Anglicisms in Romanian

Author:
erban Gabriel
___________________________________
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
Argument
Paper Presentation
1 Prolegomena to English Borrowings in Romanian
2 History / Evolution
3 Reasons for Borrowing Anglicisms
4 Anglicisms and Related Terms (terminological issues)
5 Researches
5.1. Sourses of research
5.2. Linguistic approaches
6 The Spread of Anglicisms
6.1. In Europe
6.2. In Romania
7 Attitudes towards Anglicisms
7.1. In Europe
7.1.1. France and the French influence
7.1.2. Germany
7.1.3. Italy
7.1.4. Other countries
7.2. In Romania
7.2.1. Romanian acceptance
7.2.2. Romanian rejection
8 Adaptation
8.1. General aspects
8.1.1. Adaptation vs. adoption
8.1.2. Linguistic aspects (types of changes)
8.1.3. Stages of integration
8.2. Orthographic adaptation
8.2.1. Stages of orthographic adaptation
8.2.2. Factors favouring the English spelling
8.2.3. Types of orthographic adaptation
8.2.3.1. Backward adaptation
8.2.3.2. Double letters

8.2.3.3. Words containing the letters y and w

8.2.3.4. Homonyms, homographs
8.2.3.5. Compounds
8.2.3.6. Abbreviations
8.2.3.7. Proper names
8.2.4. Tendencies and difficulties
8.3. Morpho-sintactic adaptation
8.3.1. Articles
3.1.1. Enclitic articles
3.1.2. Indefinite articles
8.3.2. Plural endings
8.3.3. Noun genders
8.3.4. Special cases
8.3.5. Adjectives
8.3.6. Verbs
8.4. Phonetic adaptation
8.5. Semantic adaptation
8.5.1. Stages of semantic assimilation
8.5.2. Stages of semantic adaptation
8.5.3. Semantic changes
8.6. Derivation
8.7. Minor processes
8.8. Conclusions
9 Calques
9.1. Semantic calques
9.2. Structural calques
9.3. Phraseological calques
9.4. Referential approach
9.5. Other cases
10 Accessibility
11 Necessity vs. Luxury
12 Domains
13 Variants
Conclusions
Bibliography
Dictionaries
Appendix 1 (Compound borrowings)
Appendix 2 (Anglicisms from various domains)
Appendix 3 (Variants)

ABSTRACT
Anglicisms are found in all walks of life and learning them is therefore almost a
prerequisite for the mastery of the Romanian language. English, as the main donor
language for the international pool of words, has become a lingua franca,serving as an
indispensable means of communication with the outside world. Its presence in the presentday Romanian language has become so influential that, undoubtedly, it deserves a lot of
our interest and scrutiny. And this paper aims exactly at examining this overwhelming
influence of this universal language by means of its ever pervading invaders, Anglicisms.
Although more or less extensive research has been done to date on the nature of
Anglicisms as well as on the way they are used or have been integrated in our language, a
better understanding of their behaviour and impact can nevertheless be acquired only by
having all the relevant theories and scholarly contributions on this topic collected in a
comprehensive structure. And that is exactly what I have tried to create in this paper. In
this respect, proper attention has been given to all areas that have a role in this complex
process of borrowing, starting with the history of the presence of Anglicisms in
Romanian, going through the various researches in the area and the estimations on the
spread of these words not only in our language, but also in other European languages,
insisting on the intricate process of adaptation, with all its many implications and
peculiarities, and ending with a view on the attempts to regulate the presence of
Anglicisms in Romanian. All these areas come in this paper supported by a large number
of details and illustrative examples, as provided in the works of various researchers or in
dictionaries.
The final conclusions underline some of the most conspicuous elements as arisen from
my analysis, such as the implications of the adaptation process and the general tendencies
related to it, some of the most important difficulties that occur in the complicated process
of borrowing, the impact Anglicisms have and/or is expected to have on the Romanian
language in the future, as seen in the larger picture of the world we live in, or reason for
understanding and accepting this phenomenon as a natural and implacable, irreversible
process.

ARGUMENT
In Romania, Anglicisms have been under the scholars scrutiny for less than half a
century. Yet, in spite of the rather numerous studies written in the recent years, none of
them has covered this subject in all its facets and implications. Each scientific research
has covered a more or less complex area of interest: either a specific domain (economics,
IT or others), or peculiarities of the complex process of adaptation or adoption, or the

impact and the spread of Anglicisms in various languages, each restricting its approach to
that particular field.
The study of lexical borrowings has a long tradition, going back at least to the
historical comparative language studies of the 19th century and extending over all the
fields of philology. Research on Anglicisms concentrates on several main areas. First of
all, a number of empirical-descriptive studies should be mentioned, mostly based on print
media as general text corpora, such as Manfred GrlachsAn Annotated Bibliography of
European Anglicisms (Oxford, 2002). Then there is the lexicographical preoccupation
with Anglicisms, with several dictionaries,Manfred Grlachs Dictionary of European
Anglicisms, A Usage Dictionary of Anglicisms in Sixteen European Languages (2001)
being the most notorious, referred to by a large number of authors from all over Europe,
as it provides the first exhaustive and up-to-date account of British and American English
words that have been imported into the main languages of Europe. Furthermore, there are
some historical studies which deal with the increasing influence of English, accompanied
by research on attitudes towards Anglicisms and on language policies. Among the authors
with the most relevant contributions in this area I would mention Roswitha Fischer
(2008), Monica Sim (2006), Arina Greavu (2010), Georgeta Ciobanu (1991, 1996),
Mioara Avram (1997) and Adriana Stoichioiu-Ichim (2006). I would say that Georgeta
Ciobanus contributions are particularly important, as she analyzed the influence of the
English element on contemporary Romanian earlier than many other authors, trying to
point out some peculiarities of the borrowing process, insisting on the nature of the
borrowing process and its evolution, the integration of the English element in the
Romanian lexis and the relationship with the international pool of Anglicisms. In the
European Research Project The English Element in the European Languages directed
by Rudolf Filipovic, a project whose results were to prove the peculiarities of borrowing
English elements into Romanian and other European languages, as well as those aspects
aimed at outlining the universalia of borrowing English elements in all European
languages. G. Ciobanu was the one who gave the Romanian contribution on the
project. The results of her study, as well as those of F. Bncil and D. Chiorans studies,
were included in the second and third volumes (Bncil, Chioran, 1982), (Ciobanu, 1991)
and in the 41-42nd volumes (Ciobanu, 1996), and have been pursued afterwards at all
language levels. Nevertheless, some of the examples and data supporting her findings are
outdated now, especially those related to the presence of certain Anglicisms in dictionaries
and some statistics. G. Ciobanus studies were soon followed by another valuable
contrubution, much quoted by all analysts of this phenomenon, which is Mioara
Avrams Anglicismele n limba romn actual (1997).
The Bulgarian Rumyana Lyutakova (Orthographical Adaptation of Anglicisms in
Romanian and Bulgarian, 2004) gave a minute description of theorthographic adaptation,

in three stages, also of the morphosintactic and phonetic adaptation. Her study includes
aspects rarely touched elsewhere: backward adaptation, acronyms or double letters.
Constantin Maneas studies (2009, 2010) are also worth mentioning, in referrence with
the the degrees of assimilation in point of both form and semantics and of the technique
of quotation as a first step in taking over recent loanwords. He also aims to spot some
of the main sources of difficulty resisting the linguists and educationalists efforts to
regulate the form of the Anglo-American terms that have entered the vocabulary of
contemporary Romanian. As regards the difficulties related to the adaptation process, it
must be said that all authors involved in researches related to Anglicisms have come with
more or less personal contributions in a general attempt to decipher all the implications of
this fuzzy process.
A number of authors (Avram, 1997; Stoichioiu-Ichim, 2003; Lyutakova, 2004; Rus,
2005; Manea, 2010; Athu, 2011) render in their studies different norms (phonetic,
orthographic, morphologic etc.) of the adaptation of English elements into Romanian
language, mostly with reference to the way these elements appear in variants in some of
the main Romanian dictionaries (DEX, 1998, MDN, 2002, DOOM, 1982 and 2005). As
Lyutakova (2004) remarks in her study, the existence of variants proves that the adaptation
process is not complete.
The present paper aims not only at covering a specific limited area regarding
Anglicisms and their presence and influence in Romanian; it has a more ambitious aim,
which is to synthetize some of the most relevant studies and offer a global perspective on
this increasingly powerful phenomenon which tends to affect our native language more
and more each day. In my thesis I have only tried to point out some of the most qualified
opinions in this area and to put them together as with the pieces of an intricate puzzle, in
an attempt to offer the reader a clearer picture of this area which I consider of much
linguistic interest nowadays.

PAPER PRESENTATION
The main purpose of this paper is to study the English borrowing in Romanian in all its
linguistic aspects, trying to point out some peculiarities of the borrowing process and
some of the main sources of difficulty which resist the linguists and educationalists
efforts to regulate the form of the Anglo-American terms that have entered the vocabulary
of contemporary Romanian.
Following the introduction, I presented a short History (or the Evolution) of the
borrowing process, including other channels that helped this process and two cases of
words whose evolution presented some peculiarities.

The next chapter, Reasons for Borrowing, presents the most important factors that
encourage the borrowing of English elements into Romanian. Among them, the
communicative needs, prestige and the new cultural and technological realities prevail.
In the chapter called Anglicisms and Related Terms some of the main terms related to
the subject of this paper are described in order to clarify some of the issues that are likely
to generate confusion.
The next chapter, Researches, gives a glimpse at the way scientists have treated the
borrowing phenomenon in their research, focusing either on the study of general language
terms or, more often, on the researching and inventoring of the technical/specialized
vocabulary, with all the difficulties this strenuous effort entails.
The Spread of Anglicisms aims at analyzing the impact the English element has had
both on Romanian and, comparatively, on other European languages. All estimations and
findings present the influx of Anglicisms as a pervasive phenomenon, with an increasing
impact in the more recent years, especially in the Eastern countries (Romania included)
after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
In Attitudes towards Anglicisms I tried to offer a short view as to what extent
European peoples (Romanians included) accept English loans open-heartedly or not. As in
many other fields, opinions towards this phenomenon are split, both at global level and at
the national level. Most countries accept this intrusion with no significant opposition,
while very few others (France and Germany being the most notable examples) have
always made efforts to limit this influence. Romania's tolerance places us in the first
category, in spite of some voices of criticism.
The next chapter (Adaptation) is the most elaborate of my thesis. It is a thorough
analysis of the complicated process of integration/adaptation of Anglicisms in Romanian,
with its implications and peculiarities at all levels, be them orthographic, morphosintactic, phonetic or semantic. All these levels are accompanied by explanations and
illustrative examples. Also the stages of adoption and some related tendencies and
difficulties are described here. Obviously, the most prominent part is dedicated to the
orthographic adaptation, with its many subdivisions and special cases. Adaptation is a
highly complicated and complex process which requires a lot of attention. Therefore, this
chapter is naturally the most important and carefully looked upon from this paper.
Calques are treated separately as they refer not to lexical borrowings but to the
borrowing of translations. The main subdivisions here are the three types of calque
analyzed in the approaches of various linguists: semantic calques, structural calques and
phraseological calques, along with a referential approach offered by Stoichioiu-Ichim
(2003), and some special cases, euphemisms among them. All these types offer different
peculiarities, as described in this chapter.

The way Anglicisms are rendered in written media is described in the next chapter
called Accessibility. As shown in this chapter, most authors who use such English terms
in their writings often resort to various methods in order to help the Romanian reader
understand the exact meaning of these terms. Some resort to graphical conventions
(inverted commas, italics, bolds, etc.), others offer explanations or Romanian equivalents,
in parallel. Then, there are lots of cases when the English terms are given without any
explanation, as they are considered popular enough among readers.
The chapter called Necessity vs. Luxury obviously treats Anglicisms from the
perspective of whether they are considered necessary or not in the Romanian vocabulary.
As shown here, the necessary borrowings can be of two types: denotative and connotative.
The denotative borrowings do not have equivalents in Romanian because they denote
recent realities that have appeared in various field in the more or less recent years,
therefore they are often linked to specialized languages, while the other type of necessary
borrowings, the connotative ones, double pre-existing Romanian words, having an effect
of amplification on the stylistic meanings and being often called 'luxury borrowings'.
In Domains, I presented some of the fields with the largest influx of Anglicisms. The
importance of the English element is explained for some of these domains, sometimes
accompanied by several translations and examples of use in Romanian texts.
The chapter about Variants offers an analysis of the way Anglicisms are found in the
Romanian dictionaries, as well as some of the main tendencies met in normative works.
As often shown in the linguistic studies, the existence of variants is a proof that the
adaptation of the English term is incomplete. The same type of proof is the fact that
dictionaries like DOOM 2, DEX, DCR, MDN, DN, NODEX often disagree not only on
the variants, but even on the inclusion or exclusion of some terms. Therefore, the
existence of variants is seen as a phenomenon which seems impossible to ever disappear.
The final chapter is obviously dedicated to my final Conclusions, as related to all the
aspects described in the present paper.
The in-text citations are rendered according to the Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC. Author: American Psychological
Association (2001), and the bibliography according toSTAS 8660-82.

1 PROLEGOMENA TO ENGLISH BORROWINGS IN ROMANIAN

English, which mainly after 1066 imported thousands of words from French and Latin, is
now by far the world's biggest lexical exporter, and the trade is growing as English
continues to dominate various fields, ranging from pop music to electronic

communication. Several countries have monitored the inflow of Anglicisms and some
have even tried to block it. But language, as lexicographers have always found, respects
neither boundary nor law. We can say that there is almost no field of activity in which
such words have not penetrated; moreover, the tendency has become dominant.
Under the circumstances, it is obvious that beside the national language, a lingua
franca is often seen as an absolute necessity in any civilized country of this world. In this
respect, English is seen as a foreign language, serving as a useful means of
communication with the outside world, while the national language is used within one's
own speech community. After 1989 social circumstances favoured increased contacts
between Romania and many foreign countries, the English speaking world included;
consequently, a large number of Anglicisms and Americanisms were borrowed via written
and oral routes.
Beside the natural need to use some terms coming from English (the influence of
English being an international phenomenon due to the progress of some highly pervasive
domains), the invasion of English borrowed words becomes a sort of trend among some
social categories that frequently and deliberately employ English words, even though
there are Romanian equivalents: job, party, look, hair-stylist, popcorn, hit, announcing a
sort of linguistic fashion in the present-day written media. This trend of using,
sometimes unnecessarily and abusively, English words instead of Romanian ones could be
seen up to a point as a natural phenomenon, as we actually live in a world of fakes, as
Monica Sim (2006a) remarks. She also states that almost everything is being forged and
copied: paintings, clothes, bags, music, sites, books, images, characters, even words and
expressions. There are originals and copies as well. But it is even easier to fake and copy
options, expectations, words, behaviour, to let yourself taken away by imitation, fake and
not knowledge. It is handy, easy and trendy. Regardless the aim, be it necessity or trend,
these borrowings show the way our vocabulary changes, as media represents the most
eloquent and true reality. As for the written media, the presence of a great number of
English borrowed words suggests the openly expressed wish of the journalist to be
perceived as an accessible, entertaining, up-to-date writer, but sometimes the result turns
to be just the opposite and the public discourse easily slips towards a familiarity that
crosses the animated, vivid language, often becoming impolite, even invective.
Many are the reasons facilitating the enrichment of our language with English-origin
terms: the development of technology, of trade, and of the economy, to quote just a few.
Economic, social and political factors play an important role in enriching a language by
means of borrowings; in countries where such relationships are non-existent, words of
foreign origin penetrate with more difficulty, if at all (Sim, 2006b). The boom in
technology and industry smoothed the path towards the exchange of information between

countries and, consequently, new terms are introduced in order to cover the new realities
that are coming up in these domains at a fast pace.
Similarly, trade and population migration represent another cause of change, and many
words belonging to commerce and transportation have entered Romanian: voucher, trailer,
discount. The Romanian native speakers need to borrow such terms because these can
facilitate communication between Romanian business owners and European or world
traders. Nowadays, it is almost impossible for business owners of different origins to get
along, sign contracts and establish business partnerships without resorting to terms
connected with economics and business, mainly of English origin, which spread all over
Europe and became international terms. Newly coined terms appear, some translated,
some adjusted, brands are turned into common nouns and used in daily speech, some of
them have a short life and soon become obsolete (especially those belonging to daily
speech), some others enter the common core vocabulary (standard language or specialized
language).

2 HISTORY / EVOLUTION
Due to its geographical position, Romanian has been influenced directly by various
languages belonging to different genetic types, and this has turned Romanian into a
generous receiver, able to assimilate words from various languages. The impact of various
linguistic influences has favoured the openness of our language to borrow foreign words,
English words included. In the case of Romanian, its lack of resistance to borrowings
(developed throughout the centuries) has proved to be helpful, favouring the integration of
English elements.
Although chronologically the English language is the last one among the modern
languages (e.g. Italian, French, Russian, German) to contribute to the enrichment of
contemporary Romanian, the presence of some thousands of Anglicisms (at least 3,000)
(Ciobanu, 1996) in the general Romanian vocabulary, and many more scientific terms,
represents a corpus worth considering.
The origin of neologisms in Romanian is diverse, but they mainly come from classical
languages: Latin and Greek, from neo-Latin languages (French, Italian), and from
Germanic languages, such as German and English, as well (Dumistrcel, 1980).
Belonging to a language family other than Latin, the borrowings from English may have
to cope with a difficult adaptation and/or acceptance process on the part of a great deal of
speakers. Still, let us not forget that English itself has got a powerful Latin component
(e.g. audit, bonus, item), and thus, some of these English loans do not harm our language,

they only continue the old process of re-Latinisation of Romanian. Therefore, we do not
have to worry about the seemingly too large English influence.
The origins of the contact between English and Romanian culture, and within it the
English influence on the Romanian language can be traced back to the sixteenth century,
according to Arina Greavus research (2010). However, the major influence of English on
Romanian started in the second half of the 19th century, with the intensification of the
cultural and economic relations between the two countries, this influence being recorded
in the lexicographic works of the time.
Hristea (1984) shows that the neologisms that Romanian started to borrow from
English in the 19th century came almost exclusively through the intermediacy of French,
many of them belonging to the sports terminology: aut, baschet, base-ball, bowling,
bridge, corner, dribbling, fault, fini, fotbal, hen, ofsaid, meci, outsider, polo, pressing,
ring, rugby, scor, set, skeet, sportsman, start, ut, tenis, volei, etc.
A very important wave of English borrowings in Romanian began at the turn of the
20th century and coincided with the intensification of economic and cultural contacts,
being encouraged by Romanias industrial and economic development on West European
models, many of them of British origin (Greavu, 2010). Thus, British technological
methods, and with them English terminologies, were brought to the attention of specialists
in oil drilling, mining, finance, steel production, shipbuilding, weaving, etc. To these
industrial / economic elements, others were added such as military and political
circumstances - Romanias joining the Triple Entente countries in 1916, or the fact that
Queen Maria, the wife of Ferdinand I, king of Romania from 1914 to 1927, was a
grandchild of Queen Victoria and born in England.
The second half of the 20th century saw a further intensification of this influence, in
spite of political, economic and cultural barriers existing between east and west Europe.
The various, mainly political circumstances of the time, resulted in changing attitudes
towards English. Thus, while the 1950s are thought to have been the years most intensely
marked by xenophobia, more and more English words found their way into technical
terminologies and the standard language in the 1970s, when Romania began to assume an
air of independence, with Russian models being increasingly discarded. This period was
marked by an inflow of translations of scientific and literary writings. Evidence of the
increasing influence of the English language on Romanian is the recording of ever more
Anglicisms in Romanian dictionaries starting with 1970. These dictionaries include works
of a general nature such as Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne (DEX), dictionaries of
neologisms (DN), and recordings of new words (Florica Dimitrescu, 1982,
1997: Dicionar de cuvinte recente - DCR1 and DCR2), as well as specialized dictionaries
restricted to individual domains, e.g. computer science, finance and trade, marketing,
sports and medicine.

Finally, the contemporary period, i.e the end of the 20th century and the beginning of
the 21st century is characterized by what is usually referred to as an unprecedented
English influence which manifests itself directly, without the intermediacy of other
languages, mainly through second language teaching and the mass media, being supported
by extra-linguistic factors such as fashion and prestige. The present-day flood of
Anglicisms to Romanian that characterizes this period makes it particularly interesting
and worth studying from the linguistic perspective. Therefore, these recent Anglicisms
constitute the main corpus of words under analysis in the present paper.
OTHER CHANNELS; TWO SPECIAL INSTANCES
It is interesting to notice that there are English loans that came into Romanian
through French, after
French
had
adopted
them
first: biftec takes
after
fr. bifteck(DEX), rather than en. beefsteak [bi:fsteik] (DN), golaveraj from fr., en. goalaverage (DEX, DN, MDN); sandvi/sanvi/sandvici (DEX, DN: cf. Sandwich - an
English lord) / senvi (DOOM2), as in the pronunciations of other French loans
(champagne or chauffeur); alanger (DEX), from fr. challengeur, although DOOM2
recommends the English spelling challenger and the English pronunciation (also
accepted
in
DN).
There
are
also
updated
French
loans:trezorier (en. treasurer), cupon (en. coupon), retail (en.)
and en
detail (fr.),similaritate (en. similarity)
and similitudine (fr. similitude), wholesale andangro (fr. en-gross).
The Russian channel
also
helped
entrance
of
several
English
terms: conveierand screper (DEX, DN, MDN), not with the English pronunciation
of conveyerand scraper.
The German channel has led to incorrect spelling or pronounciation,
with :start (DEX, DN: en. start, ger. Start), sprint (DEX: fr., en.), spray (DEX: en., fr.),
probably by analogy with trand (ger. Strand).
In the Article on Linguistics from Encyclopdia Britannica it is stated thatlanguages
borrow words freely from one another, a process that usually takes place when some new
object or institution is developed for which the borrowing language has no word of its
own. The article mentions the case of the large number of words denoting financial
institutions and operations borrowed from Italian by the other western European
languages at the time of the Renaissance, which testifies to the importance of the Italian
bankers in that period. (The wordbank itself, in this sense, comes through French from the
Italian banca). Comparatively, words now pass from one language to another on a scale
that is probably unprecedented, partly because of the enormous number of new inventions
that have been made in the 20th century and partly because international communications

are now so much more rapid and important. The vocabulary of modern science and
technology is very largely international.
As a representative case of the way in which a borrowed word can almost displace a
native equivalent in a relatively short amount of time, Arina Greavu provides the example
of the Anglicism retail, in an article written in Revista economic (2010). In 1998,
according to her count, this word did not appear at all in the studied corpus
of Capital magazine, while cu amnuntul was used for 76 times, and en-detail for 7 times.
All three terms had a surge in 2000, probably as a result of the arrival of large
supermarket chains in Romania, and after that moment retail clearly gained a lot of
ground in front of the two native synonyms, and it probably continued its upward trend
after 2005. This firm position held byretail, which is very likely to continue to gain
ground in the future as well, is reinforced by a similar evolution
in retailer and detailist. Another
example
given
by
the
same
author
is business, whose frequency in the studied period grew dramatically, from 27 occurrences
in 1998 to 321 in 2005.
Having the past, the present and the future of this borrowing process in mind, we may
conclude that the penetration and usage of the English loanwords in Romanian vocabulary
is a highly dynamic process, a complex phenomenon whose amplitude is, in my opinion,
in spite of all the elaborate studies and statistical researches, impossible to predict for
the years to come.

3 REASONS FOR BORROWING ANGLICISMS

The continuous progress of arts, technology, sciences brings along a great number of new
words. Each new thing, object, must bear a name; for instance: virus, appendicitis,
motor etc. And these new words are either borrowings from other languages or new
creations from old words by means of all the internal means of enriching vocabulary:
derivation, conversion, composition etc. It is interesting to notice that all these items were
not registered in the dictionaries when they first appeared. Nowadays we can no longer
communicate efficiently without them. Still, like most of the things in this world, there is
a reverse of this process: all these new words that appear in a language must be carefully
monitored so as not to suffocate the borrowing language.
As regards the various elements that have contributed to this inflow of Anglicisms, two
factors are in my opinion the strongest predictors of borrowing from English into
contemporary Romanian: need and prestige. Thus, many of the words that have been
borrowed in the last two decades for their informative function answer specific referential

and communicative needs in various compartments of the Romanian society, e.g.

economy, politics, culture, entertainment, science and technology.
The dominant place English holds in the avant-garde of scientific advancement, as well
as in business and other international relations, endows this language with certain
connotations of modernity, fashion and prestige, which promote the borrowing of words
not motivated by need, therefore these words are called luxury or unnecessary loans.
This is the case with a lot of words borrowed after 1989, and a high degree of Anglomania
justifies the use of very many terms in domains related to everyday life, such as music,
sports, fashion etc. Many such words are simply taken over (they are not really borrowed)
out of snobbery: fashion adviser - (newspapers, magazines and TV prefer to use the
English term); high tech, whose Romanian translation is tehnologie de vrf, but it is
preferred in the English form, and so on.
It is generally agreed that borrowing American/British terms (such as fast food, pop
music, management) to describe various cultural realities is considered a sign of
internationalization of the Romanian vocabulary (Stoichioiu-Ichim, 2001), while
rejecting them is a manifestation of self-isolation and cultural provincialism.
To sum up, all these aspects - progress, communicative needs, prestige, efficience,
inexistence of terms, new cultural realities - can be seen as powerful factors that help
promoting the borrowing of Anglicisms in Romanian, as in many other languages.

4 ANGLICISMS AND RELATED TERMS

(TERMINOLOGICAL ISSUES)
In order to get a better understanding of the elements analysed in the following chapters, I
consider useful to define some of the main terms related to the subject of this paper and
clarify some of the issues that are likely to generate confusion as far as these terms are
concerned.
ANGLICISM
The term Anglicism was first used in the 17th century and refers to a linguistic feature
of English used in another language (cf. OED). Or, according to Wikipedia,
an Anglicism, as most often defined, is a word borrowed from English into another
language. Anglicism also describes English syntax, grammar, meaning, and structure used
in another language with varying degrees of corruption.
Today the term is commonly associated with the increasing influx of English
borrowings from WW II onwards, related to the international role of mainly the United

States, and to English as a lingua franca. Opponents of Anglicisms often use the term
derogatively. Roswitha Fischer (2008) righteously remarks that, though Anglicism is
connected to the word England etymologically, it is generally not only used for
Anglicisms from England, but also for English loans from all varieties of the English
language. Sometimes, in order to specify the origin of an Anglicism, the
term Americanism is also used for borrowings originating from the United States, this
then being a subordinate of the term Anglicism.
BORROWING
According to American Heritage Dictionary, a borrowing is especially a word or phrase
borrowed from one language for use in another. Or a word adopted from another
language and completely or partially naturalized.
But what exactly is a borrowing? Roswitha Fischer (2008) explains in her thorough
analysis of this term that, though phonological, morphological and syntactic borrowing
also exists, the term is usually applied to words and their meanings. Borrowing denotes
the process as well as the object. As a process it typically refers to the importation of a
word or its meaning from one language into another. As an object, it denotes the form
and/or the meaning of the item that originally was not part of the vocabulary of the
recipient language but was adopted from some other language and made part of the
borrowing language's vocabulary.
A second cause for the fuzziness of the term borrowing is its use for a subgroup of
borrowing, namely lexical borrowing, in contrast to semanticborrowing. Lexical
borrowings are also called loan words or loans. Both the form and (parts of) the meaning
of a foreign word become imported, not only the meaning as is the case with semantic
borrowing. Some scholars also equate lexical borrowing with direct or integral
borrowing, i.e. a borrowing whose form is transferred directly from the source language,
and not via another language. The latter case is usually called indirect borrowing.
Then, semantic borrowing can be further subdivided into loan meaning andloan
formation. Loan meaning refers to the borrowing of a meaning through meaning
extension of a word in the recipient language. Three further subcategories of semantic
borrowing
can be
subsumed
under
the
term loan
formation: loan translation (calquing, loan shift), i.e. the (complete) translation of a
borrowing (e.g. ro. relaii publice < en. public relations); loan rendition(loan rendering),
i.e. the partial translation of a borrowing (e.g. ro. public target< en. target public);
and loan creation, i.e. free translation (e.g. ro. und verde < en. green light).
A mixture of lexical and semantic borrowing results in hybrid formations, also
called mixed compounds, semi-calques or loan blends, denoting a word or word
combination that consists of elements of both source and receiver language.Sometimes the

expression total substitution is used for semantic loans, andpartial substitution for hybrid
formations. Lexical borrowings in this terminology are not substitutions but importations.
A Romanian example of a hybrid is carte de identitate, from English identity card.
Finally, there are pseudo-borrowings, or pseudo-loans. These are words or word
elements in languages other than English that were borrowed from English but are used in
a way native English speakers would not recognize. Pseudo-Anglicisms often take the
form of blends, combining elements of multiple English words to create a new word that
appears to be English but is unrecognizable to a native speaker of English. Such
Romanian examples are tenisman - tennis player (whose feminine is tenisman)
and recordman - record holder in sports (whose feminine is recordman).
Here is Fischers description of the borrowing types, in short:
1. Lexical borrowing
2. Semantic borrowing
Loan meaning
Loan formation
Loan translation
Loan rendition
Loan creation
3. Hybrid formation
4. Pseudo-borrowing
Lexical pseudo-borrowing
Semantic pseudo-borrowing
LOAN WORD
A loanword (or loan word) is a word adopted, normally with little change in form, from
another language (cf. AHD). In Wikipedia, it is a word borrowed from a donor language
and incorporated into a recipient language. By contrast, acalque or loan translation is a
related concept where the meaning or idiom is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself.
The word loanword is itself a calque of the German Lehnwort, while calque is a loanword
from French. It is important to notice that the terms borrowing and loanword, although
traditional, conflict with the ordinary meaning of those words because nothing is returned
to the donor languages.
CALQUE
In linguistics, a calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another
language by literal, word-for-word or root-for-root translation (Wikipedia). Or, it is a loan
translation, especially one resulting from bilingual interference in which the internal

structure of a borrowed word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by
those of the native language (in Dictionary.com). Used as a verb, "to calque" means to
borrow a word or phrase from another language while translating its components so as to
create a new lexeme in the target language. "Calque" itself is a loanword from a French
noun and derives from the verb "calquer" (to trace, to copy).
It is interesting to note that, according to linguists, the larger the number of
contributing languages that have a structurally identical expression, the more likely that
that expression will be calqued into the target language.
FOREIGNISM
A non-established borrowing is also sometimes called a foreignism, but only if it is a
lexical and not a semantic borrowing. Foreignisms are said to be used for a particular
purpose, for instance to make a connection with a specific culture by means of its
language. An obvious example is the association of a certain subject matter (love - amour)
with a certain culture (French). In written language,foreignisms mostly occur in
parenthesis or in italics. Unfortunately, the boundary between foreignism and lexical
borrowing is indistinct. Since the two concepts cannot be kept strictly apart, it seems best
to avoid the technical term foreignismaltogether.
JARGON
Wikipedia refers to jargon as terminology which is especially defined in relationship to a
specific activity, profession, group, or event. In AHD, jargon is the specialized or
technical language of a trade, profession, or similar group. Every profession and sphere of
activity develops its own jargon to enable its members or participants to communicate
effectively with one another; medicine, law, gastronomy, sociology, and (most recently)
computing are well-known examples.
TERMINOLOGY
Terminology refers to: 1. the technical or special terms used in a business, art, science, or
special subject; or 2. the nomenclature as a field of study; or 3. the special words or
phrases that are used in a particular field (noncount). Since most of the domains
mentioned above employ a large number of Anglicisms, I consider proper to say a few
more words on this topic in the next chapter.

5 RESEARCHES
5.1 SOURCES OF RESEARCH

In order to get a comprehensive picture of the English element in Romanian, written and
oral sources have been analysed in the course of time: dictionaries printed in Romania
starting with the 1950s, recent press pages, newspapers, magazines, almanacs, studies and
articles concerning English borrowings; oral sources were not neglected either; words
transmitted orally by native speakers individually and over the radio and television, this
being a rather recent peculiarity in the development of English borrowings into
Romanian.
A practical consequence of the rising influx of Anglicisms into other languages are
dictionaries of English loanwords and bilingual dictionaries of special languages. In many
European languages considerable efforts have been taken to produce such
wordbooks. Research on Anglicisms concentrates on several main areas, as shown by
Roswitha Fischer (2008). First of all, a number of empirical-descriptive studies should be
mentioned, mostly based on print media as general text corpora. Then there is the
lexicographical preoccupation with Anglicisms, with dictionaries which popularized
collections of neologisms and Anglicisms. While Anglicisms in news language and in the
language of advertisements have been extensively studied for several decades, other
specialized discourses have gained in importance in European research since the 1990s,
for instance the language of computer technology, business or medicine.
5.2 LINGUISTIC APPROACHES
The area of interference between general language and specialized languages is
expanding nowadays through bidirectional lexical transfer (Athu, 2011). According to
linguists, there are two variants of functional languages: artistic and scientific.
The artistic style (language) is personalized, ambiguous, expressive (relying on
connotations), is lexically very rich and free, resorting to all functional languages, also to
non-literary language (localisms, archaisms, jargon, argots). The scientific language is
purely informative, with strictly dennotative lexical units, and has two distinct aspects:
technical and scientific. Other intermediary variants of languages / styles are: the
journalistic style, that of publicity, colloquial, judicial and administrative, economic.
Specialized languages are the greatest suppliers of neologisms in a language, and a
branch of applied linguistics - terminology - emerged in order to prevent the wrong and
ambiguous assimilation, to give coherence and adjust these terms in accordance with the
organic rules governing target language. In her Analysis and Translation Approach to
Specialized Language, Crina Hereg (2005) shows that terminology is aimed at both
researching and inventorying technical vocabulary and that it does not deal with coining
new terms or words and it is rather focused on finding new equivalents for the words of
foreign origin. The methods that terminology relies on - identification, analysis, creation
of new terms - turn it into a practical application, rather than a science, and it works by

making the difference between term and concept. Terminology works on two levels: 1)
functional - which means facilitating communication and 2) conceptual - newly created
terms must follow certain requirements: they must be pronounced easily, they must be
concise, they must enable the formation of new terms with the help of affixes, they must
be correct from a linguistical point of view, it is also advisable that the newly created term
should not have many spellings. It is terminology that makes these connections and
establishes the relationship between semantics, lexicology and exact sciences and deals
with adjusting and adopting foreign origin words to the needs of target language.
Specialized terms imply very complex translation problems and translators are not the
only persons involved in this process (Hereg, 2005). Romanian specialists in the field of
technology, linguists and translators put their minds together to find the equivalent which
better covers the reality expressed by the English lexical unit. When finding an equivalent,
specialists must take into account the following requirements: the term created/found
should be productive; it should not develop and have synonyms or homonyms, then of
course it should be in accordance with the syntactical rules of the language. Most
technical and scientific terms are obtained in Romanian by literal translation and
affixation.
The huge influx of Anglicisms of the recent years has been giving rise to a multitude of
studies and analyses regarding the many implications that such an outstanding linguistic
phenomenon has triggered. As shown above, some of the researchers have focused on the
study of the general language terms, trying to explain all the specific aspects related to the
intricate process of borrowing, while another significant amount of researches have
addressed the specialized languages, which is quite understandable given the large
contribution of such languages in supplying neologisms. In this respect, terminology, as a
branch of applied linguistics, plays an essential role in the difficult role of inventorying
and regulating the use of the newly assimilated terms. All in all, it must be said that all
these efforts are absolutely necessary if we want to have a clear global picture of this
process and also proper instruments that enable us to deal with all these new words
successfully.

6 THE SPREAD OF ANGLICISMS

Languages respond to the changing needs of communication, following changes in the
world and ways of living. The growing influence of English on the languages of Europe is
an example of a linguistic change under contact conditions. It can be traced back to
political, economic and technological developments, which have been taking place at a
growing pace in the past few decades. In Europe, the countries are nowadays working

closely together, and the European Union has expanded to 27 nations. And, under the
circumstances, English is the language that functions as the interlingual medium of
European communication and has played a key role in the growing together of the
European West and East in the recent years. This chapter aims at showing the impact the
English element has had on both Romanian language and, comparatively, on other
European languages.
6.1 IN EUROPE
As a rule, most linguists consider as the main criterion for including a word in the
international pool of words the presence of a word in at least three important European
languages and, if possible, the three languages should belong to three different language
families. According to an estimation made in 1989 (Ciobanu, 1991), about 70% of the
Romanian words of English origin under examination were present in French, German
and Russian as well, i.e. they belonged to the European pool of Anglicisms, including
Romanian in the international circuit of languages.
In his Dictionary of European Anglicisms, Manfred Grlach (2001) analyses the
influence of English on several European languages. His dictionary provides the first
exhaustive and up-to-date account of British and American English words that have been
imported into the main languages of Europe.
The book provides a systematic description of the lexical input of English into Icelandic,
Norwegian, Dutch, German, Russian, Polish, Croatian, Bulgarian, French, Spanish,
Italian, Romanian, Finnish, Hungarian, Albanian and Greek.
Scholars involved in Grlach's lexicographical project observed that English was
distributed relatively unevenly in the vocabulary of European languages, and vacillated
rather strongly (Grlach, 2001). Moreover, a large majority of the loans often seem to
have a distribution restricted to particular topics or subject areas. The English technical
terms can often be attributed to the written medium. They are only used occasionally and
do not belong to the common word stock of a language. In addition, English
colloquialisms tend to occur in advertising, in journalism and in youth language, carrying
a certain prestige in these discourse types.
In countries like Denmark, Sweden, Norway and the Netherlands the influx of
English terms has been widely accepted for decades and considered as a
naturalphenomenon, contrary to countries like Poland, the Czech Republic or Bulgaria,
where Anglicisms have been gaining ground especially since the dissolution of the Soviet
Union, this having eventually become a major topic in Eastern European linguistic
studies.
For example, in the following grid (Grlach, 2001) associated with the English
word computer, the investigator notes that all languages except Icelandic and Finnish

have an Anglicism in use. One notes this is true for those two languages by the blackedout squares. The language squares which are shaded, namely Norwegian, French, and
Spanish, have restricted uses of the Anglicism. The rest of the squares are white, and this
indicates that the word computer is fully accepted in these languages.
Table 1
ICELANDIC
DUTCH
FRENCH
SPANISH

6.2 IN ROMANIA
No language influencing Romanian has succeeded in altering its Romance character; the
same peculiarity holds true for the English loanwords in Romanian. On the contrary, as G.
Ciobanu states in The English Element in the Romanian Language (1996), the English
language has enriched the Romanian language with Latin elements, contributing,
alongside other languages - e.g. Italian, French, Russian, German - to the re-Latinization
of contemporary Romanian. As far as English borrowings are concerned, re-Latinization
refers to the presence of Latin elements, respectively Neo-Latin, borrowed from English
into Romanian by means of words belonging to the international pool of words,
considering that these words contain Latin elements. The term Neo-Latin, commonly used
in Romanian linguistics, corresponds to New Latin in the English linguistic terminology.
All in all, the borrowing process of English elements in Romanian can be labelled as a
dynamic one, with an increasing rate over the last years, especially after 1989. To
illustrate the development of the borrowing rate, in The English Element in the Romanian
Language (1996), Georgeta Ciobanu mentions some figures: 60 words in a Romanian
dictionary printed in 1958 (DLRM), about 800 words in the main explanatory thesaurus
dictionary of 1975 (DEX), approximately 450 more words added in a dictionary of recent
words printed in 1982 (DCR), and almost 850 items added in the Supplement to the 1975
explanatory dictionary, printed in 1988 (DEX S). Now there is almost no issue of dailies
or weeklies printed nationally or locally without samples of Anglicisms.
According to the areas in which they generally occur, the richest groups are: food and
drinks; sports and games; science and natural science; social life, trade and economics,
banking; philosophy and religion; politics and law; transport etc. For instance, according
to a Theodor Hristeas estimation in his Syntheses on the Romanian Language (1984), in
Romanian "most of the words borrowed from English belong to sports terminology". G.

Ciobanu came with a new estimation (1996): 13% of the corpus words are sports terms.
Among them, one third (33%) are frequently used and have already been integrated in the
Romanian phonetic and morphological system. A high percentage (42%) is represented by
less frequently used terms, as well as by some recent borrowings, partially adapted to the
Romanian phonetic and morphological system. As for the rest of the Romanian sports
terminology of English origin (25%), these words have a very restricted usage and most of
them still preserve a pronunciation similar to the English one.
In a more recent research, Monica Sim (2006a) points out the numerical growth of the
English element of the Romanian vocabulary, as represented in the table below. We can
easily notice that this growth has its highest peak in the year 2004. As compared to 1961,
when out of the 21.000 words of the dictionary, only 90 (meaning 0.42%) are of English
origin,
in
2004, Marele
dicionar
de
neologisme (MDN) contains 2185 (representing 3.5%) terms of English origin out of the
total number of the words in the dictionary, approx. 65.000.
Table 2

1978

198

14

14

556

26

To conclude, we can say that English is distributed relatively unevenly in the

vocabulary of European languages, with countries (mostly the Western ones) where
English terms have been widely accepted for decades and considered as a
natural phenomenon, contrary to Eastern countries - Romania among them - where
Anglicisms have been gaining ground especially since the dissolution of the Soviet Union,
this having eventually become a major topic in many Eastern European linguistic
studies. As far as Romanian is concerned, the increasing rateof the borrowing process
over the last years, especially after 1989, has been noticed by all observers. The numerical
growth of the English element in Romanian is remarkable, reaching in 2004 an
outstanding 3.5% from the total vocabulary, as compared to only 0.42% in 1961.
Another aspect worth mentioning is that a large majority of the loans often seem to be
restricted to particular topics or subject areas. While the English technical terms can often
be attributed to the written medium, being only used occasionally and not belonging to the

common word stock, English colloquialisms tend to occur in a large variety of fields,
especially in advertising, in mass media and in the youth language.

7 ATTITUDES TOWARDS ANGLICISMS

English neologisms become popular mostly through mass media, Internet, words of mouth
(especially the youths speaking). Each word was, at a certain point, a neologism, and it
stopped being considered a neologism in time and due to usage. Whether a new word
becomes part of the language system or not, it depends on a series of factors that work for
that and, most of all, it is the public, the people who in the end will decide upon it. This
chapter tries to offer a short view as to what extent European peoples accept such words
(Anglicisms) open-heartedly or not.
Due to a daily, intensive use and to the numerous real or conceptual situations that a
language has to express, its structure evolves and changes continuously, reflecting each
and every stage, phenomenon or transformation that occurs, either following the language
rules or patterns, or avoiding them, and thus tending to create new norms or rules. At the
same time, the vocabulary tends to get rid of all the obsolete or no longer useful words
when they do not meet its needs any longer. That is why most people think it is not
necessary to worry too much or to become scared that our language is going to be altered
or totally changed as a result of this borrowing process.
As a matter of fact, most of the times the lexical borrowings are seen as a gain to the
language, the new words being created in order to meet the communication needs of
speakers at a certain period of time. On the other hand, there are cases when new words
are perceived as completely useless, sometimes even polluting the language, giving rise to
justified reactions of rejection. Such attitudes, either favourable or unfavourable towards
the present-day flood of English neologisms (for English appears to be the only modern
language capable to cause such intense debates and controversies throughout the world
nowadays), are a natural phenomenon, since arguments from both sides seem reasonable
enough to support these attitudes, and most probably they will never cease to exist.
7.1 IN EUROPE
As Roswitha Fischer states very clearly in her study on Anglicisms in the global European
context (2008), both a lingua franca and a national language are wished for. Therefore,
while English is seen as a foreign language, serving as a useful means of communication
with the outside world, the national language is used within one's own speech community.
An interlingual means of communication certainly has its merits but also involves a
number of problems, such as disadvantages for lack of language proficiency, the diversity

of cultures and their history, and the different structures and meanings of the various
languages. In addition, language is commonly seen as a symbol of the national and
cultural identity of a speech community and,consequently, Anglicisms may pe perceived
as an embodiment of Anglophone or American social and cultural structures and values,
therefore a threat to one's own values, leading to a nation's somewhat legitimate fear of
being foreignized by means of the Anglophone culture represented by the English
language.
Monica Sim (2006b) thinks that many people do not perceive the transfer of certain
English or even "pseudo-English" words into their language through the advertising media
or the entertaining industry, for instance, as a meaningful kind of communication, but
rather as an attempt to take over their national and cultural values. However, the radical,
extreme tendencies regarding neologisms should be avoided, as they are neither sane nor
fair. Any abuse is damaging as long as it prevents speakers from communicating clear,
fluent ideas, and consequently, people feel them as a negative presence in the language.
On the other hand, a crowded vocabulary, full of neologisms does not necessarily lead to
the language headway, it is not a proof of evolution; on the contrary, it can determine the
regress. Equilibrium and measure are the key words and should characterize this aspect of
enriching vocabulary.
Unsurprisingly, the increasing international influence of English has been welcomed by
many, but criticized by many others. While some appreciate its political, economic and
cultural advantages, others are sensitive to a possible threat to other languages and
cultures. As a consequence, complaints about a take-over or at least an infiltration through
foreign words are nothing new.
7.1.1 FRANCE AND THE FRENCH INFLUENCE
Roswitha Fischers (2008) observation on the French attitude regarding Anglicisms is very
interesting though somewhat ironic, even funny. She notices that, until the 19th century
the critique stated above was mainly aimed at French, only later English becoming the
focus of attention. From the viewpoint of linguistics, lexical borrowing is a natural
process which has been going on since the beginning of languages and language-induced
contact. In view of the fact that more than half of the English vocabulary today originates
from French, it has a certain ironical tinge that French commissions nowadays try to ban
the English element from the French word stock.
Because English itself borrowed a great amount of French vocabulary after the
Norman Conquest, some Anglicisms are actually Old French words that dropped from
usage in French over the centuries but were preserved in English and have now come full
circle back into French. For instance, one attested origin of the verb "to flirt" cites

influence from the Old French expression conter fleurette, which means "to (try to)
seduce".
Crina Hereg (2005) also refers to the same problem in her analysis. She points out that
occasionally the governments of both Quebec (Canada) and France have undertaken
strenuous efforts to eradicate Anglicisms, with some success, although in modern times
there has been a more relaxed attitude. Sometimes a new word is coined in French that
succeeds in replacing the Anglicism - for instance, logiciel ("software"). However, the
Academie Francaise's directives are not always considered very appropriate; for instance,
it has decreed that "online chat" be replaced by causette or parlotte, but these are terms
for "chat" that are not commonly used.
Even the French who can sometimes be reluctant to use and adopt terms with an
English
origin
(they
still
maintain
the
term ordinateur for computer andnumerique for digital) have no choice but to use these
terms of English origin:faire du shopping, hardware. If we take into account the criterion
of age, we will see that people over 40 who might not have access to computers or
specialized magazines (IT, finances, advertising) find it hard to at least recognize, let
alone understand the meaning of such words as: chat, e-mail and so on.
7.1.2 GERMANY
Irene Doval (Fischer, 2008) relates the history of organized activities aimed at the
purification of German from Anglo-Saxon influences in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. In her article, she demonstrates a historical continuity of fears regarding foreign
influence and of purist language ideology, as well as meager practical effects of this
ideology on the German language in the said period. Nowadays, of all European countries
it is France that is probably most widely heard of as a site of organized and institutional
purism directed against the influx of Anglicisms, and it is a belief held by many that
these attitudes considerably affect the French language.
7.1.3 ITALY
Under Benito Mussolini, efforts were made to purify Italian of Anglicisms and other
foreign words. Today, Italy is the European country where Anglicisms are used the most
frequently, without alterations (Wikipedia). The Italian government has recently
expressed its displeasure over the use of English words and syntax in Italian English
words are often used in everyday language where they have fewer syllables than a longer
Italian
expression,
as
in computer forelaboratore
elettronico or weekend for finesettimana; but also where equally short Italian words already exist, as
in fashion for moda and meeting forconferenza.

7.1.4 OTHER COUNTRIES

In Spain, the adoption of English words is extremely common in the spheres of business
and information technology, although it is usually frowned upon by purists (Wikipedia).
In countries like Denmark, Sweden, Norway and the Netherlands the influx of
English terms has been widely accepted for decades and considered as a
naturalphenomenon, contrary to countries like Poland, the Czech Republic or Bulgaria,
where Anglicisms have been gaining ground especially since the dissolution of the Soviet
Union, this having eventually become a major topic in Eastern European linguistic studies
(Fischer, 2008).
7.2 IN ROMANIA
7.2.1 ROMANIAN ACCEPTANCE
Some claim that, even if today the Romanian language is sometimes flooded with AngloSaxon neologisms, these borrowings do not come to alter the Latin character of our
language, they do not change its appearance, as most of these borrowings are Latin words
themselves, even though this time it is English that helps them penetrate into Romanian;
our language gains, becoming a modern one, capable to express any concept, idea, and
remaining a dynamic, a living language just like all the other Latin or Roman languages.
A very distinctive point of view regarding Anglicisms met in specialized languages is
that of the reputed journalist Cristian Tudor Popescu (2001), who proves extremely
tolerant in justifying the use of foreign terms, invoking pragmatic criteria, such as
concision and accuracy: "Jargon is a shortcut, an optimization in the communication
between two professionals. What would be the point of the tiring translation of some
concepts that are born with English names? Jargon, as well as the argotic language, does
not create confusion, it does not distort meanings; on the contrary, it may lead to a highly
efficient communication." Indeed, there are equivalents for many of these terms in
Romanian, but they are used in English form due to the fact that specialists understand
them perfectly and they do not seem to need any translation. On the other hand, there are
the non-specialists who are not acquainted with the specialized vocabulary and,
consequently, find it hard to understand the terms.
7.2.2 ROMANIAN REJECTION
On the other hand, this situation has also led to disapprobative attitudes towards English,
some writers in the current public discourse - the written but also audio press - decrying
this influence as an invasion of Anglicisms and an anglicization of the language. The
discourse about Anglicisms is based on several negative metaphors, the occurrence of
English elements in Romanian being most often described as an invasion and a menace to

Romanian, but also as an indecency, something low and degrading that should trigger
reactions of repulsion and rejection (Greavu, 2010). In this category are purist voices
belonging to Romanian writers like Geo Dumitrescu, Octavian Paler and Eugen Simion
among others. Eugen Simion, for example, defines the obviously pejorative term
romglez as "un jargon insuportabil care tinde s se mprtie ca ria i sprosteasc,
s ureasc limba prin utilizarea unor termeni din categoria xenismelor parazitari,
izmenii, demni de o doamn Chiria reciclat n limba englez i trimis n
Parlament." (Eugen Simion, Tot despre romglez inCurentul, 06.01.01), a term that
was subsequently used by language purists and not only.
In spite of all this declarative rejection of the English influence, Romanian normative
linguists never went so far as to rule out the use of Anglicisms by law. For example, in the
introduction to DOOM (2005) Eugen Simion wonders: How necessary is this
Romenglish that we keep hearing on the radio or on TV, mostly with amusement,
sometimes with irritation, spoken especially by those chatterboxes from the media and
from the political world? Surely, it is not always necessary, and yet we have no say about
it; we cannot ban it. And, besides, neither do we have the means to do that. ("Ct de
necesar este, mai ales, aceast romglez pe care o ascultm - de cele mai multe ori
amuzai, alteori iritai - la TV sau la Radio, vorbit cu precdere de Chiriele mediei de
azi i ale lumii politice? Nu este totdeauna necesar, dar n-avem ncotro, nu putem s-o
interzicem. i, de altfel, nici nu avem cum.")
Pros and cons Anglicisms are found all over Europe to a greater or lesser extent, and
Romania makes no exception. France and Germany are the most notable examples of
countries that oppose the English influence, while most of the other European countries
show a greater level of tolerance. Yet, in spite of attitudes like those enumerated above, it
can be said that the English influence has managed to increase a lot over the past years,
free of any philologic bias and purist constraints. In this respect, Romanian well-known
tolerance towards foreign influences could not but help this acceptance. After all, that the
borrowing from foreign languages facilitates and enriches communication cannot be
denied. And, as all linguists admit, sooner or later the foreign words that happen to stay in
a receiver language for a longer time will be integrated into the existing language
structures to such an extent that they will not be recognized as foreign any more.

8 ADAPTATION
8.1 GENERAL ASPECTS

In any language, the analysis of the adoption/adaptation process is a highly complex one,
a process in which a lot of related aspects must be taken into consideration in any
comprehensive linguistic research. These aspects involve several levels of adaptation, the
orthographic one requiring the largest amount of attention, closely followed by the
morpho-syntactic, the phonetic and the semantic ones. Also a large number of difficulties
and special cases occur during this intricate, often fuzzy process, therefore many of them
are described in this chapter as seen by various researchers, along with several approaches
on the ways and stages of integration of Anglicisms in Romanian.
8.1.1 ADAPTATION VS. ADOPTION
Whether a word is perceived as new (or foreign) or not is usually related to its degree
of adaptation or nativization. Both terms refer to the adjustment of spelling, pronunciation
and/or morphology of loan words to the native structure of the receptor language. Though
institutionalization does not necessarily go hand in hand with adaptation, it often does.
The degree of adaptation also reflects the closeness of the contact and attitudes of the
affected speech community.Adaptation is normally distinguished from adoption, which is
defined mainly as unmodified borrowing. However, in practice many scholars
use adaptation andadoption synonymously, since few completely non-adjusted
borrowings exist, at least regarding pronunciation (Fischer, 2008).
8.1.2 LINGUISTIC ASPECTS (TYPES OF CHANGES)
In the complex process of adaptation of the newly borrowed words, Roswitha Fischer
(2009) considers useful to distinguish between onomasiological andsemasiological types
of lexical change (including lexical semantics). Word-formation and borrowing are
onomasiological (dealing with the names given to concepts) changes, while meaning
changes belong to semasiology (which deals with meanings of terms). The semasiological
changes can be further divided intodenotational meaning changes, such
as narrowing, widening, metonymy andmetaphor, and connotational meaning changes,
such as pejoration andamelioration. Regarding the integral phase of borrowing, the
borrowing processimplies an onomasiological change. In addition, however, a
semasiological change is also taking place, since not all meanings of the word in the
source language are generally taken over into the target language. In the post-integral
phase, further semasiological changes and also onomasiological changes (e.g. new
compounds or derivatives) are likely to happen. Thus, in borrowing, onomasiological and
semasiological changes are closely intertwined.
8.1.3 STAGES OF INTEGRATION

As with any neologism, an Anglicism usually undergoes certain phases ofintegration into
a language. At first, it is still very new and not known to many speakers. In time, it may
spread and take part in a process of institutionalization. This process is brought to a close
when the word has become part of the common core of the language, by which time,
ideally, the Anglicism will not be recognized as such any more, and consequently, should
not be called an Anglicism any longer. Since it is often difficult to decide whether an
Anglicism has become a fully accepted word of the vocabulary of a language, generally
after decades if not centuries have passed by, many scholars include all English borrowed
words or phrases in their analysis. However, this procedure is not really satisfying because
it goes against the native speaker's intuition.
Grlachs (2002) approach regarding the same process of integration is quite similar.
Thus, when a word has been borrowed, it becomes integrated into thereceiver language
with varying extent. distinguishes three main degrees of acceptance:
a) The word is not part of the language - it is either a calque or a loan creation, or mainly
known to bilinguals, or used only with reference to British or American contexts.
b) The word is in restricted use.
c) The word is fully accepted - either the word is not (or no longer) recognized as English,
or is found in many styles and registers, but is still marked as English in its spelling,
pronunciation or morphology.
G. Ciobanu (1991) refers to the topic in discussion from a different angle. She
considers that, in order to get a clear picture of the status of the English borrowed words,
besides the borrowing rate, it is important to relate these elements to the rest of the
Romanian vocabulary. Being neologisms, they belong to what is traditionally called
the passive vocabulary (which includes the words stored in verbal memory that people
partially 'understand,' but not well enough for active use). Neologisms first enter the
passive vocabulary and, afterwords, some of them enter the active vocabulary; some
others never enter the active vocabulary, they keep a peripheral place in the system or
even disappear. completely. To some estimations, involving the subjective factor inherent
to this type of judgement, until 1989 about one fifth of the corpus of Anglicisms might be
considered active vocabulary. After 1989, a lot of English words that have been
introduced into Romanian could be labelled as .fashionable, and it is usage that will
decide their status in the language.
8.2 ORTHOGRAPHIC ADAPTATION
8.2.1 STAGES OF ORTHOGRAPHIC ADAPTATION
Rumyana Lyutakova approaches the topic under discussion in an article (The
orthographic adaptation of English borrowings in Romanian and Bulgarian)that appeared

in the Romanoslavica journal, in 2004. She explains that the English borrowings that
enter the Romanian language are first of all assimilated from a phonetic point of view and
only afterwards from an orthographic one. She also talks about the different degrees of
orthographic adaptation. She mentions three stages of orthographic adaptation:
initial/preliminary adaptation, the stage of borrowings that are under way of adaptation
and the assimilation (borrowings that are completely assimilated into Romanian).
8.2.1.1 THE INITIAL ADAPTATION
The English borrowings that fall into this category have an incomplete degree of
adaptation to the orthographic system of Romanian and most of them preserve their
original spelling. Lyutakova (2004) remarks that this is actually an open-ended area where
isolated uses may occur but usually such usages do not go beyond this stage of
adaptation.
Most of the English borrowings belong to this stage and they have an etymological
spelling.
Apart
from
the
recent
borrowings: hardware, marketing,workshop, feedback, brainstorming, hold-up, pacemake
r, killer, display,challenge-day, duty-free, airbag, etc. (some of them are not recorded in
dictionaries of present-day Romanian: DEX, MDN, DOOM), there are also some
borrowings whose spelling has not been changed yet although they are older
borrowings: team, bridge, whisky, western, twist, rummy, musical, etc. Lyutakova (2004)
states further that this initial stage can be easily covered if the form of the etymon ranges
naturally among those in the Romanian orthographic system. She provides some
examples: hit, top, poster, spot, card and clip.
8.2.1.2 BORROWINGS THAT ARE UNDER WAY OF ADAPTATION
This represents the intermediary stage that shows the evolution of the borrowing in its
way towards assimilation (Lyutakova, 2004). The borrowed word has a transitory form
displaying the features of both the donor and the receiving language (a combination of
etymological and phonetic spelling). The borrowings that are at this stage have hybrid
spellings and, for many of them, more than one spelling is recorded in the dictionaries.
The spelling variants denote the evolution and the direction of changes that took place
in the process of adaptation (Lyutakova, 2004). As long as there are still variants of
spelling, the process of assimilation is not completely over. Mioara Avram (1997)
distinguishes between the variants recorded and accepted by DOOM and those used in
every day speech which are not recorded in that dictionary or in others that tackle
normative issues. There are many examples of spelling variants (etymological/phonetic
spelling):

- bodyguard / badigard (DOOM 2005): this word appeared sometimes with the American
phonetic spelling (badigard), but at present the etymological variant (bodigard) is widely
used in magazines and newspapers;
- break / brec (DOOM);
- clearing / cliring (DOOM 2005; DEX 1998);
- clovn / claun (DOOM 2005);
- cocktail / cocteil (DOOM 2005);
- derby / derbi (DOOM 2005);
- game/ ghem (DOOM 2005);
- roast beef / rosbif (DOOM);
- sandvici / sendvi (DOOM 2005);
- sandvi / sandvici / sanvi (DEX 1998) (the last two are optional spelling variants, the
first one is recommended by DEX);
- smash / sme (DOOM 2005).
The spelling of the borrowings clovn and brec was regulated in 1953 by a major spelling
reform. Among the words that were subjected to the same process of regulation, there are
also fotbal and chec.
8.2.1.3 THE ASSIMILATION OF ENGLISH BORROWINGS
Once a borrowing is assimilated into the receiving language, it loses the features of the
source language. These are taken over by those of the receiving language and sometimes
the word can no longer be identified as a borrowing. This last stage comprises English
borrowings that have a phonetic spelling. They have entered everyday speech and have
been
assimilated
from
a
phonological
point
of
view: cec, fotbal, hen, scheci, volei, hochei, seif, buget, and also some corrupted
forms: blugi, bini, ciung, gref (these forms are criticized by linguists and are specific
to colloquial speech). Then there are the rather infrequent cases of solid-spelling, (in
which the etymologically heterogeneous form brings together the English root and the
Romanian inflectional mark, without a hyphen), e.g. hedgingul, holdingul; these terms
are obviously considered as fully adapted loans.
8.2.2 FACTORS FAVOURING THE ENGLISH SPELLING
It seems that the general propensity of literary Romanian is, currently, to spell the English
borrowings the same way they are spelt in the source language. Still, the adaptation of the
English loanwords depends on several factors among which I would mention the moment
of borrowing, or the knowledge / ignorance of the speakers as regards the English
language. Andreea Varga (2010) thinks that the process of adaptation is deliberately
hindered due to some psychological and socio-linguistic factors. Also, Stoichioiu

(2001) claims that the linguistic conscience of a Romanian speaker who can also speak
English and his/her pride to spell a borrowed word langlaise falls into the category of
psychological factors that impede orthographical adaptation.
Among the socio-linguistic factors, an important part is played by the inner
motivations of various groups of speakers concerning the terminology they use.
Stoichioiu (2001) expounds the situation of experts for whom the preservation of
borrowings, from different special-field vocabularies, in their original form, is engendered
by their universal usage and by their common purpose of communication among
professionals. On the other hand, stylistic (connotative) Anglicisms preserve their
original spelling due to their power of suggestion, to their expressive force (this can be
clearly noticed in the language of the press as well as in that of the youth), to the
prestige of the English word. This category of borrowings is the richest of the three, at
least as far as the core vocabulary is concerned, including words pertaining to a large
variety of fields.
Linguistic snobbery is another factor that sometimes leads to etymological spelling of
English words adopted and adapted to Romanian for a long time both phonetically and
graphically: interview (instead
of interviu), clown (instead
ofclovn), leader (instead
of lider) etc. (Rus, 2005).
In the end, all these factors cannot generate but difficulties to those scientists engaged
in the linguistic research in their effort to regulate these words, as they often have to make
difficult choices from among several possible spellings. Nevertheless, few English
borrowings have a hybrid spelling because of the current tendency of contemporary
literary Romanian to employ these borrowings with their original, etymological spelling.
DOOM (2005) records most of the English borrowings with their etymological spelling,
even some of those that were recorded in DEX (1998) with a hybrid spelling or a phonetic
one, for example:
- dandi (DEX 1998) hybrid spelling;
- dandy (DOOM 2005) etymological spelling;
- parching (DEX 1998) the English k is replaced with the group of letters ch;
- parking (DOOM 2005) etymological spelling;
- taim-aut (DEX 1998) phonetic spelling;
- time-out (DOOM 2005) etymological spelling
8.2.3 TYPES OF ORTHOGRAPHIC ADAPTATION
8.2.3.1 BACKWARD ADAPTATION

Lyutakova (2004) has also noticed a backward / inverted adaptation process. Some
orthographically assimilated borrowings are being used nowadays with their original,
etymological spelling (the phonetic spelling is replaced with the etymological one):
- cnocdaun, cnocaut (DEX) knockdown, knockout (DOOM);
- hailaif (DEX 1998) high-life (DOOM 2005);
- jaz (DEX) jazz (DOOM);
- alanger (DEX) challenger (DOOM).
8.2.3.2 DOUBLE LETTERS
In her article in Romanoslavica, Rumyana Lyutakova (2004), quoted by Andreea Varga
(2010), analyzes the matter of double letters. She remarks that the orthographical rules of
Romanian demand that double consonants be written only where they render a phonetic
reality like in accelera, accent. Given that there are many English borrowings whose
spelling is characterized by a double letter (double consonant), the groups of identical
letters are the first to be subjected to the process of adaptation. They can be divided into
three classes:
borrowings
that
have
preserved
the
double
consonants: business, bluff, hobby,reggae, summit, scrabble, thriller, lobby, banner, bestseller, challenge, fitness, jogging, killer, lobby, play-off, puzzle, etc. (DOOM 2005);
borrowings that display variants:
stress (MDN 2002) / stres (DOOM, DEX, MDN 2002),
boss (DEX) / bos (MDN, DOOM), bos(s) (DCR)
rapper / raper (MDN 2002),
uppercut (MDN 2002) / upercut (DOOM, DEX, MDN);
bluff / bluf (OOP, DOOM, DEX, MDN)
congressman / congresman (DOOM, DEX, MDN)
jazz / jaz (OOP, DOOM, DEX, MDN);
jazzband / jazband (DOOM, DEX)
jazzman / jazman (DCR: also jazzman);
kidnapping (DEX, DOOM, MDN) / kidnaping (DCR)
scanner / scaner (MDN, DEX: also scanner, DCR: also scanner)
staff (DCR, MDN) / staf
borrowed words that have been assimilated with a single letter (although the English
words contain a double consonant): boicot < engl boycott; ofset < engl.offset, buldog
< engl. bulldog, seter < engl. setter, cros < engl. cross(-country), stoper < engl. stopper,
ofsaid < engl. off-side, tenis < engl. tennis (DOOM).

Since the first category is the richest of the three, it can be said that most English words
spelled with a double consonant have preserved this feature when they were borrowed
into Romanian.
A special case is that of the group of letters ck, which has the equivalents c and
ch in Romanian: bec < back, docher < docker, cocteil < cocktail (in DOOM, it is also
recorded with the etymological spelling cocktail). However, many borrowings containing
this
group
of
letters
have
an
etymological
spelling:rock, snackbar, cockpit, hacker, background, feedback, pick-up, lock-out,play-back, etc.
8.2.3.3 WORDS CONTAINING THE LETTERS Y AND W
The
letter
y
is
rendered
as
such
in
most
of
the
borrowings: lobby, whisky,cowboy, hobby, fairplay, sexy, spray, hippy,
and cherrybrandy. Very few borrowings containing the letter y have been adapted to the Romanian
orthographic system; this letter is replaced with i: iaht, volei, hochei, nailon; some
borrowings are recorded in DOOM with both spellings: derby / i, penalty /i, rugby / i.
The letter w is quite similar to y as far as adaptation is concerned. It remains
unchanged in most English borrowings: weekend, whisky, western, twist,swing, etc. It is
assimilated in the following borrowings: clovn, sveter, vatman,vaf (w is replaced with
v).
8.2.3.4 HOMONYMS, HOMOGRAPHS
A special case is that when the etymological spelling may lead to confusion due to the
contradiction between the English and the Romanian spelling systems, for instance, when
they double as homonyms the loans from French: auditor (fr.auditeur) - cel care audiaz
un curs, o conferin etc. and auditor - control financiar; board (en. board) - consiliu de
administraie) and bord (fr. bord);
or when they are homographs of Romanian terms. Such an example is that of
the consonant group ch, which corresponds to [t] in English and to [k] in Romanian,
when it is followed by front vowels, as in the English word chip, which has only been
borrowed recently and whose meaning was rendered by the loan translation, pastil or
by the phrase circuit integrat. Because of its international status, this word has entered
Romanian and has been adapted to its spelling: cip (DOOM) in order to avoid the
homography with the older Romanian lexeme: chip [kip].
Other similar cases are: deal, en. - afacere, tranzacie versus deal, rom. -form de
relief; tunat (en. tuned - a acorda, a regla), versus rom. tunat (lovit de trsnet). (Varga,
2010)
8.2.3.5 COMPOUNDS

The problem that emerges in the case of the compounds (Varga, 2010) is whether the
compound
borrowings
should
be
written solid, hyphenated or
as
completelyseparate words. The spelling rules of Romanian regarding the compounds take
into account the extent to which the component parts preserve their morphological
identity; the elements that receive the suitable inflection are hyphenated.
Yet, in Romanian there is a tendency to hyphenate the compound borrowings even
when the hyphen does not exist in the original word. Separating by a hyphen the elements
of a compound helps clarify its meaning, structure, to the Romanian speaker facilitating
its integration, as well. Some compound borrowings preserve their original spelling:
compounds
that
are
written
solid
both
in
English
and
in
Romanian: bodyguard,pacemaker, weekend, showroom, bestseller (OED, DOOM 2005);
- compounds that are hyphenated both in the lending and the receiving language:musichall, know-how, non-stop, play-back, off-shore, duty-free, etc. (OED, DOOM 2005).
Other compounds that are written in English as two completely separate words are
either written solid or hyphenated in Romanian: fairplay, mass-media,sex-appeal, talkshow, etc.
Or, some borrowings that are written solid in English are hyphenated in
Romanian: lockout - lock-out, striptease - strip-tease, offshore, striptease.
To conclude, as the list in Appendix 1 shows very clearly, as far as compound
borrowings are concerned the spelling rules vary a lot, mostly depending on the
dictionaries in which these neologisms can be found and also on the years in which these
dictionaries were published.
8.2.3.6 ABBREVIATIONS
As regards abbreviations, they have different treatments:
- some are translated into Romanian: IMF (International Monetary Fund) turns into FMI
(Fondul Monetar International); EU (European Union) is taken as UE (Uniunea
Europeana); GIS ( Geographic Information System) > SIG (Sistem Informatic geografic)
- some of them are taken over in their English form (either in the case of well-known
institutions or in specialized languages): UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific
and Cultural Organization); MEBO (Management and Employment Buyout) in phrases
such as "metod de privatizare de tip MEBO";
- some of them are taken over as such into Romanian but the words constituting them are
translated: PIN (Personal Identification Number) - PIN (numar personal de identificare).
8.2.3.7 PROPER NAMES
A particular English-Romanian contact scenario is illustrated by the use of English in
proper names of international institutions (Greavu, 2010). Such proper names are mainly

built around words like business, company, group, bank, which are in this way brought to
the attention of the Romanian public: Alpha Bank, UniCredit iriac Bank, Romaqua
Group, Intact Media Group, ROMVAC COMPANY, S.C. Carp Company S.R.L , Business
Magazin, Pharma Business.
The importation of English names combines with a parallel tendency to use English
productively in order to name Romanian organizations, products andevents. Examples
of English names used for this purpose include: Ctlina Advertising (advertising agency
in Bucharest), Militari Center, Moga Center(names of shopping centers in
Bucharest), Carpatair (the name of an airline company headquartered in Timioara),
different shopping centers with the term Mall, Lotus Market (a shopping center in
Oradea), Credit Bank (the name of a Romanian bank), DTH Television Grup (a TV service
provider in Bucharest),Best Manager SRL (a management company in Cluj), Banu
Andronache Building, etc.
This tendency is also evident in the names of Romanian web-pages. The prominent
role English has gained in the language of commerce and advertising in particular, can be
explained solely from the perspective of English as a prestigious language, its use making
the products described seem more fashionable, modern and desirable.
8.2.4 TENDENCIES AND DIFFICULTIES
Some of the many difficulties related to pronunciation and the spelling of the newly
adopted Anglicisms are described and analyzed in Constantin Maneas paper
called Difficulties Related to Form and Usage in the Process of Lexical Borrowing From
English (2009). The author notices that, in a majority of cases, full adaptation was
achieved through the application of phonetic spelling.Sometimes, the recommendable (or
correct) variants recorded by some Romanian dictionaries are subject to oscillations
between the spelling pronunciation and a fair approximation of the English
pronunciation. On the other hand, the linguistic / etymological awareness of the few
speakers having a good command of English clashes with the more
manageable Roumanized form of some terms; the process adds up grammatical (i.e.
morphological) implications.
When a significant number of speakers of the borrowing language come to have a good
command of or are satisfactorily acquainted with the donor language, the tendency is
noted to preserve the original spelling, to reduce articulatory adaptation, and closely
follow the foreign pronunciation.
Here are some examples of English loans/Anglicisms that can illustrate the abovementioned general tendencies.
The adaptation of many English neologistic terms to the Romanian orthography in
accordance with the original pronunciation occurs in the case of a relatively large number

of such terms. Thus, C. Manea (2009) notices that, for example, miting was preferred
to meeting because the latter would have probably attracted a Romanian pronunciation
like *['meting]; likewise, lider (< eng.leader), luping (< eng. looping), spicher (<
eng. speaker), gol (<
eng. goal), aut(<
eng. out), ofsaid (<
eng. offside), spici (<
eng. speech), gem (< eng. jam),chec (< eng. cake) etc. proceed from the phonetic form of
the English etyma, rather than their original spelling. As far as the term lider (a person
who rules, guides, or inspires others; head; one who is in charge or in command of others;
one who heads a political party or organization) is concerned, the etymological
spelling leader has been - unsuccessfully - refashioned by those conversant with English
or French (given the fact that even the French have the word leader, which they
pronounce /li'dr/).
As a rule, adaptation is not done in a consistent manner; for instance, the original
spelling was preserved in more recent loans. Thus, base(-)ball, best-seller, book-maker,
browning, cow-boy, remake, shop, week(-)end, whisk(e)yhave also kept the (approximate)
English pronunciation. On the other hand, Romanian (normative) dictionaries abound in
variants such as aisberg iceberg, aisfild icefield, nailon nylon, bec back (a mainly
defensive player behind a forward), ofsaid offside.
In some cases, the decisive element in adaptation is the graphical aspect, i.e. their
spelling, e.g. container (with the standard Romanian pronunciation /con'tai-ner/, clearly
more popular than the pronunciation occasionally used by a number of people who are
conversant with English, i.e. /con-'tei-ner/); the term manager(which can boast the largest
number of substandard variant pronunciations, apart from the dictionary ones,
i.e. /'manader/ and /ma'nader/, a fact that can be partly accounted for through the French
etymological channel); master (< Eng.masters degree); party (used instead of
Rom. petrecere, reuniune, serat;poster (instead of Rom. afi, reclam; live (used both as
an
adjective
and
an
adverb); slogan (instead
of
Rom. lozinc,
or deviz, motto); star (instead of Rom. stea (de cinema, a muzicii uoare etc.), or vedet).
The astounding abundance of parasitic (substandard) pronunciations of the
word manager is
worth
mentioning:
/'menidr/,
/'menider/,
/m'neider/,
/me'neidr/, /'meinidr/, /'meneder/, /'manidr/, /m'neidr/, /me'neder/, /'menedr/,
/'meneidr/, /'meinider/, /'manir/, /'menir/, /me'neder/, /'meneider/.
Some other punctual remarks will be relevant, we think, in this connexion: the sound , i.e. [] in the final sequence / the suffix -er has been rendered by [e], in the
sequence [er], most probably under the influence of spelling cf. leader, scuter, starter;
the case of the word spicher is a little bit more complicated, as it also involves French
influence (French being, in actual fact, the language that generated the new sense of the
term that of newsreader, announcer); another interesting case is that of the English

word challenger (whose Romanian equivalent, alanger [a'lander], seems to have been
derived (at least partially) under the influence of the French term challanger.
When unrestrained variety goes well beyond linguistic tolerance there appear extreme
cases, convincingly illustrating the difficulties relating to the phonetic and spelling
regulation of the English loanwords that are older denizens of the Romanian vocabulary,
like safe a strong container, usually of metal and provided with a secure lock, for storing
money or valuables (which can occasionally be spelt even saf, and can be
pronounced saf, safu, s-if, se-f,sef).
The current picture of the process of taking over and, implicitly, regulating the use of
the Anglicisms in contemporary Romanian is very complex, and, unfortunately, rather
blurred. Numerous pronunciations are still approximate, inaccurate and loose
e.g. taibrec, slogan, golgeter [gol'deter], thriller ['triler].
See
also blezer (for blazer), ramstec (for rump
steak), apdeit / apdatare (forupdate
/
updating), schenr (for scanner), discont (for discount), etc.; oscillating forms / variants
are in plenty, e.g. dealer / diler / dilr, clearing / cliring etc
There are numerous blatant mispronunciations like prei, tandard, tres, tart, and
also variant pronunciations such as fla / fle, sandvici / sendvici / sanvici / senvici /
sandvi / sendvi / sanvi / senvi; the term management has at least six different variants,
while manager has about twenty. There is variation in point of stressing, e.g. prmo,
but promurile, patrn, patrnuri andpternuri, mdem / modm, top-modl, top-mdel et
c.; both spelling and pronunciation are oscillating in words like container / conteiner /
containr.
Also noticeable are the phenomena concerning both pronunciation and morphogrammatical adaptation, e.g. baii (the plural form of byte a group of bits, usually six or
eight, processed as a single unit of data), bii (the plural form of bit a unit of capacity of
a computer, consisting of an element of its physical structure capable of being in either of
two states, such as a switch with on and off positions, or a microscopic magnet capable of
alignment in two directions),bodiguarzii / badiguarzii / badigarzii, a se juca dea cowboy-i. In most cases, the orthographic look and the grammatical functioning of the
terms in cause, are decisively interrelated, as in: boomul, holdingul, marketingului,
marketingului, hardul, hard discuri, vs. hobby-ul, link-urile, mouse-lui, browserul, cowboy-ii, etc.; it is also true that, at times, the Roumanized forms can force and distort the
mould of Romanian morpho-syntax itself, e.g. skin-headi, promourile, etc.
8.3 MORPHO-SINTACTIC ADAPTATION
Generally, the morpho-sintactic adaptation comes before the phonetic and the
orthographic one. As already stated in the present paper, most English loanwords preserve
their original spelling. Along with the specific aspects related to the spelling of the words

as rendered in dictionaries, attention must be paid also to the morphological implications,

some deriving from the graphical conventions involved, as in the case of the words whose
form is hyphenated, e.g. spread-ul,spread-uri. In such cases, the etymologically
heterogeneous form brings together the English root and the Romanian inflectional mark
by means of a hyphen, as opposed to the rather infrequent cases of solid-spelling,
e.g. livingul, fanul, softuri, etc., such terms being obviously considered as fully adapted
loans.
As nouns are undoubtedly the grammatical category best represented by Anglicisms in
the Romanian vocabulary, they naturally receive most of the attention in the linguistic
research. And, in direct relation with nouns, articles, noun plurals and noun genders are
the most important elements to be analyzed in this chapter, while adjectives and verbs
raise little to no difficulty in the adaptation process, requiring and receiving much less
attention in my paper.
8.3.1 ARTICLES
8.3.1.1 ENCLITIC ARTICLES
The enclitic articles and desinences: -ul, -ului, -ilor are attached to most English loans,
regardless of the gender (even to the feminine nouns), especially with the nouns ending in
consonants, as recommended in DOOM2:
with a hyphen, when the English term ends in -sh, -ch, -y, -w, -e:
smeul/smash-ul, slash-ul, scratch-ul, brandy-ul, dandy-ul, disk-jockey-ul, know-how-ul,
lobby-ul, play-boy-ul, story-ul, rugby-ul; bridge-ul, dance-ul, hotline-ul, porridge-ul,
puzzle-ul, reggae-ul, site-ul, striptease-ul etc.
without a hyphen:
boardul, copy-rightul, boomului, gamerilor, staffului, rememberul, driverele, hotdogul,
leasingul, trendul, meciul/meciurile.
Nevertheless, it must be said that in mass-media these recommendations are often
neglected.
8.3.1.2 INDEFINITE ARTICLES
The indefinite article, proclitic in both languages, does not imply difficulties, except some
fluctuation between feminine and neuter, for English feminine nouns which end in
consonants (o/un cover-girl), or inanimate nouns that are associated with their feminine
Romanian equivalents (un/o story, un/o soap-opera).
8.3.2 PLURAL ENDINGS

Masculine nouns (ending in -i): dealeri, publisheri, manageri, basiti, outsideri, rapperi,
rockeri, stripperi, but play-boy-i, dandy-i, hippy-i
Feminine nouns:
a) ending in -e : newslettere, bannere, suportere, tenismene, sexiste, recordmene;
b) invariable: coca-cola, hotline.
The neuter gender is enriched substantially, especially with inanimate nouns,
- ending in -uri:
a) with a hyphen (DOOM recommends it):
desk-uri, call-center-uri, internet-cafe-uri, spread-uri, lobby-uri, story-uri, service-uri,
show-uri, snack-bar-uri, spray-uri;
b) without a hyphen:
branduri, clipuri, grilluri, jeepuri, printuri, trenduri; castinguri, holdinguri, driblinguri,
ratinguri, campinguri, briefinguri, traininguri;
- or in -e, less frequent: blazere, blistere, computere, cuttere, cornere, markere, pagere,
promptere, postere, testere, thrillere, tonere, playere.
There are also several special cases of plurals:
- invariable plurals: blue-jeans, cornflakes.
- invariable singulars: jacuzzi, koala, panda, miss, kiwi, smog, cash, horror(DOOM2).
- inainmate nouns which keep the English plural: one man shows, slot machines,
piee futures, storage services.
- animate nouns naming jobs: value investors, senior associates, sky-marshalls, trainers.
8.3.3 NOUN GENDERS
Regarding the noun gender, most Anglicisms referring to inanimate nouns fall in the
category of Romanian neuter gender: star staruri, cocteil cocteiluri, weekend
weekenduri, trening treninguri, meci meciuri etc. Only one inanimate noun has been
placed in the feminine category and is accepted in dictionaries: giac (geac) /
jachet (DEX), both from en. jacket (Rus, 2005).
As regards masculine and feminine Anglicisms, they are less frequent, but not
negligible. E.g.:
masculine lider, lideri; suporter, suporteri; clovn, clovni; dealer, dealeri etc.
feminine stewardes, stewardese; tenismen, tenismene; reporter, reportereetc.
Unlike the masculine nouns, the feminine nouns have desinences that are met in
normal use: tenismen, suporter, recordman; or in colloquial use: rockeri,
lider, fan, baby-sitter, rapperi.
In some cases (e.g. lady, miss), no enclitic article is accepted (DOOM), while the
proclitic one (lui) is accepted.

8.3.4 SPECIAL CASES

Certain nouns borrowed from English are still not adapted morpho-sintactically. Some of
them adapt with difficulty, others have failed to adapt. In such cases, sometimes
Romanian speakers do not recognize the English plural form (-s) and, by adding the
Romanian plural ending, pleonastic forms (the so-calledmorphologic pleonasms) are
obtained: pungile de snacksuri, un pachet desticksuri, mijloacele mass-media, etc.
In some cases, nouns are turned into verbs: performer - a performa, set - a seta.
8.3.5 ADJECTIVES
Adjectives remain invariable:
shocking, scary, trendy, full, casual, porno, punk, sexy, stereo, single, dry, indoor, topless,
underground.
Some adjectives may be used as nouns in Romanian (the same as in English):
best-of-ul, fresh-uri, single-uri, cash-ul, low-uri (= coborri, descreteri).
Some are used either as adjectives or as adverbs:
"afi cool", "e cool s fii analist...".
Others are used both as adjectives (muzic underground) and nouns
(undergroundul londonez).
8.3.6 VERBS
Verbs borrowed from Englishare less frequent than nouns, but, in their case, the morphosintactic adaptation is obligatory. They fall in the two most productive conjugations:
- most of them take -a in the Infinitive: a downloada, a forwarda, a manageria, a posta, a
seta, a spama, a updata/upgrada, a dribla, a accesa, a procesa, a sponsoriza, a
implementa, a scana, a lista, etc.
- some more recent ones take -i: a bipui, a brandui.
English Gerunds are frequently rendered in Romanian as nouns: firm
deshipping, sharing (difuzare) de muzic, un palpitant making of.
Also Participles are used in Romanian, mostly as adjectives: un calculatorcustomizat, club
bine manageriat, acord presumat.
Sometimes Past
Participles are
used:
echipamente built-in,
cartele pre-paid,
locuine reloaded (reamenajate).
8.4 PHONETIC ADAPTATION
In order to understand the complex process of assimilation / adaptation of the English
borrowing, it is important to underline from the very beginning that Romanian spelling is
mainly phonetic (Graur, 1995; Ciobanu, 2004), phonemic more precisely (Avram, 1990)
unlike English spelling which is etymological, a linguistic feature that generates a

discrepancy between the written form and the pronunciation of the most English words
(Ciobanu, 2004). G. Ciobanu also asserts that phonetic spelling has to be understood as
a system with each sound denoted by a letter and each letter having the same sound to
denote it. It must be said that, in spite of the speakers emulation to pronounce the
borrowing (or loanword) as it is pronounced in the donor language, an accurate phonetic
replica is hardly possible. Therefore, the phonemes of the native language are often liable
to replace the unfamiliar sounds of the lending language. The form of the borrowing
causes, sometimes, such difficulty in pronunciation that the adaptation of the word is
almost unachievable (Varga, 2010).
The phonetic changes that occur during the adaptation process are analyzed in detail in
Cristina Athus book, Influena limbii engleze asupra limbii romne actuale (2011). Here
are some of the most important changes she has found in her research:
Switches of the final consonant for masculine nouns:
- z instead of d, as in: bodyguarzi, milorzi, pounzi, stewarzi;
- instead of s, as in: boi, jeani, pamperi;
- instead of t, as in: bii, byi, ceni, digii, megawai, rackei.
Some masculine nouns containing -man have the vowel mutation a/e:
businessmeni, congresmeni, gentlemeni, yes-meni; also walkmenuri (inanimate);
unlike borrowings arrived via the French channel:
cameramani, barmani, vatmani, also vitezomani, jazzmani
Some words take the phonetic spelling:
aisberg for iceberg, cocteil for cocktail, scheci for sketch, ou for show, finifor finish,
lider for leader (not accepted), biznis (not recommended by DOOM2) for business.
In a number of cases, we can find morphological dublets:
brand and brend, discount and discont, hipermarket and hypermarket, ghem andgame,
golgeter and golgheter (DOOM2).
A special case is that of phonetic writing. Stoichioiu-Ichim (2003) explains thatthe
phonetic writing of certain unassimilated English terms is given in the context connotative
values of ironical type: Politicienii romni, abonaii forumurilor unde se vorbete
de integrein i neito, se pare c se simt foarte bine. (Adevrul, 18.11.1998). Therefore,
the formation of some derivatives or compounds with pejorative intent, based on some of
the best assimilated English terms, is specific to the language used in pamphlets. An
illustrative example of such term derivation is that of the term meeting, rendered
as miting in Romanian, as a root for numerous derivatives: mitingar, mitingrie, a mitingi,
mitingism, mitingist, mitingist, and compounds: mitingofilie, mitingomanie, minimiting,
all coined around 1990 -1992.
8.5 SEMANTIC ADAPTATION

When an English word finds its way into another language, mostly only one or a couple of
the individual meanings of the (polysemous) English word are borrowed. As shown in
Roswitha Fischers analysis (2008), after the borrowing process has taken place, the word
may lose or change its meaning(s) or develop new meanings in the receiver language.
Borrowings are generally eligible for the same type of semantic changes as native words,
i.e. metonymic extension, metaphorical shift, polysemous extension, or loss of a
polysemous meaning.
There may also be changes in style or connotation. Therefore, at least in theory, we
have to distinguish between the borrowing process as such, i.e. when the borrowing enters
the receiver language, and consecutive processes, i.e. when the newly borrowed word
undergoes further changes in the language of which it has now become a part. The
original English meaning may then also become opaque. Some studies of Anglicisms trace
English borrowings and their numbers in dictionaries or newspapers over several decades,
collecting, counting and categorizing the words.
8.5.1 STAGES OF SEMANTIC ASSIMILATION
Seen from the angle of semantics, the process of assimilation undergone by these
loanwords as they are adopted by Romanian suggests their ordering on a number of
distinct tiers. Thus, according to C. Manea (2010), there are three main stages:
- the terms are still felt as aliens (or outsiders), e.g. promotion, promotional;
- the terms are still in-between the status of aliens / outsiders and that of fully adapted /
accepted lexical items, e.g. public relations, consulting, engineering;
- words which have been taken over and fully legitimated by Romanian, e.g.cash,
clearing, sponsorizare;
- the most significant category of loan-words insomuch as the lexicological (and
lexicographic) study is concerned is undoubtedly formed by those terms whose presence
in the contemporary vocabulary (be it a strictly specialized one or not) is fully justified,
thus avoiding the status of barbarisms / xenisms; some of them seeming to stand a fair
chance of entering the (broader) current-use vocabulary, e.g. marketing, taylorism,
(epoca) post-taylorist. They manage to be semantically useful as they are sufficiently
informative, viz. through their power of semantic designation, they avoid being mere
parasitic words, as doublets of already existing terms. Thus, their justification goes far
beyond the snobbish obstinacy, which is often at the bottom of technical / professional
jargons. However, informative redundancy can sometimes be detected, e.g., barter, for
which a handy Romanian equivalent can certainly be schimb n produse, and even the
older term troc.
8.5.2 STAGES OF SEMANTIC ADAPTATION

In the process of semantic adaptation, the first step is actually the very translation of the
foreign terms which are making their way into Romanian, as C. Manea (2010) states in his
analysis. This is the case with terms such as the following (most of which actually being
defined in the magazine the author takes his examples from): spread (o mbinare a dou
contracte futures opuse), closing price (pre de nchidere). Translation is mostly of an
explanatory
kind: dead-lock (impasuri), strategia win-win (ctigctig), hardship (clauza
de
impreviziune), operaiuni spot (la
disponibil), package deal (negocierile pachet); they are mostly used in connection with
highly / strictly specialized terms, which are in the process of being defined in the text,
e.g. operaiunile la termen (futures), relaii publice (for public relations which
should in fact have been rendered as relaii cu publicul).
As a variant of translation, the synonymic explanation is used, wherever possible, as in:
Brokeri (misii, samsari, curtieri).
When translation is done literally, cases of ambiguity or stylistic ineptness may arise,
e.g. furtuna creierelor as a preposterous rendering of brainstorming (for which the best
possible variant is, of course, "asalt de idei / metoda asaltului de idei"). Obviously, such
sloppy translations should be avoided.
8.5.3 SEMANTIC CHANGES
The semantic changes can be divided into denotational meaning changes, such as
narrowing, widening, metonymy and metaphor, and connotational meaning changes,
such as pejoration and amelioration.
From among the very few widenings of meaning, I would mention the phrasecini de
paz ai democraiei (en. watchdogs), referring to the media and the professionals of media
seen as the ones who serve as guardians or protectors against waste, loss, or illegal
practices, while the main English meaning (A dog trained to guard people or property)
is left aside.
Extensions of meaning are much more frequent. They often extend the referential field to
meanings that cross the edge from the specialized language to the every-day or stylistic
language. For instance, the world lider is recorded both in DN and in MDN with its long
established meanings from the political field (conductor) and that of sports (echip
sau sportiv aflat n fruntea unui clasament), not from other fields. At present, this term is
used in mass media in a large variety of fields: politics (lider PNL, liderul de la Casa
Alb), trade union (liderul Ligii Sindicatelor Miniere), entertainment
(liderul grupuluiDivertis), religion (lider spiritual suprem al talibanilor). It also takes
extensions of meaning with negative reference: liderul reelei de traficani,
lider mafiot, with a large range of contextual synonymy: lider / boss / ef de clan, lider

local (corupt) baron local; lider / preedinte; lider / prim-ministru; lider al iganilor /
buliba etc. (Stoichioiu-Ichim, 2003)
Also, the word summit, defined in MDN as ntlnire (politic) la cel mai nalt nivel,
is found in the present-day media with meanings much extended through dropping some
specific semes. Thus, its use often goes beyond the political field in the examples from
Adevrul (2002, 2003) offered by Stoichioiu-Ichim (2003): primul summit verde de
la Rio de Janeiro; Summit-ul Pmntului / Srciei; summit de afaceri; summitul european al ntreprinderilor mici i mijlocii; summitul buctarilor. Or, sometimes,
the stylistic intent is felt in titles such as Summit-ul vrjitoarelor or Summit
internaional al prostituatelor, here the inverted commas underlining the pejorative
meaning. The same political connotations are lost in the word miting, in uses such as:
miting de protest, miting anti-srcie.
Here are some more words which came into being by an extention of meaning:
- maintenance (en.) - ntreinere, mentenan, as in comision de mentenan;
- assistance - ajutor asisten
- to apply for a position - a aplica. The Romanian a aplica with the meaning a pune n
aplicare is of French (appliquer) via Latin (applicare) origin; however its newest
meaning a aplica pentru un loc de munc comes form the English to apply for (to make
a request, to candidate), and therefore the Romanian term a aplica is enriched by an
extension of meaning. This translation - a aplica - has been recently introduced in usage
due to the fact that it is shorter than the most appropriate one, namely a face o cerere / a
solicita o cerere. A aplica is preferred mainly by specialized websites because it is shorter
and it is in accordance with the tendency of maximization in communication.
- audien (<en. audience) bears the meaning of a meeting granted to a certain
applicant (DEX), and is at present enriched with the English meaning of public;
- locaie (<en. location), originally meaning renting, at present is used to denote
any placement,
settlement, even place, spot, site.
Here are some examples of metonymies:
- residence for (head of) institution: White House, Downing Street, Washington:
Washington-ul a declarat..., etc.
- clothing for office workers: hoi cu gulere albe (en. white collars).
As metaphors, there are numerous single-word ones: un bug ne blocheaz de ceva
timp, un virus mpiedic boot-area calculatorului, se lucreaz la rectificarea n driver,
crawler i finger; also phraseological calques: Big Brother(ro. Fratele cel Mare, the
famous Orwellian character); splare de bani (en.money laundering) and bani
gri (en. soft-money), pagube colaterale (en.collateral damage), sometimes with an
euphemistic function: guvern din umbr(en. shadow cabinet / government), recorded

in Dicionar de politic i administraie englezromn (2000) as cabinetul alternativ al

opoziiei. But calques are to receive a special attention in the following chapter.
8.6 DERIVATION
In point of derivation, according to C. Manea (2010), the most productive suffixseems to
be -ing (e.g. fixing, shopping, rating, training, spreading, marketing). The suffix -ment (as
in management) seems to hold second place, while, from among the Romanian suffixes
applying to English bases, the most frequent are: (a)ie and -izare (e.g. barterizare). The
English suffix -ship is far less productive (and yet, it is felt and used as such,
e.g. leadership, sponsorship). The most notable prefixes enjoying a certain degree of
productivity are: inter- (e.g.interdelivery) and supra- .
8.7 MINOR PROCESSES
The most prominent minor processes illustrated by the body of lexical items analyzed
in C. Maneas study (2010) are certainly the acronyms (e.g., Fwd, in the sense of
forward-ul, as used in a calculation formula), and, to a lesser extent, the socalled portmanteau words i.e. blends such as stagflaie (< eng.stagflation a situation
in a countrys economy, in which persistent high inflation is combined with high
unemployment and stagnant (or falling) demand and output [< blend
of stagnation and inflation]), a word which has virtually become an international term.
8.8 CONCLUSIONS
The complexity of the process described above has always required that a large number of
entailed implications be analyzed in the course of time. And the larger the influx of
neologisms - as is the case of Anglicisms, the more complicated it is to provide a
comprehensive analysis of the adaptation process. Each neologism has to cross several
stages before it is fully accepted (if ever) in the receiver language, the transition from the
passive vocabulary to the active one most often than not being a long and sinuous process.
Then, many are the factors that favour English neologisms to take one route or another
on their way to full assimilation into or, sometimes, total rejection from the Romanian
vocabulary, among them the level of knowledge of English of the Romanian speakers, the
moment these words enter our vocabulary, also various psychological and socio-linguistic
factors (inner motivation, linguistic snobbery, prestige, universal usage and so on). And,
as most linguists have noticed, most of these factors favour the adoption of the English
spelling.
As can easily be noticed from the analysis above, the orthographic adaptation entails
the largest number of specific situations and difficulties, from the behaviour of the English
compounds, of abbreviations or of double letters, the frequent occurrence of letters such

as k, q, w or y in English, homonymic or homographic collisions between English and

Romanian words, to the many spelling variants or mispronunciations. The morphosyntactic level also offers a number of difficulties, among them the treatment of the
enclitic articles and desinences, the plural endings, or the noun genders. As a curiosity, it
is interesting to note that while the neuter gender is inexistent in English, as if in
compensation, the Romanian neuter gender takes over the vast majority of Anglicisms
referring to inanimate nouns.
A few instances of significant changes also occur at the phonetic and semantic levels.
Regarding the latter, the most important meaning changes are narrowings, widenings
(extensions of meaning), and the use of metonymies and metaphors.
Also G. Ciobanu (1996) provides a number of conclusions in her analysis on the
adaptation process of Anglicisms in Romanian:
- in borrowing vowels there is a general effort to find the nearest possible counterparts in
Romanian;
- for most of the diphthongs there is the tendency to render the English diphthongs of the
borrowed words by similar Romanian diphthongs;
- the English consonants fit easily into the Romanian system of consonants;
- in cases of stress changes, in most of the borrowed words stress was shifted to the last
or last but one syllable, following patterns common to the Romanian system;
- most of the nouns joined the classes and subclasses of the Romanian nominal system;
moreover, they have entered the classes best represented numerically;
- the borrowed verbs have adapted easily to the Romanian verb system.

9 CALQUES
To calque means not only to borrow a word or phrase from another language as is the case
of lexical borrowings, but also to translate its components so as to create a new lexeme in
the target language. Given the particularity of this perspective towards receiving a
neologic element, a perspective that requires a different approach in the analytical work, I
considered proper to analyze calques in a special chapter.
As already defined above, calques are words or phrases from one language whose
semantic components (words or parts of words) are translations from another
language. Or, according to Stoichioiu-Ichim (2003), the calque, or loan-translation, or
linguistic decalcomania, can be seen, in the context of borrowing, as an internalized
variant of translation proper a comparatively more complex tool of lexical
assimilation-and-taking-over. It aims, most of the time, to ensure the Romanian public a
better accessibility to the message, also to the expressive, evocative force of the English

term, as in the following examples: cini de paz ai democraiei (watchdogs); Carte alb
(White Paper); splarea banilor (money-laundering); prim doamn (first lady); Unchiul
Sam (Uncle Sam).
Most authors divide calques in two categories: semantic and phraseological ones.
Cristina Athu (2011) adds a third category to the previously mentioned ones: structural
calques.
9.1 SEMANTIC CALQUES
In Christina Athus approach (2011), the semantic calque renders:
a. New meanings added to the old ones of the Romanian words: maturitate (scaden
- maturity), a agrea (a conveni - to agree), apreciere (cretere -appreciation), ataament
(anex - attachment), atelier (seminar de aplicaie -workshop); a agrea (en. agree) a fi de
acord; crti (en. mole)
spion
infiltrat; determinat (engl. determined)
hotrt; domestic (engl. domestic) intern, propriu unui stat; imagine (en. image)
percepie public; provocare(en. challenge) dificultate de nvins.
b. Semantic adjustments: viermi (worms) i cai troieni (Trojan horses), navigare pe net
(surfing), pachete de date (batch); prin canalele financiar-monetare (cf.
en. channel (often pl.) - a means or agency of access, communication, etc., a medium for
communication or the passage of information).
c. Intensified technical meaning: a promova - to promote, then - a difuza, a lansa.
9.2 STRUCTURAL CALQUES
Regarding structural calques, there are several occurring situations (Athu, 2011):
- identity of structure between model and copy: self-control, supervise, holiday
package;
- change of grammar category: subsidiar, subsidiar, politicile economice(where the
plural form is used for the noun politic, in accordance with the model provided by
en. the economic policies / the policies of);
- morpho-syntactic changes: promotion - promovare, sponsor - sponsorizare,e-mail (in
which most Romanian speakers can detect the meaning of, or at least have a certain
consciousness of the origin of the initial letter e as being the English adjective electronic).
- synonymic dublets: buletin/card de identitate, scaden/termen limit;
- paronymic collisions: coordinator (IT) - coordonator; avertiza - advertiza(from
en. advertise);
- homonymic collisions: location (place, rental);
- homographic
collisions: chip (IT,
fa), plot (piece
of
electronics
in
Romanian, intrig in English), deal (en. business, ro. relief)

9.3 PHRASEOLOGICAL CALQUES

Regarding the phraseological calques, we can find different types of translations of the
English phrases:
- total calque (word-for-word translation): card de identitate (en. identity card),economie
gri (en. grey economy), resurse umane (en. human resources), conturi private (en. private
accounts), economie
de
pia (en.
market
economy),autocontrol (en. selfcontrol), autoservire (en. self-service), axa rului (engl. axis of evil), cine de paz (en.
watchdog), clas de mijloc (en. middle class), cortin de fier (en. iron
curtain), discriminare pozitiv (en. positive discrimination), foc prietenesc (en. friendly
fire), Fratele cel Mare (en. Big Brother), gulere albe (en. white collars), guvern din
umbr (en. shadow government / cabinet); lider de opinie (en. opinion leader), ONG (en.
NGO, organizaie non-guvernamental),prim doamn (en. first lady), rzboi rece (en.
cold war), state-tlhar (en. rogue states), Unchiul Sam (en. Uncle Sam), cortin de
fier (en. iron curtain), FMI(en. IMF), etc.
- partial calque: public target, canal de retail, partener silent.
- aproximate translation (free translation): und verde (en. green light), drogat de
munc (en. workaholic), erifi ai aerului (en. sky-marshalls), companie-mam (en. parentcompany), Carte Alb (en. White Paper); principiul dominoului (en. domino effect); foaie
de parcurs (en. road map).
- equivalents: summit reuniune la nivel nalt; NATO - Aliana Nord-Atlantic.
9.4 REFERENTIAL APPROACH
Stoichioiu-Ichim (2003) approaches this topic also from the referential point of view,
according to which the English borrowings or calques may refer to:
a. UK
or
USA
referents: congressman
- membru
al
Congresului
SUA;Commonwealth asociere liber a unor state care au fost conduse la un moment dat
de Marea Britanie;; guvern din umbr cabinet alternativ al opoziiei;Unchiul Sam
- SUA, NATO; FBI.
b. Any (other) country: lider, lobby, miting, summit, speech, establishment, Carte Alb,
foaie de parcurs.
c. Some terms that are specific to a certain country may be found in other contexts too,
e.g. prima doamn doamn (engl. first lady), absent from Romanian dictionaries, is often
found in the media with exclusive reference to the wife of the American president. Yet,
sometimes the British meaning is preferred, i.e. the wife of a governor or of a president
of a country, as in: extrdarea fostei prime-doamne a Iugoslaviei.
9.5 OTHER CASES

Most of the examples provided above come from the English economic and political
jargons and refer to social, economic or political concepts or patterns, illustrative of the
Western (especially American) democracies. Some of them have already become clichees:
- corectitudine politic (en. political correctness), absent in Romanian dictionaries, used in
the media with the meaning: comportament exagerat de corect pentru a evita acuzaii de
rasism, discriminare sexual)
- foaie de drum / parcurs (engl. road map), absent both in Romanian and English
dictionaries, and referring to the calendar of admission of Romania into into EU, for
instance.
It is worth mentioning that euphemisms are often resorted to in the political discourse
(Stoichioiu-Ichim, 2003):
- principiul (teoria) dominoului (en. domino effect), recorded in MDN with a restricted
meaning (cdere n lan a complicilor).
- pierderi colaterale (engl. collateral damage) - as in primele pierderi colaterale ale
rzboiului din Irak
An interesting case is that of the word escaladare (cf. en. escalation). Although very
frequently used in journalistic contexts, such as After the arrival of the soldiers, the
violence escalated, in the sense of gradually (or rapidly) increasing the intensity or
scope of a war, conflict, etc., to escalate andescalation, are, however, not yet completely
accepted as appropriate in formal English.
To sum up, from among the three types described by the few authors who have shown
interest in this particular type of borrowing, it appears thatphraseological calques are the
best represented one, with different types of translations (total, partial, aproximate/free
translations, or Romanian equivalents). The semantic calques on the other hand offer a
number of peculiarities, in that they may add new meanings to Romanian words, or
sometimes adjust or intensify the meanings of Romanian terms. Structural calques can
also offer a number of difficulties, such as synonymic doublets, or paronymic, homonymic
or homographic collisions with Romanian terms.

10 ACCESSIBILITY
It is a fact that the predominantly analytical character of the English language sets it at
loggerheads with the Romanian language, which is a predominantly synthetic language.
Therefore, certain instruments are often required to explain certain terms with which few
readers are familiarized, thus overcoming this structural incompatibility between the two
languages, especially in the print media.

One of the most important instruments to take this role is the technique of
quotation. This technique means taking over English words and phrases in their
original form, while marking their foreign origin, and it is a method which is virtually the
very opposite of translation and assimilation through linguistic decalcomania. C. Manea
(2010) thinks that this structural incompatibility triggers a certain distancing of the user
through two main methods:
by making use of various graphical conventions (the inverted commas,
e.g.spot; acreditive back-to-back; the use of italics of bold type, e.g. public
relations, etc.).
by a sort of encyclopaedic, more or less ex-cathedra, communicative-informative
approach,
e.g.
metoda direct
costing presupune
c
se
separ,
Leadershipul barometric const n, cu clauz roie (red clause), etc.
Cristina Athu (2011) is the author who gives a thorough attention to the ways of
assimilation in print media. She discerns several types of rendering the English
borrowings:
Without any explanation, although the meaning is not always very clear even to the
proficient speakers of English: este momentul unui boom, benchmark greu de depit,
piee futures, operaiuni de hedging, programe de twinning, cumprtori orientai
pe blue-chips.
The Anglicism is accompanied by the Romanian equivalents or explanations:
a) in brackets, before or after the English term: a atins pragul de break-even
(profit); acestea trimit acelai story-board (scenariul reclamei) mai multor productori.
b) the English term comes after the Romanian equivalent: renunarea la formatele mari
(broadsheet) a ctigat teren; servicii de coninut video la cerere (video on demand).
c) the explanation in the text is sometimes placed before or after the English term, which
facilitates memorization: prefer s lucreze cu free-lanceri, altfel spus liberi
profesioniti; n week-end practicm aa numitul sistem pay 2 stay 3, adic plteti dou
nopi de cazare i stai trei; a urcat n vrful piramidei prin propriile puteri (selfmade
man, cum spun americanii); un astfel de domeniu este cel al ntreinerii - aa
zisul wellness.
Both the Romanian and the English terms are used in parallel, in different places:
numerar and cash; developer and
dezvoltator; real-estate and
imobiliare,offshore and paradisuri fiscale.
Some translations change the grammar class:
a. verb-noun: se aplic soluia dilute and disperse (diluie i dispersie);
b. singular-plural: venituri provenite din activitatea de incoming (sosirile de strini n
ar) (examples taken from Capital, 2008).

There are also many cases of English loanwords which are absorbed tale quale, without
searching for Romanian correspondents (sometimes used without knowing their exact
meaning). Thus, some newspaper articles prefer to give anon-translated version of such
terms:
"Dei ne artm muchii n prime-time, ne ascundem...." (Jurnalul Naional, 2006)
"Piaa futures i options ne-a oferit ..." (Evenimentul zilei, 2006), etc.
As it was shown above, the tendency to explain Anglicisms perceived as less familiar
to the public is a phenomenon met especially in written texts, much less popular in oral
instances. In short, most authors who use such English terms in their writings often resort
to various methods meant to help the Romanian reader understand the exact meaning of
these terms. Some resort to graphical conventions (inverted commas, italics, bolds, etc.),
others prefer to offer explanations or Romanian equivalents, in parallel. There are also
plenty of cases when the English terms are given without any explanation, as they are
considered popular enough among readers.

11 NECESSITY VS. LUXURY

In many linguistic studies, borrowings are often divided in two categories: necessary and
of luxury. This chapter aims at giving a glimpse at the several aspects related to this
approach.
As a rule, necessary borrowings are considered those words or idiomatic units
that have no correspondent in Romanian. In this sense, Anglicisms not only fill a gap in
our language, they also have the advantage of the precision and of theinternational use.
Then, the necessary borrowings can be of two types: denotative and connotative.
The denotative borrowings do not have equivalents in Romanian because they denote
recent realities that have appeared in various fields in the more or less recent years. A
large number of such terms are found in occupational activities or in specialized
languages, but also in the language used in every-day life: tenis, nailon, sandvi, software,
site, maus, bass, blues, baseball, bungee-jumping, fitness, derby, etc.
The other type of necessary borrowings, the connotative ones, double pre-existing
Romanian words, having an effect of amplification on the stylistic meanings. They often
reflect the adoption of the American way of life. Here are some
examples: party for petrecere; happy-end for sfrit
fericit: weekend forsfrit
de
sptmn; penalty for lovitur de la 11 metri; live for n direct; summit for ntlnire la
vrf etc.
On the other hand, it is undeniable that, as a language internationally perceived as a
lingua franca, spoken in the most powerful and influential country in the world (the USA),

English
is
commonly
endowed
with
certain
connotations
ofmodernity, fashion and prestige, fact that often leads to a process of borrowing
English words which is not motivated by need, therefore these words are called luxury
or unnecessary loans. This tendency has become more and more acute after 1989, and a
high degree of Anglomania justifies the use of very many terms in domains related to
everyday life, such as music, sports, fashion etc. Such luxury borrowings often pertain
to the tendency of some social categories to individualise themselves linguistically in this
way. This fact is considered to be an act of snobbery. Here are some examples:
- cash, discount (MDN) - terms that are used more and more by sales representatives,
traders and shop assistants, despite the fact that there are Romanian equivalents; they are
already accepted in Romanian.
- copyright (DEX, DN, MDN) is another example of using English words as such. It
appears on almost every book printed in Romania.
- feedback (DEX, DN, MDN) was firstly adopted in psychology; it subsequently extended
to economics, and is presumably preferred because it is shorter than its Romanian
equivalent: conexiune invers/ retroaciune / retroaciune invers / cauzalitate inelar /
lan cauzal inchis.
- fashion adviser - not recorded in dictionaries, but quite common in newspapers,
magazines or on TV.
- high tech, whose Romanian translation is tehnologie de vrf, is highly appreciated in
every-day practice, in a large number of instances.
Similar cases are the following terms: catering, week-end, standby, training, off-shore,
loan, show-biz, duty-free, entertainment, advertising, fashion, and so on.
Another aspect which I consider important to be signalled is that, as it can be seen in
the examples above and in many others, many of these terms, especially the technical
ones, cannot be translated by a single word. The fact that these terms are shorter, or at
least their pronunciation is, compared to their Romanian equivalents, might be a strong
reason why the English terms are often preferred to their Romanian correspondents. Lets
compare just a few such examples: week-end (sfrit de sptmn), living (camer de
zi), talk-show (mas rotund),band (orchestr), toast (pine prjit), etc. Seen from this
angle, these English loans can be considered useful enough to the Romanian vocabulary,
somewhat justifying their inclusion both in the category of necessary borrowings, as well
as in that of luxury or unnecessary ones. After all, we are all living in a world where speed
and globalization are two of the key words.
To sum up, the necessary borrowings are most often associated with/related to the
specialized languages, where they are required more and more in this highly dynamic and
globalized world, in which the development of science and technology hace reached
levels unimaginable just a few decades ago, imposing English as the main language of

communication between professionals from all fields. In the same time, the same process
of globalization contributes to the adoption of a large number of unnecessary / luxury /
superfluous loans, mostly for stylistic reasons (fashion and prestige always being
mentioned here), but also for pragmatical reasons.

12 DOMAINS
In most linguistic studies, the best represented fields as far as the presence of the English
element is concerned are: economics, politics, technology (especially IT), everyday life,
music, medicine, mass-media, sports, fashion and medicine. Surely, this presence is felt
almost everywhere, in all walks of life; this chapters only offers a number of examples
from these fileds, some of them accompanied by translations, explanations or sentences in
which they may occur.
The influence and the spread of the business and trade relations around the globe make
economics one of the richest fields in English neologisms, which is understandable since
English has emerged as the main language to be required and accepted in such contacts.
Consequently, a large number of dictionaries and linguistic studies have appeared in the
recent years with a focus on the specialized terms used in the international business
contacts and contracts.
The IT domain is gaining more and more new lexical meanings each day. I will not
refer here to the special language filled with abbreviations and slangs used mostly by the
youths who communicate via Internet.
The everyday life registers new items not attested in DCR: cool, fresh, hair-styling,
outfit, tshirt, besides the inveterate cover-girl, casting, make-up, look,trendy. Most of
them are luxury Anglicisms, as there are Romanian equivalents for them, and appear
mostly in the language of newspapers, particularly in glossy magazines.
The huge American political influence nowadays is undeniable. Under the
circumstances, the great influx of Anglicisms is no surprise. It is interesting to note that
this field is very well represented as far as loan translations (calques) ar concerned.
Fashion and cosmetics is another area where there are plenty of luxury English
borrowed words. Actually, reading articles on these topics is like reading in a totally
unknown language, a sort of Romenglish.
Illustrative examples of terms belonging to these fields, as well as to other fields, are
given in Appendix 2 at the end of the present paper.

13 VARIANTS

Although Anglicisms are often seen as foreign words and in spite of their evident
abundence in Romanian, they cannot make the subject of a common bilingual dictionary.
Still, they can constitute the corpus of many specialized dictionaries, related to various
fields which are particularly rich in such neologisms. This chapter refers mostly to the
way Anglicisms are treated in the Romanian dictionaries. Some of the examples and
technical aspects described below have already been presented in other chapters
whenever/wherever it was necessary, to support other aspects.
C. Manea (2010) considers that in every kind of specialized
terminology,standardization (as a prerequisite of linguistic efficiency and mutual
understandability) must be the key word (which should not entail purism or rigidity, but
bringing in a felicitous complement of acceptability / correctness in the field of the
lexicon). What we most need now in Romania is as many good lexicographic works as
humanly possible, especially modern, up-to-date, richly informative dictionaries and
normative books, in which every aspect of the items glossed should be treated
comprehensively - including pronunciation, meaning(s), forms. This does not mean that
every new lexical item used randomly or whimsically by cosmopolitan speakers is entitled
to gain acceptance into the general vocabulary of the Romanian language. A case in point
is the latest edition of the DOOM, a very good dictionary indeed, but one that
unfortunately seems rather reluctant to provide room for a large number of otherwise
current-use English loanwords/Anglicisms, on the rather lame excuse that lexicographers
cannot be very sure of the relative degree of their penetration into contemporary
Romanian.
Regarding the way Anglicisms appear in Romanian dictionaries, the tendency today is
to keep the etymological orthography and render the original pronunciation as closely as
possible. As a rule, Anglicisms, both the older ones (camping, dribling, screper, trailer,
conveier etc.) and the more recent ones, are given in DOOM 1 and DOOM 2 with
suggested spellings, pronunciations and flexions. Here is a comparative analysis (Athu,
2011) of the way some terms are given in the two dictionaries:
Some Anglicisms are present in both dictionaries, DOOM 1 and 2, in a form that is
adapted graphically, in accordance with the Romanian phonetic principles:aisberg,
bodicec, craul, crichet, fini, grepfrut, hen, iaht, jerseu, miting, ofsaid, scheci, schif,
smoching, spicher, suporter, iling etc. Some lose one consonant when it is
doubled: bober, buldog, buldozer, dribling, fiting, handbal, ofset, presing, rolfilm, scuter,
stoper, stres, upercut etc. or the vowel groups are simplified: feribot, golgheter, lider, or
the combinations of consonants that are not common in Romanian are rendered according
to the Romanian spelling rules:fini - finish, hen - hands, schetch - scheci.

Others are given in both dictionaries in their etymological form: bikini, blazer, boom,
booster, brand, bridge, business, camping, cockpit, computer, driver, fitness, flash, globetrotter, groggy, marketing, radar, rock, start, travelling, twist, western, yankeu, yoga etc.
In other cases, the two dictionaries give different spellings; as a rule, DOOM2
recommends the original English form (DOOM1 - DOOM2): cnocaut - knockout,
conteiner - container, hipi - hippy, jaz - jazz, luping - looping, pedigriu - pedigri, alanger
- challenger, or DOOM2 accepts both the form adapted to the Romanian orthography and
the etymological one, with a preference for one or another: pocher - pocher/poker, rugbi rugbi/rugby, sme - sme/smash; cocteil - cocktail/cocteil, derbi - derby/derbi, ghem game/ghem, penalti - penalty/penalti.
The compounds are given in the two dictionaries in most cases with the same spelling as
in English:
a) hyphenated: base-ball, dirt-track, globe-trotter, happy-end, know-how, mass-media,
pop-art, walkie-talkie.
b) non-hyphenated: background, businessman, copyright, feedback, hardware.
Special situations:
bluejeans/blue-jeans and blugi in both dictionaries, but DOOM2 also acceptsjeans/jeani.
best-seller, week-end in DOOM1 and bestseller, weekend in DOOM2
modern style in DOOM1 and modern-style in DOOM2
pipe line/pipe-line (both as in English) in DOOM1 and pipeline (non-existent in English)
in DOOM2
the same with strip tease/strip-tease in DOOM1 and striptease in DOOM2.
Regarding orthoepy, DOOM1 and DOOM2 give the same orthoepic directions for most
English loans. When the directions are different, DOOM2 gives a recommendation closer
to the original English term:
DOOM1
DOOM2
basic (beizic)
(beisic)
bowling (bou-ling) (bauling)
western (uestern) (uestrn)
Exception: for travelling, both dictionaries recommend the English spelling (while DN
and DO accept also travling), but the pronunciation travling is closer to the French one.
Here is a list of terms that have already been recorded in the new DOOM:
staff /
pl. staffuri; management, lobby /
art. loby-ul, high
technology, discount /
pl. discounturi; dumping /
pl. dumpinguri,
art. dumpingul; brand /
pl. branduri,broker / brokeri, dealer / dealeri, manager / manageri, site /
pl. site-uri,
art.site-ul, chat / art. chatul, desktop / pl. desktopuri, display / pl. display-uri, art.displayul, hard disk / pl. hard diskuri, software, on-line / online, off-line /offline, e-mail / pl. emailuri, art. e-mailul, play-back / pl. play-backuri, art.play-backul, single / pl. single-uri,

art. single-ul, hit /

pl. hituri, blues /
pl.bluesuri, live, background /
pl. backgrounduri, body
building, badminton,baseball, windsurfing, jogging, derby /
pl. derby-uri, derby-ul, surfing, hotdog / pl. hotdogi, hamburger / pl. hamburgeri, fastfood /
pl. fast-fooduri,cheeseburger /
pl. cheeseburgeri, chips /
pl. chipsuri, cornflakes, icetea /
art.ice-tea-ul, ketchup, whisky, look /
pl. lookuri, lifting, make-up / pl. makeupuri,make-upul, fashion, design.
Other Anglicisms have not been recorded in DOOM, but are very likely to be in the
near future: joystick, bowling, bungee-jumping, fitness, gloss, office, casual.
The picture is even more intricate if we extend the comparison to several dictionaries,
in which there is no official agreement with respect to the recommendable or correct
variant (dictionaries like DOOM 2, DEX, DCR, MDN, DN, NODEX often disagree not
only on the variants, but even on the inclusion or exclusion of some terms). On the other
hand, the desire is obvious for many people who are proficient in English to want to have
access to the original pronunciation and/or spelling of the loanwords in case, an
(otherwise understandable) aspiration which is clearly opposed to the (Academy-inspired)
tendency to regulate form at any price, which is perceivable in most Romanian normative
works. Florica Bncil and Dumitru Chioran (1982) say that it is hard to predict which
variant will become generalized, as the speakers of Romanian are equally exposed to the
written and the oral form of the respective words; the two authors think that the audiovideo media will have a prevalent role in future, so the type of pronunciation used by the
newsreaders will be decisive in this respect.
Rumyana Lyutakova (2004) refers extensively to the spelling variants offered in
dictionaries, as part of the evolution and the direction of changes that took place in the
process of adaptation. She shows that, as long as there are still variants of spelling, the
process of assimilation is not completely over. Another author, Mioara Avram (1997),
distinguishes between the variants accepted and recorded by DOOM and those used quite
frequently in every-day speech which are not recorded in the normative dictionaries. And
these variants, absent from dictionaries, can be extremely numerous. The author also
states that numerous orthographic variants are found in Romanian exclusively and that
most often this variation is caused by the etymological spelling and the phonetic one, a
variation which in some cases reflect the hesitation in establishing the pronunciation.
Examples of such variants as recorded in the dictionaries mentioned above can be found
in Appendix 3.
My analysis shows clearly that things can change easily in one direction or another as
far as the preferred variants are concerned. In many cases we have several accepted or
recommended variants, as a consequence of an unfinished process of adaptation;
sometimes we can find cases of backward adaptation, of words that return to the original
etymological spelling in spite of previously undergoing a difficult process of adaptation

according to the Romanian phonetic rules. Therefore, I really think that it would not be
much of a surprise to see that variants such as match, finish, offside, ski, yaht, meeting or
others are popped as first options in dictionaries one day, as well as, why not, English
loans phonetically adapted to the Romanian rules, such as sait (strongly recommended by
George Pruteanu), blog, pleibec, bauling, ou, displei, folder and so on. After all, a
language is like a living organism, which accepts or rejects, grows bigger each day and
has preferences, fluctuations, dilemas or difficulties in making choices. Therefore, we can
conclude that it is impossible to predict the evolution of Anglicisms in the Romanian
dictionaries.

CONCLUSIONS
The global picture of the penetration and usage of the English loanwords in the Romanian
vocabulary is remarkably intricate and fuzzy. Yet, in the light of the elements described in
my thesis, we may sum up by emphasizing a few main aspects:
- in contact with English, the Romanian language proves to be a generous receiver, ready
to enrich itself continuously;
- the English elements, like other foreign elements entering Romanian, are adopted and
adapted to the Romanian language system, facing little or no resistance;
- the borrowing of English elements does not alter the Romance character of the
Romanian language;
- the process of borrowing Anglicisms into Romanian has some characteristics similar to
other European languages in contact with English;
- words that are perceived as aliens frequently keep their foreign form, while loanwords
that are used in common speech tend to adjust themselves to the articulatory and spelling
habits of the Romanian host language.
We can also notice that the use of Anglicisms varies a lot according to circumstances.
Some terms are employed to ease the communication as there are words with no
Romanian equivalents and they should have been rendered through a whole long phrase
(e.g. single disc ce conine cte o singur pies pe fiecare fa). Other times they are
used just to change the old language and tokeep pace with the international trends.
From the morphological point of view we have to admit that the Romanian speakers
rapidly adapt Anglicisms to the Romanian morphology, in order to be able to use them
properly in communication. Thus, Anglicisms are such modelled to concord with the
needs of the Romanian language that, quite soon after entering our language, they are able
to form plurals, to be articulated as nouns, verbs can be conjugated according to number
and person, etc., as previously explained in this paper. To introduce a new word means to

adjust, to assimilate and to modify it, to integrate it graphically, morphologically and

phonetically - which is quite difficult as in general practice there are often several
alternative pronunciations of that word. Sometimes, the difficulties of the phonetical and
graphical integration give rise to mistranslations: e.g. location - mistranslated
aslocaie while the correct translation is amplasament; maintenance - mistranslated
as mentenan (in comision de mentenan); the correct translations arentreinere,
administrare (comision de administrare).
Borrowings represent a normal and desirable phenomenon in the evolution of a
language. They enrich the language, they develop synonyms and synonymy, sometimes
they come to replace old words and help speakers keep up with the progress in
technology or communications. Some of the borrowed terms are necessary, in the sense
that they are introduced because there is no equivalent fornewly introduced concepts, and
some become synonyms for words already existing in the vocabulary, prestige, snobbery
or international relationships being some of the factors that help maintain such
unnecessary loans in our language.
In the end, we must not forget that, particularly in the recent years, the native speaker
of Romanian has been getting so much information about a more and more complex world
by the sophisticated means of the 3rd Millenium. Possessing a highly permissive
language, a language which more often than not behaves like a sponge that immediately
absorbs the necessary linguistic fluid, Romanians, particularly the younger generation,
motivated by the freedom of expression gained mainly after the 1989s events, welcome
and appreciate not only the new words and expressions in their mother-tongue, but also
the diversity in culture, tremendously advertised through the mass-media channels.
Unfamiliar holidays or symbols such as Halloween or Valentine's Day are gaining more
and more ground in our culture, making Romania feel as part of a multicultural world
more than ever. And Anglicisms, as originated from English - which is seen as the
dominant language of international business and global communication, are the
instruments which make this possible.

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DICTIONARIES
AHD - American Heritage Dictionary, By Editors of the American Heritage
Dictionaries, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 2011
DCR - Dicionar de cuvinte recente, Dimitrescu Florica, Bucureti, Editura
Albatros, 1982
DEX '98 - Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, Academia Romn, Institutul
de Lingvistic "Iorgu Iordan", Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1998
DLRA - Dicionar al limbii romne actuale (ediia a II-a revzut i adugit),
Zorela Crea, Lucreia Mare, Zizi tefnescu-Goang, Flora uteu, Valeriu

uteu, Editura Curtea Veche, 1998

DLRC - Dicionarul limbii romne contemporane, Vasile Breban, Editura
tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1980
DN - Dicionar de neologisme, Florin Marcu i Constant Maneca, Editura
Academiei, Bucureti, 1986
DOLR - Dicionar ortografic al limbii romne, Colectiv, Editura Litera
Internaional, 2002
DOOM 1 - Dicionar ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne, Editura
Academiei, Bucureti, 1982
DOOM 2 - Dicionar ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne, ediia a
II-a, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 2005
OOP - ndreptar ortografic, ortoepic i de punctuaie, Ediia a V-a, Univers
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1995
MDN Marele dicionar de neologisme, ediie revizuit, augmentat i
actualizat, Florin Marcu, Bucureti, Editura Saeculum I. O, 2002
NODEX - Noul dicionar explicativ al limbii romne, Editura Litera Internaional,
2002
OED - Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1989, www.oed.com

APPENDIX 1 (Compound borrowings)

en.
>
ro.___________________
bodyguard
bodyguard / bodigard (DOOM 2005)
pacemaker
pacemaker (MDN)
showroom
showroom (DOOM 2005)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------cowboy
cow-boy (DEX, DN, MDN)
striptease
strip-tease (DEX) / striptis (DN)
weekend
week-end (DEX) / weekend (DOOM 2005)
lockout
lock-out (DEX) / loc-aut (MDN)
offshore
off-shore (MDN) / ofor (MDN)
bestseller
best-seller (DEX, DN, NODEX) / bestseller (DOOM 2005)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------fair play
fairplay (DEX, MDN) / fair-play (DN)
mass media
mass-media (DEX, DN, MDN)
talk show
talk-show / tocou (MDN)
compact disk
compact-disc (MDN)

sex appeal
sex-appeal (DN) / sexapil (DEX, NODEX)
set ball
setbol (DEX, DN, MDN, NODEX) / setball (DN)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------know-how
know-how (DEX, DN)
stand-by
stand-by (MDN)
play-back
play-back (DEX, DN) / plei-bec (MDN)
music-hall
music-hall (DEX, MDN, NODEX)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------non-stop
nonstop (DEX, NODEX, MDN)
knock-down
cnocdaun (DN, MDN), also knock-down (MDN)
knock-out
cnocaut (DEX, DN, MDN, NODEX) / knock-out (DN)

APPENDIX 2 (Anglicisms from various domains)

ECONOMICS
In Influena limbii engleze asupra limbii romne actuale - n limbajul economic i de
afaceri (2011), Cristina Athu divides the Anglicisms from this field in several categories:
a. borrowings strictly specialized for the economic field, for communication between
specialists, preferred for precision and international contacts:
greenfield (investiii
directe), hedging (risc
valutar), shipping (transport
naval,
maritim), mortgage (ipotec), payroll (tat
de
plat), jobber (intermediar
bursier), overdraft (descoperire
de
cont),
deadline (termenlimit), broker(intermediar), target market (pia int), billing (facturare), board (consiliu
de
conducere), salesman (comerciant), joint
venture, marketing, merchandiser,merchandising, leasing, investment
banking, homebanking, broker, cash,stand-by, voucher; dealer.
b. economic terms that are frequently used in general practice:
advertising (reclam), boom (avnt
economic), dealer (negustor), full-service(serviciu
complet), provider (furnizor), retail (en
detail), sponsor, agreement(acord
financiar,
economic), showroom (magazin
de
expoziie), management,manager, knowhow, business, brand, shopping etc.
c. calques:

autosuficient < en. self-sufficient, aciune lichid < en. liquid share, companie scoic <
en. shell-company, piee de capital < en. capital-markets, reea de distribuie <
en. distribution network.
Some of the most used Anglicisms met in the economic articles from the glossy
magazines - bussines-man, dealer, job, marketing, shopping - are already included in DCR
and DN.
Stoichioiu-Ichim (2003) also gives a large number of such terms
a. as used in the print media:
job:...s renune la un job care nu-l satisface.; ...fiecare vietate pe care jobul o ine
departe de reedina personal...
shopping : mergi la shopping virtual pe www.cosmopolitan.ro. It is an item that has a
Romanian equivalent, still, it is extremely frequently used, bearing astylistic,
connotative role.
brand: Faimosul brand orologer elveian
b. with their Romanian definitions:
PR: ...se face PR i anti-PR, se scrie o adevarat condic de reclamaii...
staff s. m. pl. staffuri - grup de persoane cu o anumit misiune, de conduceresub direcia
unui ef; stat major.
management s. n. - arta de a conduce; tiina organizrii ntreprinderilor, a valorificrii
eficiente a resurselor umane, financiare i material ale unei organizaii.
lobby s. n. - sal de ateptare a cldirii unei bnci, unde se fac operaii bancare;
tranzacie fcut n aceast sal.
discount s. n. pl. discounturi - reducere de pre care se acord unui anumit client, n
anumite condiii de achiziionare a mrfi.
dumping s. n. pl. dumpinguri: vnzare a mrfurilor pe piaa extern la preuri mai
sczute dect acelea de pe piaa intern i de pe piaa mondial, practicat de unele ri
pentru a elimina concurena.
brand s. n. pl. branduri marc, firm.
broker s. m. pl. brokeri agent care vinde sau cumpr pe comision; intermediar.
dealer s. m. pl. dealeri distribuitor.
manager s. m. pl. manageri cel care conduce o antrepriz, care genereaz interesele unui
sportiv sau ale unei echipe care se ocup cu organizarea i cu chestiunile financiare ale
competiiilor, impresar.
IT
Below are just a few of the multitude of IT terms

a. as used in newspapers:
webcam: deschid calculatorul, dau drumul la webcam i vorbesc cu oameni...
a scana am scanat-o din priviri, am zmbit...
scroll: ...un mouse wireless cu scroll n opt direcii...
stick: Ia-i un stick de la Kingston
display: ...noutile pe display-ul telefonului, downlodate direct n mruntaiele
celularului.
pacemaker: El s aib pacemaker i s moar ct mai repede.
gadget: ...ne plac gadgeturile care sunt mici... Gadgeturile multimedia s-au nghesuit
la trgul de la Amsterdam., Unele companii au aruncat pur i simplusoftware-ul pentru
c nu l puteau utiliza. (from Ziarul Financiar, 2011)
b. with their definitions:
site s. n. pl. site-uri spaiu pe internet, spaiu n care sunt situate informaii pe reeaua de
internet.
mouse s. n. pl. mouse-uri, articulat mouse-ul dispozitiv la computer, calculator, periferic
cu care se poate deplasa cursorul pe ecranul unui computer.
chat s. n. discuie amical, o discuie care se face prin schimbarea mesajelor electronice.
desktop s. n. pl. desktopuri ecran.
display s. n. pl. display-uri, articulat display-ul dispozitiv de vizualizare folosit ca
periferic la calculatoare.
hard disk s. n. disc magnetic de mare capacitate, pentru stocarea datelor la computer.
software s. n. ansamblu de activiti (codificare, organizare, analiz, programare) pentru
calculatoarele electronice, soft.
joystick s. n. manet care controleaz micarea imaginilor pe un ecran electronic sau la
jocurile mecanice.
e-mail s. n. pl. e-mailuri scrisoare n format electronic, mesaje.
on-line/online loc adj., loc. adv. echipament, dispozitiv sau mod de prelucrare a datelor
conectate direct la calculator.
off-line/offline loc adj, loc adv. echipament, dispozitiv sau mod de prelucrare a datelor
neconectat direct la calculator.
Other
examples: hard,
soft (short
forms
from hardware,
software) atachment(<en. attachment) add-in (<en. add-in), bit (<en. bit),
browser (<en. browser),computer (<
en. computer), download (<en. download), device (<en. device),desktop (<en. desktop, dri
ver (<en. driver), e-mail (<en. e-mail), laptop (<en.laptop), link (<engl link), mailer (<eng
l mailer), modem (<engl modem), maus (< engl mouse), server (<en. server - calculator

central n reea), update (<en.update), a accesa (<en. to access), a boot-a (<en. to

boot), a chatui (<en. to chat), a clicka/clica (<en. to click), a computeriza (<en. to
computerize), aformata (<en. to format), a heckri (<en. to hack), a lista (<en. to list), a
loga(<en. to log - a accesa un sistem ), a printa (<en. to print), a procesa (<en. to
process a
prelucra), a
reseta (<en. to
reset), computer, hard
disk, scanner,laptop, floppy disk, site, web, clip (video-clip), CD, DVD. Clip has extended
its area, being adopted not only in music and cinema, but also to the political field, as in
the phrase clip electoral.
EVERYDAY LIFE
Here are some illustrative examples, chosen by Sim and Pop (2009) from various glossy
magazines:
cool cele mai cool trend-uri n hair-styling. It appears in combination with other
words, or, sometimes just alone like an interjection. It is a word with a high frequency in
glossy magazines, in close competition with look ( term registered in DCR).
look: look similar accesibil.
outfit: outfit-ul de club era horror, ce s mai!; outfit proves to be a useless,
luxury Anglicism that could easily be replaced with its Romanian equivalent
casting: cnd m-am dus la casting n Paris, nici nu au vrut s aud
nickname: doar aici ndrznete s-i deschid inima, sub un nickname cu conotaii
dureroase...
trendy: ...elementele unui interior, s-i spunem, trendy.
sexy is probably one of the best known adjectives of English origin in Romanian
language; it is a
raw adjective used not only in the written media, but also in the everyday speech, on
television
etc.; it appears spelt either like in English or like a Romanian word: sexi: trup sexy.
trend: ...i nu doar pentru c sta e trendul, explic ei.
OK: arat-i c nu este OK ceea ce face.
full: nu te fac s te simi full si nici nu-i deschid apetitul.
fresh: Un parfum fresh, de primvar.
weekend: nici nu mai tiu unde s ies i eu n weekend.
background: ...nscut n cu totul alte condiii, cu totul alt background, cu totul alt
evoluie dect a mea.
brunch: Brunch de Pate pe boulevard...
junk: dac nu mnnci junk, evident
topping: Ca desert, topesc ciocolata drept topping peste banan.
buzz: deplaseaz-te atunci cnd ai ceva de spus n loc s dai buzz pe Mess.

In the language of newspapers we can find lots of terms met in other fields as
well: leasing, catering, entertainment, dealer, design, trend, agreement,internet, cash &
carry, training, marketing
manager, brand, supermarket,business, handset, shopping
centre, etc
POLITICS
Here are some examples of terms related to politics, divided in several categories:
terms referring
mainly
to
politics
or
assimilated
in
political
communication: agreement, Big Brother, board, boss, briefing, congressman,
establishment, gentelmans agreement, grey area, impeachement, leadership, exit poll,
lider, lobby, mcdonaldizare, miting, political correctness, road map, shadow government,
soft money, speaker, speech, staff, summit, yankeu.
- proper names: Commonwealth, Downing Street, Pentagon, Amnesty International,
Greenpeace, NATO, FBI, CIA.
- semantic calques: agrea (en. agree) a fi de acord; crti (en. mole) spion
infiltrat; determinat (en. determined) hotrt; domestic (en. domestic) intern, propriu
unui stat; imagine (en. image) percepie public; provocare (en.challenge) dificultate
de nvins; uliu (en. hawk) personalitate oficial cu spirit belicos.
- phraseological calques: axa rului (en. axis of evil); Carte Alb (en. White
Paper); cine
de
paz (en. watchdog); corectitudine
politic (en. political
correctness); clas
de
mijloc (en. middle
class); cortin
de
fier (en. iron
curtain); discriminare pozitiv (en. positive discrimination); foaie de parcurs(en. road
map); foc prietenesc (en. friendly fire); Fratele cel Mare (en. Big Brother); gulere
albe (en. white collars); guvern din umbr (en. shadow government / cabinet); lider de
opinie (en. opinion leader); ONG (en. NGO) organizaie non-guvernamental; pierderi
colaterale (en. colateral
damages);prim
doamn (en. first
lady), principiul
dominoului (en. domino effect); rzboi rece (en. cold war); state-tlhar (en. rogue
states); Unchiul Sam (en. Uncle Sam).
FASHION AND COSMETICS
According to Sim and Pop (2009), 65% of the neologic terms that appear regularly in the
glossy magazines are not included in the recently published lexicographic works. Here are
some such terms:
make-over, make-up artist, anti-age, look, pl. lookuri, articulated lookul; lifting, make-up,
pl. make-upuri, articulated make-upul; fashion, design, designer, gloss, eyeliner (ro. tu), trend, casual, modelling, hair-stylist, home-made, etc.
Women glossy magazines abound in English titles or a combination of English and
Romanian titles: Cosmo book club, Cosmo informer, Cosmo style insider, Metale n trend,

Cosmonn Vogue, Beauty stil de vedet, Mti home-made, Job & bani, Quiz culinar, Real
life etc.; most of these are already phrases often used in everyday speech, still they are
luxury borrowings as we could easily find Romanian equivalents.
SPORTS
Some of the terms related to sports entered Romanian a long time ago and are fully
assimilated:
fotbal (fotbalist),
baschet (baschetbalist), rugby (rugbist), schi,
meci,
volei,
cros, derby, hen (<en. hands), corner,
aut
(<en. out),
fault
(<en. foul), penalti(<en. penalty), ofsaid (<en. offside), dribling (<en. dribbling), etc.
while others are relatively new or very recent:
bowling, body building, badminton, baseball, bungee-jumping, fitness, derby,pl. derby-uri,
articulated derby-ul; skateboard, team, outsider, snow-board,coach,
coaching,
poleposition, kick-boxing,
MUSIC
beat, live, cover, play-back, pl. play-back-uri;
single, pl. single-uri;
hit, pl.hituri; blues, pl. bluesuri;
live, background, pl. backgrounduri; rock, rap, band, evergreen, performance, house,
r&b, synthesizer, keyboards, bass, backing vocal, etc..
MEDICINE
sept interatrial (en. interatrial septum); valv aortic (en. aortic valve);circulaia
coronarian (en. coronary circulation), malformaii congenitale ale inimii (en. congenital
anomaly
of
heart), imagine
de
medicin
nuclear (en.nuclear
medicine
imaging), abazie (en. abasia); acardie (en. acardia); amebom(en. amoeboma); bradilalie (
en. bradylalia); cafein (en. caffeine), corpuscul(en. corpuscle), simptom/sindrom, glande
bulbouretrale (en. bulbourethral
glands), sonogram
transabdominal (en. transabdominal
sonogram), terapie
cognitiv (en. cognitive
therapy), terapie de comportare (en. behavioural therapy), gref de os (en. bone grafting),
etc.
FOOD AND DRINKS
hamburger, pl. hamburgri; hotdog, pl. hotdogi; fast-food, pl.
fastfooduri;cheeseburger, chips, pl. chipsuri; cornflakes, brandy,
pl. brandy-uri,
articulatedbrandy-ul;
whisky,
pl. whisky-uri,
articulated whisky-ul;
ketchup,
snacks, toast,scotch, etc.

EDUCATION
Curriculum ( borrowed from English, although it is a Latin term) and its adjectival
derivative curricular,
grant, which is often used in scientific research and, consequently, accepted in the official
terminology; master and masterat, training, item, visiting professor, etc.
MASS-MEDIA
rating, briefing, key-speaker, teleplay, prime time, TV announcer, talk-show, show-biz,
reality show, news, news alert, breaking news, etc.
MOVIES
musical, music-hall, horror, thriller, western, science fiction, cast, shooting, film-maker,
love story, romance, etc.

APPENDIX 3 (Variants)
Here are some examples of variants as recorded in various dictionaries:
body-guard / bodi-guard / badigard: DCR records the first two variants, while the third
has been noticed in the print media lately as the visual aspect of the phonetic fluctuation.
broker (DCR, MDN) / brocr (DN) in practice the term appears only in the original
spelling - which is a case of backward adaptation.
bungalov (DEX-84, DN also bungalou) / bungalou (DOOM, DEX-98, DCR, MDN) /
bungalow (found in the print media).
by-pass (MDN) / bai-pas (DN) - DCR recomends the etymological spelling with the
accepted variant bai-pas, which contradicts the recommended pronunciation /bai
pes/. However, the new edition of DN (2000) recommends the English spelling, as
opposed to the form recommended in 1986, which is another case of backward adaptation.
camping (DOOM, DEX, DCR) / chemping (in the print media).
clearing (DCR: also cliring) / cliring (DOOM; DEX: also clearing) from its evolution
recorded in lexicographic works, we can conclude that this is another case of backward
adaptation.
cocktail / cocteil / coctail a complicated case, given the normative directions. DOOM
and MDN recommend the phonetic spelling, DEX - the same, but alsococtail as a result of
the insufficiently established pronunciation. DCR records it only in the phrase cocktail
Molotov, with the English spelling.
congressman (the older form) / congresman (DOOM, DEX, MDN) /congresmen (in the
media).

grapefruit / grape-fruit / grepfrut (DOOM, MDN); in DEX also grepfrut andgrape-fruit;

in written texts grapefruit can also be found, as in English.
mouse (DC) / maus (MDN, DEX) in practice found both in etymological and phonetical
writing.
parking (frequently used) / parching (DEX, DOOM, MDN); DCR include alsoparking.
pick-up (DOOM, OOP, DEX, MDN) / picup / picap although the etymological writing
is recommended in dictionaries, the other two are also present in practice. However, its
evolution is unlikely to continue, as the object denoted is almost never used.
racket (DCR: also raket) / rachet; rackets rachei the variant accepted in DCR
reprezents a hybrid form and should not be encouraged.by norms.
sandvi / sandvic i/ sanvi / sendvi / sendvici / sandwich this is a rather complex case:
DOOM
and
OOP
recommend sandvi
/
sandvici, DEX
- sandviwith sandvici and sanvi as optional
variants,
whle
MDN
accepts sanvi andsandvici. The free variation in the first five terms is, in fact, orthoepic,
the spelling reflecting the phonetic-phonologic fluctuations. The etymological
spellingsandwich is a case of backward adaptation.
strip-tease (DEX, DOOM, MDN) / striptease / striptis (DCR).
taim-aut / time-out DOOM and DEX recommend the phonetic spelling, also accepting
the etymological variants, while MDN only accepts the adapted formtaim-aut, and DCR
only includes the English spelling time-out.
A special case is that of the words: congresmen, recordmen, tenismen, for which the
phonetic spelling was recommended because the final segment man with the meaning of
brbat was not perceived as such in Romanian, neither the irregular English plural of
en. man. A proof more in this respect are the feminine:recordmen, tenismen (DOOM
2).