Contents

Preface

xiii

Part I Overview and Materials

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

Microelectronic Technologies: A Simple Example

Unit Processes and Technologies
7
A Roadmap for the Course
8
Summary
9

Chapter 2 Semiconductor Substrates

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8

Phase Diagrams and Solid Solubility

Crystallography and Crystal Structure
Crystal Defects
16
Czochralski Growth
22
Bridgman Growth of GaAs
30
Float Zone Growth
32
Wafer Preparation and Specications
Summary and Future Trends
35
Problems
35
References
36

10
10
14

33

Part II Unit Processes I: Hot Processing

and Ion Implantation 41
Chapter 3 Diffusion
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

43

Ficks Diffusion Equation in One Dimension

Atomistic Models of Diffusion
45
Analytic Solutions of Ficks Law
50
Diffusion Coefcients for Common Dopants
Analysis of Diffused Proles
56
Diffusion in SiO2
62

This section provides background material.

43

53

vi

Contents
3.7
3.8

Simulations of Diffusion Proles

Summary
69
Problems
69
References
71

Chapter 4 Thermal Oxidation

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11

74

The DealGrove Model of Oxidation

74
The Linear and Parabolic Rate Coefcients
77
The Initial Oxidation Regime
81
The Structure of SiO2
83
Oxide Characterization
84
The Effects of Dopants During Oxidation and Polysilicon
Oxidation
91
Silicon Oxynitrides
94
Alternative Gate Insulators
95
Oxidation Systems
97
Numeric Oxidations
99
Summary
101
Problems
101
References
103

Chapter 5 Ion Implantation

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10

64

107

Idealized Ion Implantation Systems

108
Coulomb Scattering
113
Vertical Projected Range
114
Channeling and Lateral Projected Range
120
Implantation Damage
122
Shallow Junction Formation
126
Buried Dielectrics
128
Ion Implantation Systems: Problems and Concerns
Numerical Implanted Proles
132
Summary
134
Problems
134
References
136

Chapter 6 Rapid Thermal Processing

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9

130

140

Gray Body Radiation, Heat Exchange, and Optical Absorption

High Intensity Optical Sources and Chamber Design
144
Temperature Measurement
147
Thermoplastic Stress
151
Rapid Thermal Activation of Impurities
152
Rapid Thermal Processing of Dielectrics
154
Silicidation and Contact Formation
155
Alternative Rapid Thermal Processing Systems
156
Summary
157
Problems
157
References
158

141

This section contains advanced material and can be omitted without loss of the basic content of the course.

Contents

Part III Unit Processes 2:

Pattern Transfer 163
Chapter 7 Optical Lithography
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10

Lithography Overview
165
Diffraction
169
The Modulation Transfer Function and Optical Exposures
Source Systems and Spatial Coherence
175
Contact/Proximity Printers
179
Projection Printers
183
Advanced Mask Concepts
189
Surface Reections and Standing Waves
192
Alignment
194
Summary
195
Problems
195
References
196

Chapter 8 Photoresists
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9

165

199

Photoresist Types
199
Organic Materials and Polymers
200
Typical Reactions of DQN Positive Photoresist
202
Contrast Curves
204
The Critical Modulation Transfer Function
207
Applying and Developing Photoresist
207
Second-Order Exposure Effects
211
Advanced Photoresists and Photoresist Processes
215
Summary
219
Problems
219
References
221

Chapter 9 Nonoptical Lithographic Techniques

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12

172

224

Interactions of High Energy Beams with Matter

225
Direct-Write Electron Beam Lithography Systems
227
Direct-Write Electron Beam Lithography: Summary and
Outlook
233
X-ray Sources
235
Proximity X-ray Exposure Systems
238
Membrane Masks
240
Projection X-ray Lithography
242
Projection Electron Beam Lithography (SCALPEL)
244
E-beam and X-ray Resists
245
Radiation Damage in MOS Devices
247
Soft Lithography and Nanoimprint Lithography
249
Summary
252
Problems
252
References
253

vii

viii

Contents

Chapter 10 Vacuum Science and Plasmas

10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8

The Kinetic Theory of Gases

259
Gas Flow and Conductance
262
Pressure Ranges and Vacuum Pumps
265
Vacuum Seals and Pressure Measurement
271
The DC Glow Discharge
273
RF Discharges
275
High Density Plasmas
277
Summary
280
Problems
280
References
282

Chapter 11 Etching
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10

259

283

Wet Etching
284
Chemical Mechanical Polishing
289
Basic Regimes of Plasma Etching
291
High Pressure Plasma Etching
292
Ion Milling
300
Reactive Ion Etching
303
Damage in Reactive Ion Etching
307
High Density Plasma (HDP) Etching
308
Liftoff
310
Summary
311
Problems
312
References
313

Part IV Unit Processes 3: Thin Films

321

Chapter 12 Physical Deposition: Evaporation and Sputtering

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.13
12.14

Phase Diagrams: Sublimation and Evaporation

Deposition Rates
325
Step Coverage
329
Evaporator Systems: Crucible Heating Techniques
Multicomponent Films
334
An Introduction to Sputtering
335
Physics of Sputtering
336
Deposition Rate: Sputter Yield
337
High Density Plasma Sputtering
339
Morphology and Step Coverage
341
Sputtering Methods
345
Sputtering of Specic Materials
346
Stress in Deposited Layers
349
Summary
350
Problems
350
References
352

324

331

323

Contents

Chapter 13 Chemical Vapor Deposition

13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
13.11

14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
14.11
14.12
14.13
14.14

356

A Simple CVD System for the Deposition of Silicon

356
Chemical Equilibrium and the Law of Mass Action
358
Gas Flow and Boundary Layers
361
Evaluation of the Simple CVD System
366
Atmospheric CVD of Dielectrics
367
Low Pressure CVD of Dielectrics and Semiconductors in Hot Wall Systems
Plasma-enhanced CVD of Dielectrics
373
Metal CVD
377
Atomic Layer Deposition
380
Electroplating Copper
382
Summary
384
Problems
384
References
385

Chapter 14 Epitaxial Growth

391

Wafer Cleaning and Native Oxide Removal

392
The Thermodynamics of Vapor Phase Growth
396
Surface Reactions
400
Dopant Incorporation
401
Defects in Epitaxial Growth
402
Selective Growth
405
Halide Transport GaAs Vapor Phase Epitaxy
405
Incommensurate and Strained Layer Heteroepitaxy
406
Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD)
409
Advanced Silicon Vapor Phase Epitaxial Growth Techniques
414
Molecular Beam Epitaxy Technology
417
BCF Theory
422
Gas Source MBE and Chemical Beam Epitaxy
427
Summary
428
Problems
428
References
429

Part V Process Integration

435

Chapter 15 Device Isolation, Contacts, and Metallization

15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9
15.10
15.11

Junction and Oxide Isolation

437
LOCOS Methods
440
Trench Isolation
443
Silicon-on-Insulator Isolation Techniques
Semi-insulating Substrates
447
Schottky Contacts
449
Implanted Ohmic Contacts
453
Alloyed Contacts
456
Multilevel Metallization
457
Planarization and Advanced Interconnect
Summary
467
Problems
468
References
469

ix

446

462

437

368

Contents

Chapter 16 CMOS Technologies

16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
16.9

475

Basic Long-Channel Device Behavior

475
Early MOS Technologies
477
The Basic 3-m Technology
478
Device Scaling
483
Hot Carrier Effects and Drain Engineering
490
Latchup
493
Shallow Source/Drains and Tailored Channel Doping
The Universal Curve and Advanced CMOS
498
Summary
500
Problems
501
References
503

Chapter 17 Other Transistor Technologies

17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8
17.9
17.10
17.11
17.12

Basic MESFET Operation

509
Basic MESFET Technology
510
Digital Technologies
511
MMIC Technologies
515
MODFETs
518
Review of Bipolar Devices: Ideal and Quasi-ideal
Behavior
519
Performance of BJTs
521
Early Bipolar Processes
523
Advanced Bipolar Processes
526
BiCMOS
533
Thin Film Transistors
536
Summary
538
Problems
539
References
541

Chapter 18 Optoelectronic Technologies

18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.9

Optoelectronic Devices Overview

547
Direct-Gap Inorganic LEDs
549
Polymer/Organic Light-Emitting Diodes
Lasers
553
Summary
554
References
554

Chapter 19 MEMS
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
19.7
19.8
19.9
19.10

509

547
551

555

Fundamentals of Mechanics
556
Stress in Thin Films
558
Mechanical-to-Electrical Transduction
559
Mechanics of Common MEMS Devices
563
Bulk Micromachining Etching Techniques
567
Bulk Micromachining Process Flow
575
Surface Micromachining Basics
579
Surface Micromachining Process Flow
583
MEMS Actuators
586
High Aspect Ratio Microsystems Technology
(HARMST)
591

496

Contents
19.11

Summary
Problems
References

593
593
595

Chapter 20 Integrated Circuit Manufacturing

20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7

Yield Prediction and Yield Tracking

Particle Control
605
Statistical Process Control
607
Full Factorial Experiments and ANOVA
Design of Experiments
612
Computer-integrated Manufacturing
Summary
617
Problems
618
References
618

609
615

Appendix I. Acronyms and Common Symbols

Appendix II. Properties of Selected
Appendix III.
Appendix IV.
Appendix V.
Appendix VI.

599

600

620

Semiconductor Materials
626
Physical Constants
627
Conversion Factors
629
Some Properties of the Error Function
F Values
636
Index

639

632

xi