114 58 20
D
131 00 40
E
86 09 40
C
88 20 20
20,
Station
Q
R
68 30 20
81 18 30
Station
S
T
10
94 00 20
6. The exterior angles of a traverse were measured during the survey of an area. If the bearing of
the line PQ is 45 32 40
Station
P
Q
R
Ext. angle
202 36 20
250 18 40
268 20 20
Station
S
T
Ext. angle
276 13 10
262 31 30
40