Chapter 1 Waves

Waves = A TYPE OF DISTURBANCE produced by an oscillating or vibrating motion in which a point

or body moves back and forth along a line about a fixed central point produces waves.
Wave front
LINE OR PLANE on which the vibrations of every points are in phase and are at the same
distance from the source of the wave. In phase =same direction, same displacement
Transverse Wave
WAVE in which the vibration of particles in the medium is perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of the wave(water waves, light waves, electromagnetic
waves)
Longitudinal Wave
WAVE in which the vibration of particles in the medium i parallel to
the direction of propagation of the wave(sound waves, ultrasound)
Amplitude
MAXIMUM DISPLACEMENT form its equilibrium position MEASURE of height of the wave crest or
depth of the wave trough.
Period
TIME TAKEN to complete an oscillation, from one extreme point to the other and back to the
same position.
Frequency
NUMBER OF COMPLETE OSCILLATIONS made by a vibrating system in one second
Wavelength,
DISTANCE between successive points of the same phase in a wave
Damping
DECREASE in the amplitude of an oscillating system is called damping.(Internal damping:
extension and compression of molecules External damping: frictional force/ air resistance)a
Resonance
Resonance occurs when a system is made to oscillate at a frequency equivalent to its
natural frequency
by an external force. The resonating system oscillates at its maximum amplitude.
Natural frequency
FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY of which an object vibrates. It is the frequency of a system
which oscillates freely without external force
Reflection of wave
Reflection of wave occurs when a wave strike an obstacle direction ; f = ; a = ; =
Refraction of wave
Refraction of wave occurs when a wave travel from one medium to another f = ; v ; ;
direction
Diffraction of waves
PHENOMENON in which waves spread out as they passed through an aperture or round a
small circle f = ; = ; speed = ; v ; direction
Interference of waves
SUPERPOSITION of two waves originating from two coherent sources coherent =same
frequency, amplitude and in phase
Constructive interference
Constructive interference occurs when the both crests or both troughs of both waves
coincide to produce a wave with crests and troughs of maximum amplitude

Destructive interference

Destructive interference occurs when the crest of one wave coincides with the trough of the
other wave, thus cancelling each other with the result that the resultant amplitude is zero.
Anti node
POINT where constructive interference occurs.
Node
POINT where destructive interference occurs.
Electromagnetic waves
PROPAGATING WAVES in space with electric and magnetic components. The se components
oscillate at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation of wave.
Monochromaticlight
LIGHT with only one wavelength and colour
PRINCIPLE Principle of superposition
Principle of superposition states that at any instant, the wave displacement of the combined
motion of any number of interacting waves at a point is the sum of the displacements of all
the components waves at that point.
Chapter 2 Electricity
Charge, Q
WORK DONE to move a unit of voltage in a circuit
Current, I
RATE of flow of charge
Potential difference, V
WORK DONE in moving one coulomb of charge from one point to another in an electric field
Electric field
A FIELD in which electric charge experiences an electric force A FIELD in which
electric force acts in a particle with electric charge
Circuit
CLOSED LOOP through which charge can continuously flow
Resistance, R
RATIO of the potential difference across the conductor to the current flowing through it
MEASURE of the ability of the conductor to resist the flow of an electric current through it
Superconductor
CONDUCTOR in which its resistance will suddenly become zero when it is cooled below a
certain temperature called the critical temperature
Electromotive force (e.m.f.)
TOTAL ENERGY supplied by a cell to move a unit of electrical charge from one terminal
to the other through the cell and the external circuit
Power rating
RATE at which it consumes electrical energy.
PRINCIPLE Ohms Law
Ohms law states that the electric current, flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference across the ends of conductor, if temperature and other physical
conditions remain constant.
Chapter 3 Electromagnetism
Electromagnet
DEVICE in which magnetism is produced by an electric current TEMPORARY MAGNET
which acts as a magnet when the current is switched on and ceasesto be a magnet when
the current is switched off
Magnetic field
REGION in which a magnetic material experiences a force as the result of a magnet
or a current-carrying conductor

Radial field

MAGNETIC FIELD with the field lines pointing towards or away from the centre of a
circle.
Electromagnetic induction
PRODUCTION of an electric current by a changing magnetic field (conductor
cuts across a magnetic flux OR a change of magnetic flux linkage with a coil)
Root mean square current/ voltage
VALUE of a steady current/ voltage, which would produce the same heating effect in
a given resistor.
Transformer
EQUIPMENT to raise or lower the potential difference of an
alternating current
supply
PRINCIPLE Faradays Law
The magnitude of the induced electromotive force (e.m.f.) is directly proportional to
therate of change of magnetic flux linkage with the solenoid or the rate at which a
conductor cuts through the magnetic flux.
Lenzs Law
Lenzs law states that an induced electric current always flows in such a direction so as
to oppose the change (or motion) producing it.
Chapter 4 Electronics Thermoionicemission
EMISSION of electrons from hot metal surface
Work function
MINIMUM ENERGY required to eject electrons from surface
Cathode ray fast moving ELECTRONS travel in a straight line in vacuum
Cathode ray oscilloscope
measuring and testing INSTRUMENT used in study of electricity and electronics
Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
MATERIAL which allows current to flow thorugh them MATERIAL whose resistance is
between good conductor and insulator MATERIAL which does not conduct electric
current
Junction voltage
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE acting from n-type to p-type material of a diode across
the depletion layer
Rectification
CONVERSION of a.c. to d.c. by diode
Smoothing
PROCESS where output is smoothed by connecting a capacitor across load that acts as
a reservoir and maintains potential difference across load
Logic gates
ELECTRONIC SWITCHES with one or more inputs and one output.
Chapter 5 Radioactivity
Atom
An atom consists of a nucleus which is made up of protons and neutrons, with electrons
orbiting the nucleus.
Nuclide
TYPE of nucleus with particular proton number and nucleon number
Proton number

NUMBER of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Nucleon number
NUMBER of protons and neutrons in an atom
Isotopes
ATOMS of an element which have the same proton number but different nucleon
number(similar chemical properties but differs in physical properties)
Radioactivity
SPONTANEOUS DISINTEGRATION of unstable nucleus into a more stable
Nucleus with the emission of energetic particles or protons
Radioactive decay
PROCESS where an unstable nucleus becomes a more stable nucleus by emitting
radiations
Radioisotope
ISOTOPE that has unstable nucleus that tends to undergo radioactive decay
Half life
TIME TAKEN for the activity of atoms to fall to half its original value TIME TAKEN
for half the atoms in a given sample to decay
Nuclear fission
PROCESS involving the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two nuclei of roughly equalmass
and shooting out several neutrons at the same time.
Nuclear fusion
PROCESS involving the fusion of two or more small and light nuclei come togetherto
form a heavier nucleus.
PRINCIPLE Einsteins Principle of Mass-Energy Conservation
The change of energy is linked to the change of mass by the equation