CHAPTERONE

INTRODUCTIONTORESERVOIRENGINEERING
Theprimaryobjectiveofthereservoirengineeringistopredictfutureperformanceofhydrocarbon(oil
and/orgas)reservoirsandfindwaysandmeansofincreasingultimaterecovery.Reservoirengineermust
preparesoundplansfordevelopmentandoperationoftheoilandgasreservoirs.Properapplicationof
reservoir engineering not only enable wise invest of the capital, but will also allow for safe,
environmentallysound,andefficientoperationofthereservoirleadingtoimprovedrecovery.

HYDROCARBONRESERVOIRS
A reservoir is a subsurface rock structure where naturally occurring hydrocarbons (petroleum) are
accumulated. For this accumulation of petroleum to be a commercial hydrocarbon reservoir certain
conditions must be met. Figure 1 illustrates the key features of a commercial hydrocarbon reservoir.
Thesefeaturesincludesourcerock,trap,depth,andreservoirrock.Theyarediscussedbelow.

Figure11:KeyFeaturesofaCommercialReservoir

SourceRock
Sourcerockisafinegrained,organicrichsedimentaryrockinwhichpetroleumhasbeenoriginated. The
source rock is formed by deposition of the remains of the plants and animals with the finegrained
sedimentsinshallowmarineenvironments.Depletionofoxygentakesplaceinquietwaterleadingtoan
anaerobic condition and preservation of organic matter. These sediments must contain sufficient
quantities of the organic matter to form a source bed. As the sediments are buried deeper, the
temperature and pressure will increase and the organic material is graduallytransformed into kerogen
whicheventuallyistransformedinto hydrocarbonsasmoreand moresedimentsare deposited.At the
sametime,thefinegrainedsedimentsarecompactedwithrisingpressureandthewaterisexpelledfrom
themtoformclayandshalebedsreferredtoassourcerock.

11

The compaction and deeper burial eventually results in the expulsion of the hydrocarbons from the
source rock. Subsequently, the migration of petroleum will take place by a complex interplay of
buoyancy,capillaryforces,andhydrodynamics. Numeroustheorieshavebeen advanced toexplain this
process.Petroleummigratesthousandsoffeetverticallyortensofmileslaterallyfromthesourcebedsto
the overlying porous and permeable beds. Considerable differences of opinion exist as to the distance
whichpetroleummaycoverinitsmigrationprocess.Ifinitsmigrationpath,thepetroleumencountersa
subsurfacerockconditionwhichhaltsfurthermigrationthenaccumulationwilltakeplace.

Trap
A trap is a subsurface anticlinal shape structure which is overlain by a caprock that can prevent the
upward or lateral movement of the hydrocarbon. Caprock is a finegrained water saturated rock with
highcapillaryforces.Thedensitiesofthehydrocarbonsarelowerthanthatofthewater. Therefore,the
petroleum that migrated from the source rock is driven upward by the buoyancy forces through the
water saturated rocks. If the buoyancy forces cannot overcome the capillary forces in the caprock, the
petroleum will accumulate in the structure below the caprock. The structure must have sufficient size
and closure. The closure is the distance between the crest and the spill point (lowest point of the
structurethatcancontainhydrocarbons).Inmostcases,thestructureisnotfilledwithhydrocarbonsto
the spill point. A structure with a low closure most likely will not contain commercial quantities of
hydrocarbons.

Petroleum geologists broadly classify traps into three categories that are based on their geological
characteristics:thestructuraltrap,thestratigraphictrapandcombinationtraps.Examplesofdifferent traps
are illustrated in Figure 12. Structural traps are formed by the movement of the earths crust. The
earthscrustiscomposedofplatesthatmove(tectonicactivities)inresponsetotheforcesdeepwithin
the earth. As these plates move, they cause subsurface formations to fold and fault leading to the
formation of domes, anticlines, and folds. Structural traps are more easily delineated and more
prospective than their stratigraphic counterparts, with the majority of the world's petroleum reserves
beingfoundinstructuraltraps.

Stratigraphic traps are formed as a result of lateral and vertical variations in the characteristics of the
rock.Examplesofthistypeoftraparepinchout,unconformity,lens,andreeftraps.Thepinchoutisa
trapthatisformedduetothelimitedaerialextentoftheformationsuchasandbar.Theunconformity
occurs when there is an interruption in deposition. For example, the lower formations are deposited.
Then,thereisaperiodoferosionfollowedbyanotherperiodofdeposition.Thatsequenceofeventswill
result in an unconformity. When the unconformity is an eroded reservoirquality rock overlain by an
impermeablesediment,oilorgascanaccumulateattheunconformableinterface.

Structural traps may have a stratigraphic component or vice versa. Some structural traps are
combinations of different structural traps such as fold, fault, and fracture. The distinction whether the
trap belongs to one system or another is sometimes quite blurred. Traps with two or more trapping
elementsarecalledcombinationtraps.
12

Figure12:DifferentTypeofTraps

Depth
The amount of hydrocarbon stored in a subsurface structure depends on the subsurface pressure and
temperature.Thecompressionwillallowsignificantlymorehydrocarbonstobestoredinthesamespace.
The pressure and temperature exerted on the fluids in subsurface increases with depth of burial.
Therefore, the structure must be buried sufficiently deep to form a commercial reservoir. A reservoir
thousandsoffeetundergroundissubjecttoapressurecausedbythecombinedweightoftheformation
rockandfluidsknownastheoverburdenpressure.Inthemajorityofsedimentarybasinstheoverburden
13

pressureincreaseslinearlywithdepthandtypicallyhasagradientof1psi/ft.

In a sufficiently consolidated reservoir, the overburden pressure is not transmitted to the fluids in the
porespaces.Thefluidpressureinthereservoirisdictatedbytheprevailingwaterpressureinthevicinity
ofthereservoir.Itiscommonlyassumedthatthereiscontinuityofwaterpressuretothesurfaceeven
thoughthewaterbearingsandsareusuallyinterspersedwithimpermeableshales.However,anybreakin
the areal continuity of such apparent seals will lead to the establishment of hydrostatic pressure
continuity to the surface. Therefore, this assumption is valid in the majority of cases. As a result, the
waterpressureatanydepthcanbecalculatedas:
dp
Pw
D 1 4. 7

d D w a te r

( 1. 1 )

Where:
dp
=Hydrostaticpressuregradient,psi/ft.

dD water

14.7 Atmosphericpressure,psia

The hydrostatic pressure gradient is dependent on the chemical composition (salinity), and for pure
waterhasthevalueof0.4335psi/ft.Inclusionoftheatmosphericpressure,inequation1,providesthe
pressureinabsoluteratherthangaugeunits(psig).Inmanyinstancesinreservoirengineeringthemain
concern is with pressure differences, which are the same whether absolute or gauge pressures are
employed,andaredenotedsimplyaspsi.

Heat rising from the mantle produces a heat flux which results in a geothermal gradient, Gt. The
geothermal gradient varies at different areas on the globe depending on the annual mean surface
temperature and the thermal conductivity of the subsurface formations, but an overall temperature
gradientGtof1.0oF/100feetofdepthhasbeenrecordedaroundtheworld.Usingthisaveragevalueand
theregionsmeanannualsurfacetemperatureTs,anestimateofthesubsurfaceformationtemperatures
Tfcanbeobtainedasfollows:
Tf Ts Gt D
1.2

WhenthebottomholetemperatureTf ofthewellisaccuratelymeasured,thelocalgeothermalgradient
Gt may be obtained from the above equation to estimate the temperature of the formations at any
depthD.

ReservoirRock
The subsurface structure where petroleum accumulates must contain a threedimensional network of
interconnectedvoid(pore)spacetostorethefluidsandallowfortheirmovementthroughtherock.The
capacityofthereservoirrocktocontainliquidorgaseoushydrocarbonsisrepresentedbyarockproperty
referred to as porosity. Sand grains and particles that make up the reservoir rocks are usually highly
14

irregular in shape and never fit together perfectly as illustrated in Figure 12. The open space created
betweengrainsduringdepositionisreferredtoasporespace.Thevoid,orpore,spaceinhighlyporous
reservoirrocksallowsthemtoholdlargevolumeofoilorgas.

Figure12:2DimensionalRepresentationoftheVoidandBulkVolumesinthePorousMedia

Porosityisdefinedastheratioofthevoidvolume(Vvoid)tothebulkvolume(Vb):

Vvoid
100%
Vb

(1.3)

Porosityisconventionallyexpressedinpercentageform,ratherthanasafraction,whichisthereasonfor
multiplyingEquation1by100%.

Theabilityofthereservoirrocktotransmitfluids(oil,water,orgas)isrepresentedbyarockproperty
referred to as permeability. Permeability is defined based on an equation, developed by Henry Darcy,
whichdescribestheflow offluid throughporous. TodescribetheDarcyequation,considertheporous
mediaillustratedFigure13.

Figure13:FlowthroughPorousMedia

Iftheflowrateisq,thepressuredifferenceindirectionoftheflowoverthelength,L,isp(P2 P1),and
15

theareaacrosswhichtheflowoccursis,A.ThenDarcysequationcanbewrittenasfollows:
k p
q A
(1.4)
L
The term, p L, is pressure gradient and is the driving force for the flow. The term, k , is the
conductance(inverseofresistance)ofthesystemwhichisthecombinedconductanceoffluid(inverseof
viscosity,)andtheporousmediacapacityforfluidconductanceorpermeability(k).Thenegativesignin
Equation1.4isnecessarybecausethepressuredecreasesinthedirectionoftheflow(P2<P1).
When all other parts of Equation 1.4 have values of unity, i.e. flow rate of one cubic centimeter per
second; across a crosssectional area of one square centimeter; viscosity of one centipoise; and a
pressuregradientatoneatmospherepercentimeteroflength,itisobviousthat khasavalueofunity.
Thisstandardunitofpermeabilityiscalleddarcyinhonorofthemanresponsibleforthedevelopmentof
the theory of flow through porous media. One darcy is a relatively high permeability, as the
permeabilitiesofmostreservoirrocksareless thanonedarcy.Inordertoavoidtheuseoffractionsin
describingpermeabilities,thetermmillidarcywascoined.Asthetermindicates,onemillidarcyisequal
toonethousandthofonedarcyor1000millidarciesareequaltoonedarcy.

Porosityandpermeabilityarethemostfundamentalpropertiesofthereservoirrocksastheyinfluence
the ability of the reservoir to accumulate and produce hydrocarbons. The pores of the reservoir rock
wereoriginallyfilledwithwater.Thepetroleumthatmigratedfromthesourcerockexpelsmostofthe
water from the pores of the reservoir rock. Therefore at the time of discovery, the reservoir rocks
containoilorgas,orboth,alongwithinsituwater.Thetermfluidsaturationisusedtodefinetheextent
of occupancy of the pore spaces by any particular fluid. Fluid saturation is defined as that fraction, or
percent,ofthevoidvolumeoccupiedbyaparticularfluid.Iftheoilvolumeisexpressedby Vo,thenthe
equationforoilsaturation,So,canbewrittenas:
So

Vo
Vvoid

100%

(1.5 )

EXPLORATION
Theonlywaytofindtheoilistodrillaholeintheground.Werelyongeologistsandgeophysiciststotell
us where todrill. If there has been no drilling at all, the first well is known as a wildcat or exploratory
well.Intheseinstances,thegeologistmaylookforsurfacemanifestationsofthestructuresbelow.The
structureissometimesevidentatthesurface.Fromtheair,aseriesofcirclescanbeclearlyseenandthe
structure is carried to the reservoir. In the past, the geologist might look for oil or gas seeps at the
surface.ThegiantSaltCreekfieldnorthofCasper,Wyomingwasfoundinthismanner.Itwaswellknown
thatwagonwheelscouldbegreasedattheoilseepsinthearea.Subsequentdrillingoperationsearlyin
thelastcenturydiscoveredavastoilfieldthatisstillproducing.Asthesearchhasbecomemorecomplex,
the exploration tools have become more sophisticated. The tools available to the geologist in these
instances include seismic surveys. The basics of seismic surveys are simple as illustrated in Figure 14.
Basically,anexplosivechargeisdetonatedfairlynearthesurface.Theexplosivesendsshockwavesdown
intotheearth.Thewavesarereflectedoffsubsurfaceformationsandtravelbacktothesurface.Thetime
required for the waves to make their journey and their intensities are recorded at the surface by
16

geophones.Thesedatathenareprocessedbyhighspeedcomputersinanattempttodetermineifthe
geologic conditions are consistent with those required to produce a trap for the accumulation of
hydrocarbons. The interpretation of the seismic results such the one illustrated in Figure 15 requires
specialistsinthisfieldorgeophysicists.Conventionalseismicisruninlinesandinterpretedlinearly.A3D
seismic survey is carried out on an aerial basis. 4D seismic involves acquisition, processing, and
interpretation of repeated seismic surveys over a producing hydrocarbon field. The objective is to
determine the changes occurring in the reservoir as a result of hydrocarbon production or injection of
water or gas into the reservoir by comparing the repeated datasets. The improvement in seismic
interpretationhascomethroughcomputingability.Thesamedatanowareprocessedbyunimaginably
fastcomputerstorevealevenmoreaboutwhatliesbeneaththesurface.

Figure14TheBasicsofSeismicSurvey

Figure14TheInterpretationoftheSeismicSurvey
17

Whileseismicinterpretationcanidentifytheexistenceofatrap,itcannotdeterminewhetherornotthe
trap contains hydrocarbons. The only way to find out if the trap really exists and whether or not it
contains oil is to drill a well and test the formations. Once wells have been drilled and tested, the
geologisthasmoretoolstoworkwith.Thegreateristhenumberofholesdrilled,themoretools.Itthen
becomespossibletoaugmentthemapsofthesubsurfacebasedseismicinterpretationwithactualdata.
Oneofthemostbasicmapspreparedbythegeologististhestructuralmap.A structuralmapissimplya
topographicmapfromlongago.Inotherwords,thegeologistusesthedataavailabletodeterminethe
locationof ancienthillsthatmightnowserveastrapsfortheaccumulationofhydrocarbons.Figure14
illustrateanexampleofastructuremap.

Figure14:AnExampleoftheStructuralMap
There are numerous maps that might be prepared. For example, once a particular horizon has been
identifiedasbeingofinterest,thegeologistmightprepareanisopachorthicknessmapwhichillustrates
wheretheintervalisthickerandmightbepotentiallyproductiveandwhereitisthinnerornotpresent
andoflessinterest.AtypicalisopachmapisshowninFigure15.

Figure15:AnExampleoftheIsopachMap
18

CHARACTERISTICSOFTHERESERVOIR
The characteristics of the reservoir rock and the fluids they contain are necessary to construct an
accuratepictureofthereservoiranditsproductivepotentialinordertomaximizetheeconomicpayback
from the production of the hydrocarbons. The volume of hydrocarbons originally in the reservoir (in
place)istheultimatetargetforthedevelopmentofareservoir.Thevolumeofhydrocarbonsoriginallyin
place is proportional to the product of net formation thickness, porosity, and hydrocarbon saturation.
Theproductionratehasasignificantimpactonthehydrocarbonrecoveryandeconomicperformanceof
the reservoir. The production rate is related to the combination of the net formation thickness, the
permeability,fluidproperties(viscosities),andpressure.Therefore,theinformationthataretypicallyof
primaryinterestincludeporosity,permeability,fluidsaturations,netformationthickness,pressure,fluid
properties,andthestructureofthereservoir.Otherformationpropertiessuchasmechanical,electrical,
and, acoustic rock properties, wettability, and relative permeability can provide additional insight into
thehydrocarbonvolume,productionrate,andtheoptimizationofthereservoirperformance.
Hydrocarbon reservoirs are tapped by wells, and the wells are basically the source of all information
concerningthereservoir.Formationevaluationdataareobtainedduringthedrillingandcompletionof
the well. Data of this type must be obtained during particular phases of the drilling and completion
operation.Ifnotobtainedattheappropriatetime,certaintypesofdata(i.e.,coresamples)maybelost
totherecords.Reservoirfluidandproductiondataareobtainedlargelyafterthewellsarecompleted.

The reservoir characteristics are determined by the analysis of the information obtained by direct and
indirectmeasurements.Directmeasurementsinareservoirarepossibleonfluidsamples,todetermine
the nature and composition of the fluid (PVT analysis), and on the reservoir rock samples (cores). The
desiretoobtainpiecesofreservoirrockhasledtothedevelopmentofcoringtechniqueswhichrelatively
largereservoirrocksamplescanbeobtained,eitherfromthebottomduringdrilling,orthesideofthe
boreholewallafterdrilling.Coringisthebackboneforinvestigatingthereservoirrockpropertiesandthe
reservoir internal anatomy. Core analysis provides direct measurements of porosity, permeability, and
compressibility. Additionally, it can provide information regarding wettability, capillary pressure, and
relativepermeabilities.Theresultsofthecoreanalysisreflectlocalizedreservoirpropertiesanddonot
generally represent the entire reservoir. In most cases, a large number of wells must be drilled and
sampled in order to gain adequate knowledge of rock properties. Gathering of necessary information
overtheentirereservoirisresourceintensive.Theintensityofsamplecollectionandsubsequentanalysis
dependonthedegreeofcomplexityofthereservoir,aswellasonreservoireconomics.

Theindirectmeasurementscanbeobtainedfromthewirelinelogsandthewelltests.Wirelinelogsare
recordings of physical parameters obtained by running instruments into the borehole at the end of a
wire. Thewellloggingtechniquesweredevelopedtodeterminetherockpropertiesatinsituconditions
inordertoavoidanyalterationcausedbyremovaloftherocksample(core)anditspreparationinthe
laboratory. Several types of logging equipment have been developed in the industry to collect
informationregardinglithology,rockporosity,thickness,andfluidsaturation.Loggingtools,whenplaced
downhole,cangatherdatafromafewinchestoafewfeetintothereservoir.Comparedtocoringand
coreanalysis,wellloggingislessresourceintensiveandprovidescontinuousmeasurementsoftherock
19

properties against depth. The information obtained from well logging methods should be considered a
complement to core analysis results and not a replacement. Studies are commonplace where log data
andcoredataarecorrelatedandintegratedtobuildadetailedviewofthereservoir.Asuccessfullogging
program, along with core analysis, can supply data for subsurface structural mapping, define the
lithology, identify the productive zones and accurately describe their depth and thickness, distinguish
between oil and gas, and permit a valid quantitative and qualitative interpretation of reservoir
characteristics,suchasfluidsaturation,porosity,andpermeability.

Well or pressure transient testing provides information on the reservoir behavior under dynamic
conditions. In a well test, the pressure response of the reservoir to a change in the rate of fluid
productionisrecordedasafunctionoftime.Thispressureresponseisinfluencedbyfluid(viscosityand
compressibility)androckproperties(permeabilityandnetthickness)inthereservoir.Thetestresultsare
combinedwithfluidpropertiesobtainedfromPVTanalysisandrockpropertiesobtainedfromthecore
analysisandwellloginterpretationtoestimateformationpermeability.Theinformationobtainedfrom
transienttestscoversarelativelylargerarea,typicallyhundredsoffeetintothereservoir.Theanalysis
results can also be used to diagnose the well conditions in order to determine the need for remedial
treatmenttooptimizethewellperformance.

Intheearlystagesoffielddevelopment,veryfewwellshavebeendrilled,andinformationregardingvital
rock characteristics can only be obtained from core and well log data. However when sufficient
productionandpressuredatafromthereservoirhavebecomeavailable,productiondataanalysiscanbe
performedtodetermineoilorgasinplace,theproductionmechanism,andthepotentialrecoveryfactor.
Common techniques for production data analysis include material balance, decline trend analysis, and
reservoirsimulation.

Reservoir engineer must successfully blend geology, geophysics, petrophysics, petroleum engineering,
andeconomicsknowledgetoobtainanaccurateunderstandingofthepast,present,andfuturebehavior
ofoilandgasreservoirsandmustforecasttheeconomicrecovery.Areservoirmodelisusedtopredict
the physical behavior of the reservoir, in terms of production rate, operating scenarios, development
patterns, primary production and secondary or tertiary recovery processes. Models are valuable for
studying realworld operations and provide the means for reducing complex problems to manageable
size. Whereas the field can be produced only once and at considerable expense a model can be
produced or "run" many times at low expense over a short period of time. Observation of model
performanceunderdifferentproducingconditions,then,aidsinselectinganoptimumsetofproducing
conditions for the reservoir. The reservoir model is built using available information from geology,
geophysics, and measurements performed in wells. The reservoir model is never definitive, but must
continuously be adjusted as new information becomes available when additional wells are drilled.
Computer models are often used to model past performance of reservoirsand to forecast their future
performance. Practice of reservoir engineering has changed from application of the basic theory and
mathematical equations to placing numbers into the computer models. It is easy to run computer
programs. However, finding accurate values for each input value is much more difficult. Sound
110

engineeringdemandsthatthebestpossibleormostaccurateandrepresentativenumericalvaluesforall
theinputbeused.Computermodeloutputmustalsobeanalyzedindetailtobecertainthatresultsare
realistic when compared with past experience, results observed in adjacent or comparable reservoirs
having similar characteristics, and general concepts regarding reservoir behavior and production
practices.Adashofcommonsensecanbemostvaluable,andthecomputershouldnotbeusedblindly.

CLASSIFICATIONOFTHERESERVOIRS
Thereservoirscanbeclassifiedinseveraldifferentwaysaslistedbelow:
a.Initialstateofthefluidsinthereservoir
b.Production/drivemechanism
c.Theporesystem
d.Recovery/productiontechnology

ClassificationoftheReservoirsbytheInitialStateoftheFluids
Thepetroleumreservoirscanbeclassifiedaccordingtothephysicalstateoffluidsinthereservoiratthe
discoveryconditions.Therearethreebroadcategoriesincludingoil,gascondensate,andgasreservoirs.
Thephysical stateoffluidsinthereservoirdependsonthepressure,temperature,and compositionof
the petroleum. Petroleum is a complex mixture containing thousands of different compounds, most of
whicharecomposedexclusivelyofhydrogenandcarbon(hydrocarbons).Phasediagramsareoftenused
to illustrate the effects of pressure and temperature on the physical state of hydrocarbons. The phase
relationships of hydrocarbons have been extensively studied, and much has been learned about their
behavior.

ApressuretemperaturephasediagramforapuresubstanceisshowninFigure16.Thephasediagramis
merelyalinewhichseparatestheliquidregionfromthevapor(gas)region.Thelocationofthesolidstate
willnotbeshownbecauseitisoflittleinterestinstudyingofapetroleumdeposit.ExaminationofFigure
16showsthatthelinerepresentspressuresandtemperaturesatwhichbothliquidandvaporcanexist
inequilibrium.PointCistheCriticalPoint,whichisdefinedasthetemperatureandpressureabovewhich
twophasescannolongerexistinequilibrium.

Figure16:PhaseDiagramforaPureSubstance

Twodifferentpurecomponents x and y,mighthavethephasediagramsshownbysolidlinesinFigure1

7. If these two materials are mixed in equal proportions, the phase diagram for the resulting
111

mixturewillhavetheshapeshownbythedottedlineinFigure17.Thedottedlineseparatesthetwo
phase region from the singlephase region. The phase diagram for the mixture lies between the phase
linesforthetwopurecomponents.Thereasonforthisisthatalongtheupperportionofthedottedline
thehighermolecularweightmaterialy,whichisintheliquidphase,willholdthelowermolecularweight
material x in the liquid state for a longer period. Conversely, along the lower portion of the phase
diagram,thexmoleculeswillpreventtheymoleculesfrombeingliquefiedforalongerperiodoftime.

Figure17:PhaseDiagramforaBinaryMixture

AphasediagramfortypicalhydrocarbonreservoirfluidisshowninFigure18.Aphasediagramconsists
of the bubblepoint and the dewpoint curves which form the phase envelop. The twophase region is
enclosedbythephaseenvelopandthesinglephaseregionliesoutsideofthephaseenvelop.Thepoint
wherethebubblepointandthedewpointcurvesconvergeisreferredtoasthecriticalpoint(C).Thetwo
phases are indistinguishable at the critical point. The highest temperature (T) at which the two phases
couldcoexistinequilibriumisreferredtoasthecricondentherm.Whilethehighestpressureatthetwo
phasescouldcoexistinequilibriumisreferredtoasthecricondenbar.Thecompositionofthereservoir
fluid determines the shape of twophase envelope and its position on the PT diagram. Each reservoir
fluidhasauniquephasediagram.Figure16isaphasediagramtypicalofareservoirfluid.Thepetroleum
canexitsassinglephaseliquid,singlephasegas,orbothattheinitialpressureandtemperatureofthe
reservoir.
IftheinitialPTconditionsofthereservoiraretotheleftofthecriticalpoint C andoutsideofthephase
envelope, point 1i on Figure 18 then the reservoirfluid is initially singlephase liquid. This reservoir is
referred to as an oil reservoir. Points 1i and 1a on Figure 18 depict the initial and abandonment
conditions, respectively, of an oil reservoir. At the initial conditions the hydrocarbons are 100 percent
liquid. As the production occurs, the pressure will decline isothermally since it is known that reservoir
temperature does not change as fluids are produced from the reservoir. The conditions of fluid in the
reservoiraredepictedbyadashedverticallineconnectingpoints1iand1aonFigure18.Thestateofthe
oil does not change until point "S" on the dashed line is reached. At this pressure some of the lighter
hydrocarbons,principallymethane,willbeevolvedfromtheoil,andwillexistasfreegasinthereservoir.
Thepressureatwhichthegasisfirstreleasedfromsolutionisreferredtoasthesaturationpressure,or
bubblepointpressure.Continuedreductioninpressurewillresultinmoreandmoregasbeingreleased
112

fromtheoiluntiltheabandonmentconditionsarereached.Oilreservoirscanbefurtherclassifiedinto
threebroadclassesinorderofincreasingmolecularweight;theyarevolatileoil,blackoil,andheavyoil.

Figure18:TypicalReservoirFluidPhaseDiagram
IftheinitialPTconditionsofthereservoiraretotherightofthecricondentherm,point2i onFigure18,
thenthereservoirfluidwillinitiallybesinglephasegas.Thisreservoirisreferredtoasa gasreservoir.
Points2i and2adepicttheinitialandabandonmentconditions,respectively,ofagasreservoir.Itcanbe
noted that no point on the vertical dashed line, depicting the isothermal depletion, crosses the phase
envelope.Therefore,thefluidinthereservoirisalwaysinagaseousstate.Gasreservoirscanbefurther
classifiedintotwoclassesbasedontheircomposition;theyarewetgasanddrygas.Ifthegasproduced
fromthereservoirfallsinsidethephaseenvelopeatthesurfacepressureandtemperatureconditions,it
is called a wet gas. The surface separation facilities are often installed to recover the condensible
hydrocarbons or condensate from the wet gas. If the gas consists of primarily methane and does not
containanycondensiblehydrocarbonsatthesurfaceconditions,itiscalledadrygas.

If the initial PT conditions of the reservoir are to the right of point C and to the left of point T, and
outside of the phase envelope, then the reservoir is referred to as gascondensate reservoir. Points 3i
and3aonFigure18depictrespectivelytheinitialandabandonmentconditionsofthistypeofreservoir.
Initially,thestateoffluidinthereservoirissinglephasegas.Asproductionbeginsfromthereservoirand
pressuredeclines,nochangeinthestateofthereservoirfluidoccursuntilpoint"D"isreached.Point"D"
is called the dew point pressure because the dew point line has been crossed. Further reduction in
pressurewillcauseliquidtocondensefromthegas.Thisisnotconsideredtobeanormalsituation,since
formosthydrocarbonfluidsareductioninpressurewilltendtoincreasetheamountofgas.Thisbehavior
is referred to as retrograde condensation. For a reservoir fluid to exhibit the retrograde behavior, the
initialconditionsofpressureandtemperaturemustexistoutsidethephaseenvelopetotherightofthe
pointCandtotheleftofpointT,orwithinthephaseenvelopeintheregionmarkedbythedashedcurve.
Theproducedgasfromthecondensatereservoiriswetgasandthecondensatecanberecoveredatthe
113

surface separation facilities. However, the condensate recovery at surface declines as the reservoir
pressuredeclinebelowthedewpointpressureasthecondensablehydrocarbonsareformedandtrapped
inthereservoir.

IftheinitialPTconditionsofthereservoirfallinsidethetwophaseenvelop,initiallybothoilandgaswill
be present under equilibrium conditions in the reservoir. Since gas is lighter than oil, it will rise to the
higher parts of the structure while the oil will occupy the lower parts of the structure. This type of
reservoirisreferredtoasanoilreservoirwiththegascap.IftheinitialPTconditionsofthereservoirfall
inside the retrograde region, the area within the twophase envelope marked by the dashed curve in
Figure18,thegascapwillexhibittheretrogradebehavior.

Each of these fluid types, black oil, volatile oil, gascondensate, wet gas, and dry gas require different
approacheswhenanalyzingthereservoir,soitisimportanttoidentifythecorrectfluidtypeearlyinthe
lifeofthereservoir.Laboratoryanalysisistheprimarymethodfordeterminingandquantifyingfluidtype,
but production information such as initial production gasoil ratio, gravity of the stocktank liquid, and
thecolorofthestocktankliquidarealsousefulindicators.

ClassificationoftheReservoirsbytheProduction/DriveMechanism
Whilethereservoirclassificationbytheinitialstateofthefluidishelpful,itisalsousefultoclassifythe
reservoirbasedonthedrivemechanism.Thistypeofclassificationismoresignificantinunderstanding
the reservoir behavior and the implementation of the appropriate technology to optimize oil and gas
recovery. The drive mechanism is the natural energy source that results in expansion of fluids in the
reservoir. The increase in the fluid volumes is equivalent to the production. The energy sources which
maybeavailabletomoveoilandgastothewellbore(production)includeexpansionofthedissolvedand
freegas,expansionoftheoil;water;andtherock,aswellasthegravity.Mostoftheseforcesareactive
during the productive life of a reservoir and a single drive mechanism is not sufficient to explain the
performance of the reservoir throughout its entire productive life. In many cases, however, reservoirs
canbesingledoutashavingpredominantlyonemaintypeofdrivemechanismincomparisontowhichall
other mechanisms have a negligible effect. The major drive mechanisms include solutiongas, gascap,
andwaterdrive.Inaddition,gravitydrainagecanactasasupplementaldrivemechanism.Forsimplicity,
eachmechanismandtheassociatedreservoirbehaviorarediscussedhereinthecontextofasingledrive
reservoir.

SolutiongasDrive
Theprincipaldrivemechanisminasolutiongasdrivereservoiristheliberationandexpansionofthe
dissolvedgasintheoil,asthepressuredeclinesduringproduction.Initiallyinthereservoir,thereis
nofreegasandthewaterflowintothereservoirfromthecontiguouswaterzonesisinsignificant.
Solutiongasdriveisalsoknownasdepletiondrive,dissolvedgasdrive,orinternalgasdrive.Two
periodsofproductionmayexist:(a)whenthereservoirpressureisabovethebubblepointpressure,
thesolutiongasremaininsolutionandtheproductionmechanismistheexpansionoftheoil;water;
114

andthereservoirrock.Thistypeofreservoir,oftenreferredtoasundersaturatedoilreservoir,is
characterizedbyaconstantproducinggas/oilratioandlowoilrecovery;(b)whenthepressureis
belowthebubblepointpressure,gaswillbeliberatedfromthesaturatedoilandafreegassaturation
willdevelopinthereservoir.Astheproductioncontinuesandpressuredeclines,gassaturationwill
increaseresultinginrapidincreaseinthegas/oilratiowhichreflectstheincreasinggasflowrateand
thediminishingoilproductionrate.Theoilrecoveryfromasolutiongasdrivereservoiristypicallyin
therangeof1015%.Theoilleftbehindinthereservoiruponcompletionofprimaryproductioncan
berecoveredbywaterfloodingwhichisacommonsecondaryrecoverytechnology.Ifthereservoiris
initiallyundersaturated,anadditional13%recoverymaybeachievedbeforebubblepointpressureis
reached.

GascapDrive
A gascap reservoir initially contains a free gas zone above the oil zone. The oil is at saturation or
bubblepoint pressure at the oilgas contact, and the water influx is negligible. The principal drive
mechanismisthecombinationofthefreegasexpansion,whichpermeatesanddiffusesintotheoil
zonefromthegascap,andthesolutiongasexpansion.Becauseofthegascapexpansion,thedecline
inoilproductionrateandthepressureisnotasrapidasinsolutiongasdrivereservoirs.Generally,
theoilrecoveryfromagascapdrivereservoirisgreaterthansolutiongasdrivereservoir,typicallyin
therangeof2030%,dependentonthesizeofthegascap.Theoilrecoveryismoresensitivetorate
atwhichthereservoirisproducedthanforsolutiongasdrivepools.

WaterDrive
Areservoirwhichisincontactwithanextensiveaquifercanbesubjecttowaterinfluxprovidedithas
sufficient permeability. The reduction in the reservoir pressure with oil production results in a
pressure difference at the reservoiraquifer boundary. Consequently, the water in the aquifer
expandsandflowsintothereservoir.Thedegreetowhichtheproducedfluidsarereplacedbythe
water determines the efficiency of the waterdrive mechanism. The production rates greatly in
excess of the rate of water influx can lead to performance similar to that of solutiongasdrive
reservoirs. Generally, the production capacity and the produced gas/oil ratio are substantially
constant until water begins to be produced. Recovery factor depends on the reservoir rock
characteristics, mobility ratio and reservoir geometry. Recovery from water drive reservoirs can be
very high, in excess of 50%, but the residual oil will now be trapped behind the advancing water
whichcanonlyberecoveredbyresortingtomoreadvancedrecoverymethods.

GravityDrainage
Gravitydrainageisconsideredasupplementaldrivemechanismsincerarelyanoilreservoirproduces
strictlyundergravitydrainage. Inoilreservoirssubjecttogravitydrainage,thesegregationoftheoil
and gas results in migration of oil to the lower parts of the structure while the free gas forms a
secondarygascapinthehigherpartsofthestructure.Ifaprimarygascapexists,thenitwillexpand
as a result of this process. This segregation process maintains a high oil saturation in the oil zone
which leads to increased oil recovery. The magnitude of the gravity drainage depends on the oil
115

gravity, permeability of the zone, and formation dip. Gravitational effects exist in all the reservoirs
butduetolowverticalpermeability,thesegregationofoilandgasisaveryslowprocessanddoes
nothaveasignificantimpactontheproduction performanceor oilrecovery.However,thesteeply
dipping beds accentuate the downstructure oil movement because the permeability is the highest
paralleltothebedding.Lateinthelifeofthesolutiongasdrivereservoirswhentheproductionrate
isverylowduetosignificantpressuredepletion,gravitydrainageoftenbecomesthemainproduction
mechanism.

CombinationDrive
A sequence of drive mechanisms in reservoirs, such as solutiongas drive, gravity drainage, water
drive, may develop during primary production in some reservoirs. Also two different drives may
compete simultaneously such as waterdrive reservoir and gascap. The performance of the
combinationdrive reservoirs is affected by the method of operation and by individual well and
reservoirrates.

DriveMechanismsinGasReservoirs
The discussion above was limited to oil reservoirs but a similar classification can be applied to gas
reservoirs. However, since gas reservoir contain singlephase gas, only three drive mechanisms
including gas expansion, water drive, and rock and water expansion could be responsible for gas
recovery. Typically, volumetric gas reservoirs which produce only by gas expansion have high gas
recovery,intherangeof9095%.Therecoveryforthewaterdrivereservoirisgenerallylower,inin
the range of 5060%, due to entrapment of gas by the advancing water. The rock and water
expansion are only significant in geopressured reservoirs. The reservoir fluid pressure in
geopressuredreservoirssignificantlyexceedshydrostaticpressure.Geopressuredaccumulationsare
frequentlyassociatedwithsubstantialfoldingandfaultingandhavebeenobservedinmanyareasof
theworld.

ClassificationofReservoirsbyTypeofPoreSystem
The geologic formations that make up the petroleum reservoirs are formed over millions of years by
sedimentdepositionwhichstronglyinfluencesthearchitectureoftherockandinturntheporosityand
the permeability. However, the postdeposition or diagenetic changes can alter the rocks. Diagenetic
changes can create or destroy the original porosity and permeability, or create barriers to fluid flow.
Porosity,usuallycausedbyfracturingand/ordissolutionoftheoriginalrockmatrix,isoftenreferredtoas
secondaryporosity.Insomecases,thesecondaryporosityconsiderablyincreasestheporosityoftherock
matrix and is the primary mechanism for fluid storage and flow. A three category scheme has been
proposed for classification of the pore systems. They include intergranularintercrystalline in which the
pore space in the reservoirs is mainly consisted of the primary porosity formed during the deposition,
vugularsolutioninwhichtheporespaceinthereservoirsismainlyconsistedofthesecondaryporosity
formed during diagenesis, and mixed porosity systems in which the pore space in the reservoirs is
consisted of two coupled pore systems. The performance of this type (heterogeneous) of reservoirs is
markedlydifferentfromthatthoseconsistingofasingleporetype(homogeneous)reservoirs.
116


ClassificationofReservoirsBasedonRecovery/ProductionTechnology
The reservoirs are often classified as conventional or unconventional based on the technological
requirementsfordevelopmentandproduction.Conventionalreservoirscanproduceeconomicvolumes
of oil and gas through a vertical wells without any special recovery process. They tend to be small in
volume but easy to develop because they have high to medium permeability. Only one third of
worldwide oil and gas reserves are associated with conventional reservoirs. As easy to develop and
inexpensive to produce conventional reservoirs have been discovered and depleted, the industry has
turned to unconventional reservoirs that cannot be produced economically with conventional
development and production technology. Unconventional reservoirs are typically continuous oil or gas
accumulationsthatpersistoveralargegeographicalarea.Themainchallengeintheseaccumulationsis
not in finding them, but in commercially extracting the hydrocarbons. The unconventional reservoirs
generally require stimulation treatments or special recovery processes and technologies to produce at
economicrates.Advancedtechnologyapplicationisthekeytothedevelopmentoftheunconventional
reservoirs. Technical and engineering advances over the past decade have transformed the
unconventional reservoirs from the emerging resources to main target of exploration and production
globally. Advanced fracturing techniques combined with horizontal drilling have been instrumental in
economically exploiting many unconventional reservoirs. The term unconventional reservoirs include a
widevarietyofthehydrocarbonbearingformationandreservoirtypes.Theycommonlyincludetightgas
sandstones,coalbedmethane(CBM),shalegasandoil,heavyoil/tarsands,andgashydrates.

117