Coagulation and Flocculation

Objective
In this lesson we will answer the following questions:
How do coagulation and flocculation fit into the water treatment
process?
Which chemical principles influence coagulation and flocculation?
Which chemicals are used in coagulation?
What factors influence coagulation and flocculation?

Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 4: Coagulation and Flocculation, in
your textbook Operation of Water Treatment Plants Volume I .

Lecture

Overview of the Process

Location in the Treatment Plant
After the source water has been screened and has passed through the optional steps
of pre-chlorination and aeration, it is ready for coagulation and flocculation.

In theory and at the chemical level, coagulation and flocculation is a three step
process, consisting of flash mixing, coagulation, and flocculation. However, in
practice in the treatment plant, there are only two steps in the
coagulation/flocculation process - the water first flows into the flash mix chamber,
and then enters the flocculation basin.
In this lesson, we will primarily be concerned with the theory behind
coagulation/flocculation. In later lessons, we will consider the practice in more
detail.

Purpose
The primary purpose of the coagulation/flocculation process is the removal of
turbidity from the water. Turbidity is a cloudy appearance of water caused by
small particles suspended therein. Water with little or no turbidity will be clear.

Turbidity is not only an aesthetic problem in water. Water with a high turbidity can
be very difficult or impossible to properly disinfect. As a result, the maximum
allowable level of turbidity in water is 0.5 NTU, while the recommended level is
about 0.1 NTU. (NTU, or TU, stands for nephelometric turbidity units, a
measurement of the turbidity of water.)
In addition to removing turbidity from the water, coagulation and flocculation is
beneficial in other ways. The process removes many bacteria which are suspended
in the water and can be used to remove color from the water.
Turbidity and color are much more common in surface water than in groundwater.
As surface water flows over the ground to streams, through streams, and then
through rivers, the water picks up a large quantity of particles. As a result, while
aeration is more commonly required for groundwater, treatment involving
coagulation and flocculation is typical of surface water.

Three Steps
As I mentioned above, the chemistry of coagulation/flocculation consists of three
processes - flash mix, coagulation, and flocculation. Each of these processes is
briefly explained below.

In the flash mixer, coagulant chemicals are added to the water and the water is
mixed quickly and violently. The purpose of this step is to evenly distribute the
chemicals through the water. Flash mixing typically lasts a minute or less. If the
water is mixed for less than thirty seconds, then the chemicals will not be properly
mixed into the water. However, if the water is mixed for more than sixty seconds,
then the mixer blades will shear the newly forming floc back into small particles.
After flash mixing, coagulation occurs. During coagulation, the coagulant
chemicals neutralize the electrical charges of the fine particles in the water,
allowing the particles to come closer together and form large clumps. You may
already be familiar with the process of coagulation from cooking. You can see
coagulation occurring when preparing gelatin (jello) or when cooking an egg
white.
The final step is flocculation. During flocculation, a process of gentle mixing
brings the fine particles formed by coagulation into contact with each other.
Flocculation typically lasts for about thirty to forty-five minutes. The flocculation
basin often has a number of compartments with decreasing mixing speeds as the
water advances through the basin. This compartmentalized chamber allows
increasingly large floc to form without being broken apart by the mixing blades.

Floc
The end product of a well-regulated coagulation/flocculation process is water in
which the majority of the turbidity has been collected into floc, clumps of bacteria
and particulate impurities that have come together and formed a cluster. The floc
will then settle out in the sedimentation basin, with remaining floc being removed
in the filter.

The best floc size is 0.1 to 3 mm. Larger floc does not settle as well and is more
subject to breakup in the flocculation basin. Smaller floc also may not settle.

Chemistry
Introduction
Why do we need such a complex process to remove particles from water? Some
particles would settle out of the water on their own, given enough time. But other
particles would resist settling for days or months due to small particle size and to
electrical charges between the particles.
We will consider the chemical processes which prevent and aid settling below. But
first, we will list the three types of objects which can be found in water.

Particles in Water
There are three types of objects which can be found in water. In order from
smallest to largest, these objects are chemicals in solution, colloidal solids, and
suspended solids. Coagulation/flocculation will remove colloidal and suspended
solids from water.
Chemicals in solution have been completely dissolved in the water. They are
electrically charged and can interact with the water, so they are completely stable
and will never settle out of the water. Chemicals in solution are not visible, either

using the naked eye or using a microscope, and are less than 1 Mu in size. (A Mu,
or millimicron, is equal to 0.000000039 inches.) An example of a chemical in
solution is sugar in water.
Colloidal solids, also known as nonsettleable solids, do not dissolve in water
although they are electrically charged. Still, the particles are so small that they will
not settle out of the water even after several years and they cannot be removed by
filtration alone. Colloidal solids range between 1 and 500 Mu in size and can be
seen only with a high-powered microscope. Examples include bacteria, fine clays,
and silts. Colloidal solids often cause colored water, such as the "tea color" of
swamp water.
Finally, suspended, or settleable, solids will settle out of water over time, though
this may be so slow that it is impractical to merely allow the particles to settle out
in a water treatment plant. The particles are more than 1,000 Mu in size and can be
seen with a microscope or, sometimes, with the naked eye. Examples of suspended
solids include sand and heavy silts.

Electrical Charges
The chemistry of coagulation and flocculation is primarily based on
electricity. Electricity is the behavior of negative and positively charged particles
due to their attraction and repulsion. Like charges (two negatively charged
particles or two positively charged particles) repel each other while opposite
charges (a positively charged particle and a negatively charged particle) attract.

Negatively charged particles repel each other due to electricity.

Most particles dissolved in water have a negative charge, so they tend to repel each
other. As a result, they stay dispersed and dissolved or colloidal in the water, as
shown above.
The purpose of most coagulant chemicals is to neutralize the negative charges on
the turbidity particles to prevent those particles from repelling each other. The
amount of coagulant which should be added to the water will depend on the zeta
potential, a measurement of the magnitude of electrical charge surrounding the
colloidal particles. You can think of the zeta potential as the amount of repulsive
force which keeps the particles in the water. If the zeta potential is large, then
more coagulants will be needed.
Coagulants tend to be positively charged. Due to their positive charge, they are
attracted to the negative particles in the water, as shown below.

Positively charged coagulants attract to negatively

charged particles due to electricity.

The combination of positive and negative charge results in a neutral, or lack, of

charge. As a result, the particles no longer repel each other.
The next force which will affect the particles is known as van der Waal's
forces. Van der Waal's forces refer to the tendency of particles in nature to attract
each other weakly if they have no charge.

Neutrally charged particles attract due to van der Waal's forces.

Once the particles in water are not repelling each other, van der Waal's forces make
the particles drift toward each other and join together into a group. When enough
particles have joined together, they become floc and will settle out of the water.

Particles and coagulants join

together into floc.

Coagulant Chemicals
Types of Coagulants
Coagulant chemicals come in two main types - primary coagulants and coagulant
aids. Primary coagulants neutralize the electrical charges of particles in the water
which causes the particles to clump together. Coagulant aids add density to slowsettling flocs and add toughness to the flocs so that they will not break up during
the mixing and settling processes.
Primary coagulants are always used in the coagulation/flocculation process.
Coagulant aids, in contrast, are not always required and are generally used to
reduce flocculation time.
Chemically, coagulant chemicals are either metallic salts (such as alum) or
polymers. Polymers are man-made organic compounds made up of a long chain
of smaller molecules. Polymers can be either cationic (positively
charged), anionic(negatively charged), or nonionic (neutrally charged.) The table
below shows many of the common coagulant chemicals and lists whether they are
used as primary coagulants or as coagulant aids.
Different sources of water need different coagulants, but the most commonly used
are alum and ferric sulfate.

Chemical Name

Chemical Formula

Primary Coagulant

Coagulant Aid

Aluminum sulfate (Alum)

Al2(SO4)3 14 H2O

Ferrous sulfate

FeSO4 7 H2O

Ferric sulfate

Fe2(SO4)3 9 H2O

Ferric chloride

FeCl3 6 H2O

Cationic polymer

Various

Calcium hydroxide (Lime)

Ca(OH)2

X*

Calcium oxide (Quicklime)

CaO

X*

Sodium aluminate

Na2Al2O4

X*

Bentonite

Clay

Calcium carbonate

CaCO3

Sodium silicate

Na2SiO3

Anionic polymer

Various

Nonionic polymer

Various

*Used as a primary coagulant only in water softening processes.

Alum
There are a variety of primary coagulants which can be used in a water treatment
plant. One of the earliest, and still the most extensively used, is aluminum sulfate,
also known as alum. Alum can be bought in liquid form with a concentration of
8.3%, or in dry form with a concentration of 17%. When alum is added to water, it
reacts with the water and results in positively charged ions.

Coagulant Aids
Nearly all coagulant aids are very expensive, so care must be taken to use the
proper amount of these chemicals. In many cases, coagulant aids are not required
during the normal operation of the treatment plant, but are used during emergency
treatment of water which has not been adequately treated in the flocculation and
sedimentation basin. A couple of coagulant aids will be considered below.

Lime is a coagulant aid used to increase the alkalinity of the water. The increase in
alkalinity results in an increase in ions (electrically charged particles) in the water,
some of which are positively charged. These positively charged particles attract
the colloidal particles in the water, forming floc.
Bentonite is a type of clay used as a weighting agent in water high in color and
low in turbidity and mineral content. This type of water usually would not form
floc large enough to settle out of the water. The bentonite joins with the small floc,
making the floc heavier and thus making it settle more quickly.

Factors Influencing Coagulation

Introduction
In a well-run water treatment plant, adjustments are often necessary in order to
maximize the coagulation/flocculation process. These adjustments are a reaction
to changes in the raw water entering the plant. Coagulation will be affected by
changes in the water's pH, alkalinity, temperature, time, velocity and zeta potential.
The effectiveness of a coagulant is generally pH dependent. Water with a color will
coagulate better at low pH (4.4-6) with alum.
Alkalinity is needed to provide anions, such as (OH) for forming insoluble
compounds to precipitate them out. It could be naturally present in the water or
needed to be added as hydroxides, carbonates, or bicarbonates. Generally 1 part
alum uses 0.5 parts alkalinity for proper coagulation.
The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction, and the more effective is the
coagulation. Winter temperature will slow down the reaction rate, which can be
helped by an extended detention time. Mostly, it is naturally provided due to lower
water demand in winter.
Time is an important factor as well. Proper mixing and detention times are very
important to coagulation.
The higher velocity causes the shearing or breaking of floc particles, and lower
velocity will let them settle in the flocculation basins. Velocity around 1 ft/sec in
the flocculation basins should be maintained.
Zeta potential is the charge at the boundary of the colloidal turbidity particle and
the surrounding water. The higher the charge the more is the repulsion between the

turbidity particles, less the coagulation, and vice versa. Higher zeta potential
requires the higher coagulant dose. An effective coagulation is aimed at reducing
zeta potential charge to almost 0.

Coagulant
The proper type and concentration of coagulant are essential to the coagulation
process. The coagulant choice will depend on the conditions at the plant. The
concentration of coagulant also depends on the water conditions, and a jar test can
be used to determine the correct concentration to use at any given time.
Coagulants are usually fed into the water using a gravimetric feeder or a metering
pump. A gravimetric feeder feeds dry chemicals into the water by weight.
A metering pump feeds a wet solution (a liquid) into the water by pumping a
volume of solution with each stroke or rotation.
Improper coagulation related to coagulant may result from:
Using old chemicals
Using the wrong coagulant
Using the wrong concentration of coagulant. This may result from setting
the wrong feed rate on the gravimetric feeder or metering pump or from a
malfunction of the equipment.

Common Coagulation and Flocculation Problems

Review
Coagulation/flocculation is a process used to remove turbidity, color, and some
bacteria from water. In the flash mix chamber, chemicals are added to the water
and mixed violently for less than a minute. These coagulants consist of primary
coagulants and/or coagulant aids. Then, in the flocculation basin, the water is
gently stirred for 30 to 45 minutes to give the chemicals time to act and to promote
floc formation. The floc then settles out in the sedimentation basin.
Coagulation removes colloids and suspended solids from the water. These
particles have a negative charge, so the positively charged coagulant chemicals
neutralize them during coagulation. Then, during flocculation, the particles are
drawn together by van der Waal's forces, forming floc. The
coagulation/flocculation process is affected by pH, salts, alkalinity, turbidity,
temperature, mixing, and coagulant chemicals.

References

Alabama Department of Environmental Management. 1989. Water Works

Operator Manual.
Belmont Water Treatment Association. 1997. Coagulation.
Nearly all of the section "Factors Influencing Coagulation" is drawn directly from
this site.
Kerri, K.D. 2002. Water Treatment Plant Operation. California State University:
Sacramento.

Assignments
Read about detention times on page 110 of your text and answer the following
question: (25 points)
1. A water treatment plant treats a flow of 1.7 MGD. The flocculation basin is
6 feet deep, 17 feet wide and 40 feet long. Calculate the detention time in
minutes.
Read about chemical feeder settings on page 117 of your text and answer the
following question: (25 points)
2. The optimum liquid alum dose from the jar tests is 10 mg/L. Determine the
setting on the liquid alum chemical feeder in gallons per day when the flow
is 2.8 MGD. The liquid alum delivered to the plant contains 4.83 pounds of
alum per gallon of liquid solution.

3. Complete Assignment 4 on Coagulation and Flocculation. You may do the

Assignment online to get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor.
(50 points)

Laboratory Procedures
Objective

In this lesson we will learn the following:

What laboratory procedures need to be done in the water plant.

Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 11: Laboratory Procedures, in your
textbook Operation of Water Treatment Plants Volume I .

Lecture
A laboratory is a place for precise work to determine appropriate treatment of raw
water and the quality of the finished water. It must be kept organized, well
maintained, and clean. All instruments must be kept clean and routinely calibrated
with proper records. A number of lab tests are needed daily, quarterly,
semiannually, annually, and at other specified intervals to monitor the water quality
before, during, and after the treatment. A test is not better than the sample, and the
sample is not better than the manner in which it is collected.

Sampling
Valid testing starts with an adequate and representative sampling. A sample is
either a grab or a composite. A grab sample, as the name indicates, is a specific
volume collected at one site at one time. These samples indicate the quality of
water at that time and at that site. Grab samples are taken for bacteriological and
disinfection residual tests. A composite sample is a mixture of a number of
portions taken at the specific intervals. This reduces the number of tests. Each
portion can be proportionate to the flow or volume. For each test operators should
follow the prescribed sampling size, collecting, and preserving procedure given in
the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water. Testing must
be done as soon as possible and not later than the specified holding time.

Tests
Various regularly performed common tests by the operating staff are for tastes and
odor, turbidity, jar test, pH, alkalinity, hardness, disinfection residual, coliform
bacteria, and the heterotrophic plate count. All other tests are run either by highly
trained chemists and microbiologists of the lab or by certified contract laboratories.

Tastes and Odors

Testing for taste and odor is important because of aesthetic value. The majority of
water quality complaints are of this type. Most of the organic and some inorganic
chemicals cause tastes and odors. These chemicals come from the decaying organic
matter, runoffs, industrial wastes, and municipal sewage discharges. Geosmin and
methyl-isobarneol (MIB) are the serious odor-causing chemicals; they are
produced by bacteria, particularly actinomycetes, while decomposing dead organic
matter at the bottom of the water bodies. Even a very low concentration of these
chemicals can cause earthy-musty odors. The odors are common in spring and fall
due to the turn over of the lakes and reservoirs. In the groundwater, the tastes and
odors can be due to iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfide (H 2S).
These are general classes of odors:
Aromatic (spicy)
Balsamic (flowery)
Chemical
Disagreeable
Earthy
Musty
Grassy
Vegetable
These are called the reference odor in the water samples.

Turbidity
Turbidity is the murkiness in the water caused by colloidal (1 to 100 nanometer
particles) and other suspended particles, such as clay, sand, silt, organic matter of
plant and animal origin, planktons, and other microscopic organisms. Turbidity
particles can be waterborne pathogens or particles harboring them. The lower the
turbidity, the less is the amount of the particulate matter. It means there is less
probability of the presence of waterborne pathogens, and the water is safer.
Therefore, turbidity is one of the primary standards for the drinking water. The
finished water turbidity is tested at least every four hours.

Turbidity is measured as the amount of scattered light by the suspended particles in

the sample. Turbidity of the finished water should be equal to or less than 0.3
nephalometric turbidity unit (NTU) in 95 percent of the samples/month.

Jar Testing
Jar testing is a useful tool to determine the practical optimum dose of a chemical
under the simulated plant conditions. It uses a range of increasing dose of a
particular chemical in a series of six jars with a stirring and illumination
mechanism.

Most of the problems in the source water, particulary in the surface water, quality
are due to seasonal variations or other unusual circumstances, such as drought,
heavy rains, unexpected discharge of raw sewage, or runoffs from farm land. These
problems can be solved by this test, which is important for coagulation, softening,
sedimentation, removal of synthetic organics, and for tastes and odor control. It
makes the water treatment more effective, easy, and economical.

pH
pH, hydronium ion index, is the measurement of acidity (H +). Acidity in water is
usually due to carbon dioxide (CO2) from rain water, mineral acids, chlorine, and
heavy metal salts, such as alum. pH is an important parameter in the water utility. It
is used to determine the condition of water for proper coagulation, softening, and
stabilization.

Alkalinity
Alkalinity of water is its capacity to neutralize acidity. Carbonates, bicarbonates,
and hydroxides are the most common forms of alkalinity in natural waters. These
chemicals are mostly compounds of calcium and magnesium coming from mineral
deposits such as limestone and dolomite. Industrial discharges can also cause
alkalinity. Bicarbonate alkalinity is present between pH 4.3 and 8.3. Carbonate and
bicarbonate alkalinity is present between pH 8.3 and 9.4, and carbonates and
hydroxides are present between pH 9.4 and 14. Alkalinity does not exist below pH
4.3. Alkalinity test is important to determine proper coagulation and the stability of
water.

Disinfection Residual
Chlorine is one of the most effective disinfectants and is quite commonly used for
water disinfection. Chlorine, combined with ammonia, forms chloramines, which
are called combined residual chlorine. Total residual chlorine is the sum of the free
residual chlorine and combined residual chlorine.

Coliform Bacteria Tests

Bacteriological quality of water is important to determine the degree of
disinfection and possible presence of waterborne pathogens. Bacteria, being small,
are present almost everywhere, such as in air, water, and on lab equipment.
Therefore, all equipment and handling is done in a sterile environment to ensure
the accuracty of data.
Media are the food for the bacteria to culture them in the laboratory. Different
bacteria have different food requirements; therefore, each medium will allow
certain types of bacteria to grow. Media are either liquid, known as broths, or
semisolid (gelatinous), which are called agars.
To ensure the absence of waterborne pathogens, the water is tested for coliform
bacteria. Coliform bacteria are present in human wastes and in soil contaminated
with human wastes. These bacteria in human wastes are known as fecal
coliform bacteria. Those in the soil are called nonfecal coliforms. Both fecal and
nonfecal coliforms are called the total coliform group. This group is used as an
indicator of the presence of human wastes in water and the possible presence of
waterborne pathogens. The two most common techniques for testing coliform
bacteria are the membrane filter technique and the multiple tube fermentation/most
probable number technique.

Heterotrophic or Standard Plate Count (HPC)

This test gives the total count of almost all types of bacteria in the water sample
that can grow on a general medium called the standard plate count agar or nutrient

agar. A count less than 500 colonies/mL of the sample means that the water is
properly disinfected, and vice versa. Furthermore, a count of higher than 500
colonies/mL interferes with the growth of total coliform bacteria.

Review
A number of lab tests are needed daily, quarterly, semiannually, annually, and at
other specified intervals to monitor the water quality before, during, and after the
treatment. A sample is either a grab or a composite. A grab sample, as the name
indicates, is a specific volume collected at one site at one time. These samples
indicate the quality of water at that time and at that site. Grab samples are taken for
bacteriological and disinfection residual tests. A composite sample is a mixture of
a number of portions taken at the specific intervals. This reduces the number of
tests. Each portion can be proportionate to the flow or volume.
Various regularly performed common tests by the operating staff are for tastes and
odor, turbidity, jar test, pH, alkalinity, hardness, disinfection residual, coliform
bacteria, and the heterotrophic plate count. All other tests are run either by highly
trained chemists and microbiologists of the lab or by certified contract laboratories.