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ENGINES
STEAM,
GAS,
AND
THEIR
STEAM
TURBINES
AUXILIARIES
BY
JOHN
ALLEN
R.
MECHANICAL
PROFESSOR
ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY
MICHIGAN
OF
-AND-
JOSEPH
JUNIOR
UNIVERSITY
WEST
239
6
BOUVERIE
EDITION
REVISED
McGRAW-HILL
MICHIGAN
OF
SECOND
TOTAL
ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL
PROFESSOR
THOROUGHLY
BURSLEY
A.
ISSUE
6,000
COMPANY,
BOOK
39TH
STREET,
STREET,
1914
RESET
ENTIRELY
AND
YORK
NEW
LONDON,
INC,
E.
C.
COPYRIGHT
McGRAW-HiLL
1914,
1910,
McGRAW-HiLL
THE.
BOOK
MAPLE.
THE
COMPANY,
BOOK
COPYRIGHT
BY
PBESS.
INC.
THE
BY
COMPANY.
YORK.
PA
PREFACE
advancement
The
been
has
of
such
this
to
as
in
desirable
rewrite
to
which
points
than
effort
it
of
made
been
the
has
the
to
not
shown
in
need
increase
At
Stumpf
ments
develop-
been
found
order
the
up
tion
explanatime
same
size
the
materially
also
clear
to
detailed
more
edition.
the
recent
has
years
edition
new
are
It
chapters
first
and
Pump,
four
past
treated
engines.
gas
the
publish
to
subjects
and
in
during
Gas
many
given
EDITION
desirable
new
experience
was
has
engines
Humphrey
turbines
steam
heat
the
the
Engine,
SECOND
make
Among
text.
Uniflow
the
in
TO
of
an
the
book.
desire
authors
The
mechanical
the
their
engineering
who
Michigan
timely
supplied
thank
to
of
many
the
in
and
suggestions,
new
members
the
cuts
the
of
of
department
assisted
have
those
MICHIGAN
ARBOR,
1,
1914.
this
who
manufacturers
have
used.
JOSEPH
Sept.
of
R.
ALLEN.
A.
BURSLEY.
of
of
University
the
preparation
JOHN
ANN
faculty
the
text
kindly
by
PREFACE
preparing
In
to
present
this
it has
book,
those
in
forms
with
its boiler
Under
in
of heat
engines,
each
division
detail
to
treated, and,
introduced
show
in
is used
in the
of the
that
used
and
the
of the
been
include
application
of
subject
did
The
its
been
text-book,
the
at
steam
engine
with
its producer,
worked
been
problems
out
the
only place
which
within
the
it
where
matter
it
as
higher
subject
The
untouched,
been
have
and
of calculus
phases only.
come
turbines.
steam
subject-matter just
of
use
left
properly
not
of
thermo-dynamics,
elementary
has
monly
com-
classes
engine
gas
the
largely avoided,
on
as
the
work.
Heat
most
are
the
principal types
chapter
in
treated
subject of
which
in
authors
of years.
number
of the
primarily
the
auxiliaries,
design of engines
that
the
has
been
and
the
mathematics
has
for
for class-room
being
upon
engines discussed
plant
oil
intention
engines
been
subject-matter having
The
the
It is written
practice.
University of Michigan
EDITION
been
treatise
elementary
an
FIRST
TO
felt
was
of this
scope
work.
The
authors
Anderson,
A.
wish
H,
drawings,
kindly furnished
and
their
express
Knight,
to
and
to Mr.
to the
W.
J. A.
R.
various
illustrations
and
thanks
Mover,
to
for their
McKinnon
Sept. 1,
MICHIGAN
1910.
VI
assistance
in
who
manufacturers
number
have
very
JOSEPH
ARBOR,
C.
made
who
JOHN
ANN
H.
Messrs.
R.
ALLEN.
A.
BURSLEY.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE
LIST
y-v
TABLES
OF
xii
CHAPTER
HEAT
THEORY
MEASUREMENT
AND
SPECIFIC
HEAT
OF
HEAT
CONDUCTION,
RADIATION,
DEFINITIONS
ENERGY,
OF
CONVECTION
AND
WORK,
POWER
AND
CHAPTER
ELEMENTARY
FIRST
SECOND
AND
EQUATION
THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS
OF
PERFECT
OF
II
10
GASES
11
HEAT
OF
JOULE'S
13
LAW
RELATION
14
SPECIFIC
OF
WORK
HEATS
15
.
EXPANSIONS
GENERAL
IN
17
EXPANSION
OF
GENERAL
HEAT
LAWS
AND
ABSORPTION
LAWS
8
.
CASE
ADDED
ADIABATIC
18
OF
AT
HEAT
20
ADDED
CONSTANT
VOLUME
OR
CONSTANT
22
PRESSURE
24
EXPANSION
ISOTHERMAL
25
EXPANSION
RELATION
PRESSURE,
OF
VOLUME
TEMPERATURE
AND
DURING
PANSION
EX27
THEORETICAL
CARNOT
HEAT
29
"
ENGINE
29
CYCLE
34
PROBLEMS
III
CHAPTER
OF
PROPERTIES
FORMATION
OF
STEAM
STEAM
^
PROPERTIES
OF
40
STEAM
.
STEAM
TABLES
42
^
.
IV
CHAPTER
CALORIMETERS
AND
MECHANICAL
MIXTURES
CALORIMETERS
SEPARATING
CALORIMETERS
THROTTLING
CALORIMETERS
50
vii
CONTENTS
viii
PAGE
QUALITY
OF
53
STEAM
55
PROBLEMS
MECHANICAL
56
MIXTURES
61
PROBLEMS
CHAPTER
COMBUSTION
COAL
64
ANALYSIS
HEATING
COAL
AIR
FUELS
AND
VALUE
66
FUELS
OF
68
CALORIMETERS
REQUIRED
70
COMBUSTION
FOR
71
SMOKE
ANALYSIS
GASES
71
TEMPERATURE
74
FLUE
OF
THEORETICAL
OF
COMBUSTION
FUELS
75
PROBLEMS
79
CHAPTER
VI
BOILERS
RETURN
TUBULAR
INTERNALLY
WATER-TUBE
87
BOILERS
91
BOILERS
HORSE-POWER
HEATING
82
BOILERS
FIRED
BOILERS
OF
SURFACE,
BOILER
ECONOMY
BOILER
EFFICIENCY
BOILER
LOSSES
BOILER
ACCESSORIES
97
GRATE
SURFACE,
CHAIN
GRATE
GRATE
BOILER
VII
AUXILIARIES
109
110
STOKERS
113
STOKERS
115
STOKERS
FEEDERS
FEED-WATER
101
105
STOKERS
UNDER-FEED
98
99
BOILER
INCLINED
BREECHING
100
CHAPTER
MECHANICAL
AND
HEATERS
'.......
119
122
ECONOMIZERS
125
SUPERHEATERS
127
CHIMNEYS
128
MECHANICAL
PROBLEMS
DRAFT
132
133
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
STEAM
ix
VIII
ENGINES
PAGE
THE
SIMPLE
STEAM
HORSE-POWER
LOSSES
IN
STEAM
139
ENGINE
142
ENGINE
144
CONDENSATION
INITIAL
REDUCING
OF
CLEARANCE
STEAM
OF
THE
METHODS
ENGINE
147
COMPRESSION
AND
149
PROBLEMS
150
CHAPTER
TYPES
DETAILS
AND
CLASSIFICATION
IX
OF
STEAM
ENGINES
OF
153
DETAILS
ENGINE
160
CHAPTER
TESTING
STEAM
ENGINES
ENGINE
INDICATED
STEAM
ENGINES
INDICATOR
168
HORSE-POWER
DETERMINATION
ECONOMY
172
CONDENSATION
INITIAL
OF
VARIOUS
OF
BRAKE
OF
FORMS
OF
174
ENGINES
177
178
HORSE-POWER
EFFICIENCY
MECHANICAL
ACTUAL
179
180
EFFICIENCY
HEAT
DUTY
180
PROBLEMS
184
XI
CHAPTER
GEARS
VALVE
PLAIN
D-SLIDE
DEFINITIONS
RELATIVE
OF
VALVE
EFFECT
OF
TYPES
CORLISS
VALVES
REVERSING
OF
ANGULAR
VALVE
AND
ADVANCE,
188
.
196
ROD
198
VALVES
205
209
GEARS
212
SETTING
INDICATOR
ECCENTRICITY
190
PISTON
DIAGRAM
OF
AND
191
CONNECTING
VARIOUS
VALVE
LAP, LEAD,
POSITION
ZEUNER
187
VALVES
213
DIAGRAMS
CHAPTER
XII
GOVERNORS
216
TYPES
GOVERNOR
MECHANISM
217
.
CONTENTS
PAGE
222
ISOCHRONISM
222
HUNTING
.
223
WHEEL
FLY
CHAPTER
XIII
ENGINES
COMPOUND
COMPOUND
225
ENGINES
TANDEM
COMPOUND
CROSS
COMPOUND
RATIO
226
ENGINES
227
ENGINES
228
CYLINDERS
OF
HORSE-POWER
COMBINED
OF
COMPOUND
...
229
ENGINES
232
CARDS
INDICATOR
234
PROBLEMS
XIV
CHAPTER
CONDENSERS
JET
SURFACE
AIR
AIR
AND
CONDENSERS
PUMPS
237
"
.
...
240
CONDENSERS
240
PUMPS
.
COOLING
240
WATER
242
PROBLEMS
CHAPTER
STEAM
XV
TURBINES
HISTORY
244
CLASSIFICATION
246
ACTION
TURBINE
IN
247
TURBINE
248
NOZZLES
OF
TURBINES
249
LAVAL
TURBINE
251
SPEED
DE
STEAM
OF
CURTIS
RATEAU
KERR
255
TURBINE
257
TURBINE
259
TURBINE
STURTEVANT
PARSONS
260
TURBINE
262
TURBINE
DOUBLE-FLOW
TURBINE
264
LOW-PRESSURE
TURBINES
266
MIXED-FLOW
267
TURBINES
CHAPTER
GAS
XVI
ENGINES
HISTORY
269
CLASSIFICATION
270
THEORETICAL
LOSSES
EFFICIENCY
275
282
xi
CONTENTS
PAGE
FUELS
GAS-ENGINE
GAS
PRODUCERS
.
FUELS
LIQUID
MIXTURES
FUEL
HORSE-POWER
RATED
HORSE-POWER
ACTUAL
XVII
CHAPTER
CONSTRUCTION
GAS-ENGINE
OF
DETAILS
PARTS
DESCRIPTION
OF
METHODS
OF
IGNITION
METHODS
OF
GOVERNING
....
CARBURETORS
OIL
ENGINES
HUMPHREY'
SHIPS
FOR
PUMP
GAS
PROBLEMS
....
XVIII
CHAPTER
OF
ECONOMY
RELATIVE
HEAt
ENGINES
ECONOMY
.
31"
COMMERCIAL
ECONOMY
313
INDEX.
LIST
OF
TABLES
PACK
TABLE
I.
TABLE
II.
COLORS
TEMPERATURE
HEATS
SPECIFIC
GASES
OF
TABLE
III.
RADIATING
POWER
TABLE
IV.
CONDUCTING
POWER
TABLE
V.
HEAT
TEMPERATURE
AND
TABLE
VI.
TABLE
VII.
TABLE
VIII.
SPECIFIC
SPECIFIC
COMBUSTION
CHANGES
DURING
SATURATED
HEATS
18
STEAM
40
STEAM
LIQUIDS
OF
DEPENDENT
EXPANSION
SUPERHEATED
OF
OF
BODIES
OF
OF
HEATS
PROPERTIES
BODIES
OF
VALUE
UPON
SOLIDS
AND
57
ELEMENTS
TABLE
IX.
TABLE
X.
CALORIFIC
VALUE
OF
WOODS
76
TABLE
XI.
CALORIFIC
VALUE
OF
PEATS
77
TABLE
XII.
CALORIFIC
VALUE
OF
LIGNITES
77
TABLE
XIII.
CALORIFIC
VALUE
OF
BITUMINOUS
TABLE
XIV.
CALORIFIC
VALUE
OF
SEMI-BITUMINOUS
OF
ANTHRACITE
TABLE
XV.
TABLE
XVI.
TABLE
XVII.
TABLE
XVIII.
TABLE
XIX.
TABLE
XX.
TABLE
XXI.
PROPERTIES
42
CALORIFIC
VALUE
DIAMETER
OF
HEAT
COALS
78
COALS
78
COALS
79
TUBES
99
PLANT
BOILER
IN
101
131
HEIGHTS
CONSUMPTION
STEAM
DUTY
67
...
BOILER
BALANCE
CHIMNEY
OF
OF
VARIOUS
OF
RELATIVE
FORMS
CHANGES
PRESSURE
AND
CLASSES
VARIOUS
OF
ENGINES
178
PUMPS
OF
IN
VELOCITY,
OF
STEAM
181
SPECIFIC
FLOWING
VOLUME
THROUGH
249
NOZZLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
XXII.
CALORIFIC
XXIII.
VOLUMETRIC
XXIV.
ECONOMIC
OF
TABLE
TABLE
VALUE
XXV.
XXVI.
OF
GASEOUS
EFFICIENCIES,
EFFICIENCIES,
GAS
THERMAL
COMPARATIVE
LIQUID
AND
vvj
vw,
AND
OF
FUELS.
287
.
ENGINES
GAS
289
.
AIR
CONSUMPTION,
290
ENGINES
EFFICIENCIES
COSTS
xni
OF
PER
PRIME
MOVERS
309
....
RATED
HORSE-POWER
311
.
HEAT
ENGINES
STEAM-GAS-STEAM
TURBINES-AND
THEIR
AUXILIARIES
CHAPTER
HEAT
1. Heat
this
being the
book,
of energy
source
of the nature
short discussion
of the
only
2.
of Heat.
Theory
is that
time
it is
the
heat,
the
or
Most
due
to
farther
The
bodies
when
apart and
is
its form.
If still more
heat
The
stated
As
in another
a
form
into mechanical
most
water.
the
to
the present
at
body.
The
ical
Phys-
intensity of
depend
the
upon
This
molecules
that
the
case
body.
the
and
overcome
probably
forces them
which
size of the
violent
is
expansion
the
attraction
body
solid becomes
attraction
no
liquid.
motion, and
by their violent
can
molecules
of the
tween
be-
may
the
liquid
gas.
phenomena
heat is
this
added,
overcome
becomes
then
In
the
so
partly
fact.
supposed
actual
become
molecules
is
the
of
sidered
con-
vibrations.
velocity of
may
will be
steam, and
the
expand.
increases
vibration
entirely
is
these
heated
longer retain
be
to be
temperature,
the increased
the
this
amplitude of
velocity and
understanding
phenomena
of the molecules
in
important
more
motion
experiments indicate
better
These
text.
The
"
the
to
as
and
considered
of heat
is then
that
way,
form
is,heat
motion.
important methods
the
In
of
is
be
of motion, it must
form
of kinetic
is often
energy.
heat
possibleto transform
following
making
This
of motion.
this
therefore,the
pages,
transformation
will be
discussed.
3.
Temperature
of the
the
and
vibration
intensity of
the
Temperature
of the
Measurement.
molecules
heat, and
this
1
of
body
intensity
"
The
locity
ve-
determines
is measured
by
f"'*:
; :
If the
the temperature.
is at
molecules
The
temperature
rapidityof the
Temperature is
the
body considered
other bodies.
of
defined
sometimes
the thermal
as
state
bodies
Two
move
slowly it
body move
perature.
rapidlyit is at a high tembody is then determined
by
of
of its molecules.
motion
with
there is no
when
ENGINES
; iff"AT
"
are
transmission
said to be at the
same
heat to
temperature
If there is
them.
of heat between
of
the
the mercury
when
the bulb of the thermometer
column
is placed in melting ice,and again when
it is placed in
positionof
under
boiling water
level barometer.
sea
divided
into
atmospheric
an
The
distance
corresponding
pressure
between
these
two
to
is
points
the Fahrenheit
Centigradescales
and
an
arbitrary
of the scale.
zero
in the Fahrenheit
scale there
assume
freezingpoint on
"
sions,
Centigrade 100 divi1" C.
ever,
f" F. As, how-
the
on
C.,
are
or
the Fahrenheit
scale is marked
on
the
temperature Fahrenheit
be denoted
Centigrade by
the
other may
tc, then
be made
by tF
conversion
and
32 and
of this
If the
the temperature
from
one
scale to
the
by the followingequations:
"
+ 32;
*F=**c
f (tF 32).
*c
=
(1)
(2)
HEAT
The
is
as
of temperature is not
measurement
generallysupposed.
does
thermometer
The
mercury
expand equal
not
simple a process
of the ordinary glass
of
so
the
at
depth
is used
bulb
When
bodies.
accurate
careful study
and
the
are,
When
mometer
ther-
radiant
be made
of those
heat
measurements
of the
hot
desired,
are
of the instrument
errors
in its use.
errors
below
however,
to 500" F.
above
usually nitrogen
under
or
the
For
measuring
filledwith alcohol
for
satisfactory
not
thermometer
mercury
tube
thermometer
40" F, thermometers
"
the
temperature
should
If
used.
The
These
are
it is to be
the
protectedfrom
be
must
measure
there
in which
room
to
which
at
is used
use
at
for temperatures
carbon-dioxide,placed
the
some
in
the
above
inert
mometer
ther-
rises,the gas
is increased and the temperature of the boilingpoint of
pressure
the mercury
is raised,so that it is possibleto use
these thermometers
This is the
for temperatures as high as 1000" F.
limit,however, as the melting point of glass is comparatively
pressure.
As
used.
high temperatures.
is filled with
mercury
are
peratures
tem-
mercury
low.
For
form
of pyrometer is
ical
simplest of these is the metallic or mechanpyrometer. This consists of two metals having different rates
of expansion,such as iron and brass, attached
to each other at
end and with the other ends free. By a system of levers and
one
generallyused.
The
over
a
a hand
expansion of the metals is made to move
dial graduated in degrees. This should not be used for temperatures
gears
the
1500" F.
over
There
are
two
types of electricalpyrometers in
use
to-day.
In
one,
the thermo-electric
HEAT
junctionat
The
This
known
be used
may
temperature, the
up
to 2500"
F.
the increase
upon
ENGINES
due
to
rise
in temperature.
still higher temperatures
For
results.
satisfactory
most
made
bodies
for each
have
is based
This
Pouillet
by
the
which
temperature
the
on
show
results of
that
definite and
periments
ex-
incandescent
fixed
color,as
follows:
"
TABLE
4. Absolute
Zero.
In
"
COLORS
I. TEMPERATURE
to have
some
standpoint,it is necessary
comparison for the scale of temperature,
scale is largelyused.
perfectgas
from
considering heat
contracts
TQI~~C
absolute
standard
the
that
so
of its volume
theoretical
of
absolute
point is called
imaginary one.
(The
This
zero.
an
reached
to
by experiment is about
it is
the
accurate
sufficiently
freezingpoint in the
convert
to
the
absolute
the
absolute
lowest
"488.9"
absolute
Fahrenheit
scale.
460
and
is manifestly
to consider
scale,add
zero
to
zero
as
In other
492" below
words,
to
the
pressed
temperature exin degrees Fahrenheit.
In this text absolute temperatures
will be denoted
T
in
heit
and
degrees Fahrentemperatures
by
by t.
On
the
Centigrade scale
the absolute
zero
is 273.1" below
the
HEAT
C in equation
ENGINES
(4)represents the
the
heat
required
the
body
one
to
degree.
heat
Since
of water
from
ratio of the
weight one
of the
same
requiredto
weight of
necessary
from
water
raise
II. SPECIFIC
to raise the
pound
represent the
to
necessary
TABLE
In
of heat
is the amount
B.T.U.
of
unit
temperature
39" to 40".
HEATS
OF
GASES
solid and
it is necessary
to consider
liquid substances
but one
when
heat, as the change in volume
a solid or
specific
is heated
is so small that its effect may
be
a liquidsubstance
when
the gas is
neglected. In gases the change in volume
under
heated is large,and if it is heated
constant
a
pressure
this change is directlyproportionalto the change in the absolute
temperature.
be
external
work
If there
done.
On
is
change in volume
the other hand, when
a
there
gas
is
must
con-
HEAT
fined and
is
there
the
heated, it
is
external
no
specificheat of
which
remains
the pressure
it is
heated; and
and
the
done.
consider
where
cases:
in
one
when
increases
two
and
constant
the other
expand,
considering
not
Therefore, in
must
we
gas,
If it does
expand.
cannot
work
the
is heated.
Hence,
of a gas, there are two specificheats, the specific
in the case
heat of constant volume.
heat of constant pressure and the specific
pressure
specificheat of constant
heat of constant
the specific
volume
The
gas
will be denoted
by
pressure
cp, both
by
cv and
being expressed
in B.T.U.
"
be considered
may
radiated
of heat
amount
which
they
will
depend
bodies
The
composed.
are
and
the
upon
the
upon
difference
in
substances
of
ating
radi-
of different bodies.
power
TABLE
Radiating power
per
the
between
temperature
similar to the
hour
of
for
III. RADIATING
POWER
OF
BODIES
foot
B.T.U.
Copper, polished
Iron,sheet
0327
Glass
595
0920
iron,rusted
Building stone, plaster,wood,
color
Woolen
stuffs,
any
648
Cast
brick
7358
7522
1 .085
Water
8. Conduction.
"
heat
The
transmitted
by conduction
is the
of
amount
through the body itself. The
the
the material
of which
will depend upon
heat conducted
body is composed and the difference in temperature between
the two
sides of the body, and is inverselyproportional to the
be conducted
from one body
thickness of the body. Heat may
heat
transmitted
to another
The
bodies.
when
they
are
placed in
followingtable gives
the
contact
with
conducting
each
power
other.
of different
ENGINES
HEAT
transmitted
units
surfaces
the two
on
POWER
BODIES
OP
conducting
The
CONDUCTING
IV.
TABLE
of
power
(PECLET.)
B.T.U.
Copper
515
Iron
233
Lead
113
16.7
Stone
Glass
6.6
Brick work
4.8
Plaster
3.8
Pine
.75
wood
323
Sheep's wool
9. Convection.
by
with
hot
body
body.
Heat
the
by
of air.
contact
air
When
it is heated
carried
other
or
and
gas
comes
rises,carrying away
off in this
called loss
in contact
heat from
is said to
manner
be
lost
is independent of the
by convection
of the surface
wood, stone, or iron losing the same
and
but it is affected by the form
position of the
convection.
nature
is sometimes
by convection
Loss
"
The
loss
"
amount
"
body.
is the overcoming of
Work
Energy, Work, and Power.
resistance through space
and
is measured
by the resistance
come.
multiplied by the space through which this resistance is overThe
simplest form of work is the raising of a body
against the force of gravity.
10.
"
Let M
Then
If
work
If
the
the force of
the
the distance
work.
w, and
Mg
w
is
body.
gravity.
weight.
wl
through which
increase takes
to
place be
P
weight is moved.
I in
feet,then
the
unit
of
foot-pound(ft.-lb.).
increased from
the
W.
will be the
we
of the
mass
[(v+
d v,
p, then
5
v)
done
by
the work
v]
done
will be
d W.
be
the
HEAT
If
pressure
the
acts
an
upon
area
through
I, then
distance
work
Work
be
also
may
pla.
expressed
times
acceleration
times
mass
as
space.
is
Energy
is
Power
is
the
the
the
time
Ibs.
foot
one
in
the
determining
in
resistance
which
the
which
the
passed
_J
the
The
where
case
is
ampere
volt
often
is
is
unit
horse-power
horse-powers.
is
the
equals
of
used
is
engine
of
unit
the
the
watt
an
strength
current
746
of
employed
in
time
the
equals
feet
in
through
in
minutes
is
exerted
horse-power
force
the
watts,
drive
one
of
electrical
or
kilowatt
is
usually
An
generator.
rate
or
and
amperes
or
This
units.
to
electromotive
product
If
raising
m'
electrical
in
expressed
the
the
unit
the
power
Xr
33,000
Power
then
over,
to
distance
and
overcome,
equivalent
engine.
the
of
is
This
steam
pounds,
is
is
space
of
in
is
horse-power
minute.
one
unit
The
work.
doing
power
expressed
resistance
of
rate
work.
doing
(H.P.).
horse-power
33,000
for
capacity
the
flow.
The
pressure.
volts.
One
equals
1.34
CHAPTER
ELEMENTARY
11.
First
is
energy
Law
when
is
same
The
for every
produced
of work
spent."
of John
between
His
is
of work
heat
work
by Joule in 1850.
Hopkins University
great accuracy.
results
and
and
show
that
equals
12.
factor
Law
thermodynamics
it
by
law
as
be
that
the
"It
stated
is
"If
the
heat
Unit
called
J.
by
to
be
the
Heat
foot-pounds
given
convert
can
it into
to
work.
From
heat
added
be
to
body
one
the
second
and
homogeneous
divided
into
the
small
this
law
engine, i.
heat
"
states
than
more
from
heat
of
follows
Clausius
ways.
Rankine
heat
of
law
self-actingmachine,
convey
effects of those
It
second
different
conceived
equal."
are
engine
actual
The
"
impossible for
total
substance
performed
heat
in
agency,
no
is often
higher temperature.'7
uniformly hot
to
be
external
follows:
number
Thermal
usually denoted
Thermodynamics.
may
any
of
another
to
of
follows:
as
unaided
is
Rowland
B.T.U.
one
Second
states
accurately
equivalent with
British
one
for
existence
recently Professor
its
goes
energy,
first
was
redetermined
convertible
mutually
are
heat
conversely,
into
heat
More
work
done; and
comes
mechanical
quantity of
expenditure of mechanical
the
by
mechanical
"'When
"
definite
unit
quantity of
relation
determined
heat,
definite
unit
every
Thermodynamics.
from
produced
heat
the
THERMODYNAMICS
of
of existence
out
II
we
second
law
fraction
derive
of
the
e.,
rejected
heat
The
second
law
experiments
our
is not
with
added
engines
go
to
show
is axiomatic.
that
this
All
law
is
true.
13.
the
gas:
Laws
of Perfect
Gases.
There
"
relation
the
are
two
laws
of pressure,
volume, and temperature
law of Boyle and the law of Charles.
10
expressing
in
perfect
ELEMENTARY
"
Boyle's Law.
The
"
volume
the pressure,
as
If p0
condition
THERMODYNAMICS
the
given mass
of gas
varies inversely
pressure,
of the
of
11
and
v0
and
and
gas,
the
volume
any
other
constant."
of
the
initial
of the
condition
gas, then
same
POVO
Charles'
"
Law.
"
pv
Under
constant.
constant
of its volume
equal increments
increments
of
This
may
law
heat at
also be stated
volume
constant
varies
Letting
and
nearly to equal
a
When
mometer."
ther-
mercury
gas
constant
receives
the absolute
the
pressure
gas
pressure
as
directly
varies
receives heat at
constant
of
scale
of temperature.
increment
very
follows:
as
the pressure
gas
the
by
temperature
temperature, or when
volume
correspond
of
equal volumes
pressure
receive
absolute
heat
at
varying from
temperature
v0, the
volume
constant
T0 to
p0,
sure
pres-
T',
p,
then
If the gas
receives
now
changing
temperature
heat
to
at this pressure
T' ',then
and
and
p, the volume
14.
Equation of
we
have
the
gas
have
Pi and
then
we
v,
From
the volume
have
Perfect
equation of
volume
T.
the
Gas.
pressure
vf and
the law
the
pressure
Pl
be
changed
to
remains
Tr and
"f
p'T
T
=
ft' or
perature
tem-
changed
to
remaining constant,
p'',then
Pl
is
of
temperature
absolute
laws
pv
-,' or
an
two
pound
one
be at
p, and
From
Let
perfectgas.
these
Combining
"
PI
~r'
"/
the
constant
at
pressure
to
HEAT
12
ENGINES
have
p'T
pv
'
~~
Tf
v'
Hence,
p'v' p"v"
""
Denoting this
The
If
gas.
w
RTr,
of R given in this
value
wish
we
to state
p"v"
and
for
gas, then
one
than
more
the law
(4)
RT".
equation is for
this law
pv
(3)
then
RT, p'v'
f.
constant
==
v/
by R,
constant
pv
~rT
pound of the
one
pound, let
becomes
(5)
wRT.
equation is called the equationof the gas and holds true for
any point on any expansion line of any perfectgas.
These
laws were
first determined
for air,which is almost
a
A perfect
perfectgas, and they hold true for all perfectgases.
This
gas
and
is sometimes
Charles.
defined
It is
internal work
no
there
is
as
gas
done,
or
friction between
no
to define it
probably better
is
fulfilsthe laws
which
in other
the
as
words,
gas
gas
Boyle
in which
in which
change of
under
molecules
of
conditions.
In the above
per square
expressions,
p
foot,0 is the volume
in pounds
is the absolute pressure
in cubic feet,
and T is the absolute
must
pressure
not
The
be
confused
with
gage
pressure.
tween
bein pressure
ordinarypressure gage
the atmospheric pressure
outside the gage tube and the
The absolute pressure
inside the gage
tube.
applied pressure
is equal to the gage pressure plus the barometric pressure.
reads
The
value
provided
we
of R
know
of pressure
for any
difference
given substance
the volume
and
the
of
one
temperature.
pound for
air under
per
at
volume
of 1 Ib. is 12.39
equation (4) we
have
cu.
ft.
be
any
determined,
dition
given con-
For
found
may
pressure
temperature
of 14.7 Ibs.
Substitutingthese
values
in
HEAT
14
the
and
ing
the heat absorbed, dS the heat used in increas-
denote
Let dH
ENGINES
dH
dS
equivalentof
the heat
dW
in
used
dl +
done.
Then
^
dW
(9)
stance
changing the internal energy of the subis representedby dS -f dl, and dl -f-dW represents the
heat equivalentof the totalwork done.
By ''internal work" is meant work done in overcoming changes
in the physicalstate of the substance, and in overcoming the
attraction of the molecules for each other,thus changing the potential
utilized in
heat
The
of the body.
energy
formed.
work
Since
no
term
goes
dl.
or
is done
internal work
in
in
equation(9)becomes
either to
zero
increasingthe temperature
Therefore in the
of
case
or
doing external
work.
perfectgas
dH
dS
CH*
.'
ond
sec-
dW
rs2
(dH
rv,
[dS +
dW.
Jvi
JSi
JHi
Integrating
#2
Hi
S2
Si +
] pdv
?
Let
#2
#1, S
S2
Si and
rn
I pdv
Jvi
Then
H
and
change in internal
S +
energy
W.
(10)
is indicated
by
change
in
temperature alone.
16.
When
Joules Law.
external work
and
without
temperatureremains
perfectgas expands
taking in
unchanged
and
or
giving out
there is
no
without
doing
heat, its
any
change in its
ELEMENTARY
internal energy.
THERMODYNAMICS
This
"
law
vessels
b, Fig. 1, connected
and
placed in
stop-cockc were
air compressed to a pressure
long enough
the bath
by
water-bath.
each
11
was
then
were
have
neither
had
gas
at the
were
in
same
no
opened and
was
"
been
the
air
lost any
Although the
unchanged.
change in internal
depends
energy
no
and
work
and
volume
had
have
must
energy
pressure
of the
had
the temperature
vessels
work
no
From
unchanged.
As
done.
changed
to be
read
gained nor
remained
remained
Joule's apparatus.
1.
vacuum
one
FIG.
water
to flow from
allowed
vessel contained
water
to the
one
containinga
so
tube
One
followingexperiment
of 22 atmospheres, while
in the other.
maintained
was
the
by
Joule.
performed by
Two
established
was
15
change in temperature
upon
only.
17. Relation
is heated
at
temperature
to
volume
of
a
SpecificHeats.
constant
T2, and
the
the work
is
volume
Integratingbetween
pdv.
limits
/"",
r"
=
I pdv
Jvi
I dv
Jv\
volume
to
Vi
(ii)
done,
W
Ti
equal
ro
perfectgas
temperature
changed from
would
absorbed
pound of
one
from
pressure
KP(T,
and
If
"
p(v2
HEAT
16
Since from
the
ENGINES
equationof
pv2
perfectgas
RT2, and
pv\
expressionfor
the
work
have
done, we
p(v2
vj
R(T,
(12)
7\).
H
W, then the difference
equation (10),S
between
equation (11) and equation (12) would be the heat
which goes to increasingthe temperature, which equals
from
Since
(Kp
If the gas
Ti
to
R) (T,
is heated
at
as
no
(13)
!Ti).
from
volume
constant
KV(T,
and
external
ture
temperabe
would
(14)
T,),
this heat
is done
work
the
(Kp
R) (T2
TO
=K9(T*
TO,
therefore
Kv
Kp
R,
(15)
Kv.
(16)
or
R
The
of work
difference between
in
the two
foot-poundsdone
degree Fahrenheit
one
KP
when
at constant
heats,R,
specific
one
pound of a
is the amount
gas
is heated
pressure.
7^
The
ratio of the
two
heats, that
specific
is
-^, is
denoted
/Vtf
by
7.
Kp
Since
"
Kv
J*
R, and
A.
7,
then
Xp
R
_
Kv'
Kv
or
^"^^
and
hence
K,
K,
-^
(17)
Similarly
(18)
ELEMENTARY
For
THERMODYNAMICS
17
air
R
184.77
--
131.40
53.37
(compare equation 6)
and
K
184.77
1.406.
(19)
131.40
18.
Expansions in General.
curve
and
pressures
When
"
the abscissae
of
an
represent volumes.
expanding
gas.
compression curves
ordinarily
occurring in steam, or gas engines, or the various forms of
be representedby the equation
can
compressors,
all the
Almost
expansion
or
pv
(20)
constant.
value
of
upon
n
rejected,or remain
rise,fall,or remain
of
Table
V.
gas.
the value of
n.
will determine
constant, and
whether
heat
must
be
added,
the temperature
will
constant
These
whether
HEAT
18
TABLE
V.
HEAT
"
CHANGES
TEMPERATURE
AND
DURING
OF
For
ENGINES
any
DEPENDENT
VALUE
UPON
EXPANSION
ad and
In other
the
words
heat
specific
and
yet
is negative.
case
in the table.
shown
19. Work
of
Expansion.
graphicallythe
expansion.
Let
relation
The
is pi and
the
pz and
the volume
this
curve
in
Fig. 3 represents
and
during
volume
be
constant.
figurepressures
by abscissae.
pressure
equation of
the
ab
curve
between
pvn
In this
The
"
are
vz.
The
area
done
done
Since every
for the
during expansion.
r2
pdv.
fulfilthe
must
Then
as
(21)
conditions
original
hence
(22)
r
,
I
"/Mi
(23)
ELEMENTARY
Integrating,W
Multiplying out
w
PlPl *
THERMODYNAMICS
piVin
the
"
"
we
parenthesis,
have
(25)
l-n
But
(24)
^-
FIG.
19
3.
"
l-n
diagram of
Pressure-volume
r, the ratio of
expansion for
an
expanding
gas.
the gas,
therefore
W
or
piVi
=
"
rl~n)
(26)
^j-y"
substituting
p2^2n for piv^
W
(I
in
equation (25),we
n-l
have
(27)
ENGINES
HEAT
20
Substituting for
of R
its value
in terms
"^:="
JiTi"
pv
and
T} equation
(27)becomes
If
pounds of the
gas is
C28)
"
te#JTi_2\)t
=
Added
20. Heat
General
"
"
Case.
In
"
the
of any
case
sion,
expan-
of heat
algebraicsum
equivalentof the work done and the change in internal energy.
of a
As has been previouslyshown, the change in internal energy
the change in temperature only and is equal to
gas depends upon
the
added
heat
the
heat
is
to
the
the
change
to
necessary
equal
temperature
at
constant
volume.
Therefore
H
in the
S +
of
case
perfectgas
W
,m
m\
K
wKv(1"t
/om
li) +
"
(30)
li
Kv
n-
result will be
This
are
-1
,,,JT (T
wKv(l
"
T
L
find
be
the
pi and
vz are
pex2
equivalentB.T.U., divide
changed
to
read
as
follows:
"
^ _L
H
i)
_
T,
H
T,) + wKv(*Y
=wK,(T1-Ts)(y~
|
-1
"
'
-L
(32)
HEAT
22
(-
8280
\.2
ENGINES
(5-2.463)
8280
8280
.406/
2.537
ft.-lbs.
21000
27 B.T.U.
21.
Constant
be
Pressure.
"
from
determined
is not
added
The
heat
the
volume
given,in
at Constant
added
at
and
Volume
volume
constant
when
pressure,
and
the
at
may
perature
tem-
followingmanner:
the
P2v2 T3
PiV2T4
FIG.
4.
Pressure-volume
"
Let
when
diagram
volume
and
heat
is added
at constant
heat
to
gas
at constant
pressure.
added
along
the
line
aby Fig. 4
Then
aHb
(T2
(T2
cvw
Kvw
TJ in B.T.U.,
Ti) in ft.-lbs.
(33)
But
m
wT2
l
=
and
It
Substitutingthese
values
equation (33),we
in
have
Kvv\
aHb
-^- (PZ
But
from
equation (17),-jr
zL
Hence
(34)
Pi).
1
f
*V
""""*
J.
in equation (34),
substituting
"
nb
expressedin
=
_
B.T.U.
(35)
ELEMENTARY
In the
same
manner
Example.
constant
(a)
Find
the
followingexpressionfor
that in
in B.T.U.
Solution.
(a) Heat
equation (35),
From
"
added
HI
aHb +
bHc.
(P2 Pi)
(7
1) X 778
f i
77
15) X
(75
(1.406 1) X
144
5 X
144
60 X
43200
778
.406X778
316
136.7 B.T.U.
From
equation (36)
.
(^2
(7-1) X778
Pa
77
"
75 X
(25
144
(1.406
5)
1) X
75 X
1.406
778
144 X
20 X
.406 X
1.406
778
303700
316"
#1
136.7 +
(p2
^2
rr
~
(7
1097.7 B.T.U.
//2
cHd +
Pi)
(75
15) X
(1.406"-1) X
-
144
25J* 6"^XJ44
216000
778
.406 X
316
778
683 B.T.U.
(^2
(7
1) X
P^
15 X
778
144(25-5)
(1.406 1) X
-
1.406
778
60740
683
192
875
15 X
144 X
20 X
"319"
#2
rfffa.
1) X"778
25
= =
961
rejected
(b)Heat
(36)
expressed in B.T.U.
-"
heat
the
23
pressure,
/^N
Suppose
"
derive
may
ft.
cu.
we
at
bHc
pz
THERMODYNAMICS
B.T.U.
.406 X
778
1.406
HEAT
24
22. Adiabatic
ENGINES
Expansion.
which
the
in the
expanding
conduction
work
If
gas.
gas
of heat
to
is done
at the
internal
internal
energy
Adiabatic
of
of
is
without
depends
gas
heat except
and
gas,
have
in
upon
increase
an
temperature,
in
one
radiation
no
of the internal
decrease
the
ternal
ex-
in the
energy
the
upon
change
any
change in
in the
or
or
perature,
tem-
internal
decrease
in
in temperature.
this is
compressors,
chemical
no
In
change.
the
never
and
case,
actual
adiabatic
engines,
expansion
only approximated.
Taking the expression
(T,
R
W
have
we
In
now
paragraph
to
find
17
it
the
change of temperature
of
for adiabatic
that
the
expansion.
loss of energy
due
to
equals
Kv (T,
or
value
shown
was
T2)
expanding
expense
increase
an
is
is,there
the
impossible to
without
made
That
from
or
energy
it is
energy
does not
gas
is
expansion
receive or rejectany
done
compressed adiabatically,the work
Since
to increasing its internal
energy.
goes
in the
Adiabatic
"
7\),
expressed in B.T.U.,
cv(T2
Ti).
zero
change
to
be
understood
expansion
and
S +
heat
no
=
"
S.
W.
is absorbed
That
or
is,all
rejected,hence
the
heat
in
mean
decrease
KV(TZ
in internal
lost, due
(It must
not
mean
energy.)
Ti);
done,
W
KV(T,-
but
R
!F2);
(37)
ELEMENTARY
and
THERMODYNAMICS
hence
25
have
tfCTv-jy
7"1
value
n
Therefore
7.
in
done
equation for
the
pvy
adiabatic
an
pn)
expansion,
adiabatic
pzV2y
of which
(38),both
express
we
the
that
see
expansion is
(39)
constant.
Example. Five cubic feet of air under a pressure of 75 Ibs. per square
until the pressure is 25 Ibs.
inch are expanded adiabatically
the
air. (b) Find the work done during
(a) Find the final volume of
the expansion. (See example, paragraph 20).
Solution.
(a) From equation (39),
"
"
or
v"?
Vi7.
Therefore
log v2
1.406
log v,
log V"
1.406
v2
(b)
From
log 2.26 +
.354 +
1.337
.95
8.915
1.406
1.406
log 5
.699
ft.
cu.
=
"
89.7 X
144 X
39.7 X
1.406
64650
144
13700
50950
.406
.406
33700
23. Isothermal
ft.-lbs.
Expansion.
"
gas
expands
contracts
or
iso-
change
constant
remains
during
Since
the temperature
expansion no heat is absorbed in increasing the
thermallywhen
volume.
isothermal
temperature, and
isothermal
8.915
becomes
.983
of
.354 +
zero
and
in the
H
case
of
equals W,
expansion
of
a
or
during
constant
perfectgas, S
all the heat
perfectgas
goes
to
in
equation(lO)
absorbed
during
doing external
HEAT
26
work.
ENGINES
for isothermal
Hence
pv
(40)
constant
rv2
or
I pdv.
(41)
.'"1
To
must
be
expressedin
have
pv;
hence
(42)
Substituting
equation(42)in equation (41)we
W
piwi
j -^.
PiVi
(logeV2
have
Integrating,
"
log*Vi)'}
hence
Since piVi
but
and
"
piVi
r, the ratio of
expansion,
pv;
(43)
RT, then
hence
If
pivilog,.
pounds of
gas
is
RT
pv
loger
\oger.
expanded, then
W
wRT
(44)
(45)
equation (44) becomes
log,r.
(46)
ELEMENTARY
THERMODYNAMICS
27
expansion there is
remains
no
change
constant.
in the
Hence
of
in, during isothermal
expansion, an amount
heat equivalent to the work done during the expansion. Equations
then
the
work
done,
(44),(45),and (46)
represent not only
of heat taken in or rejectedduring
but the equivalentamount
isothermal
expansion or compression.
is suddenly compressed, the
In actual practice,when
gas
is approximately an
adiabatic, and when
compression curve
the
takes
gas
slowlycompressed
be
may
approximatelyisothermal.
"
PlVi
P2V2
PlVl
or
Vz
Pi
7
cq
Therefore
v2
y2
(b) From
'397
44
[44X
11.30
\/
2'26 X
ft.
cu.
equation (45),
W
pivi
loger,
*2
but
"^
Vi
2.26.
Therefore
(c) Heat
added
144
89.7 X
144 X
54,200 ft.-lbs.
Relation
Compression.
compression is
"
5 X
2.3 X
and
.354
--g=
24.
51oge2.26
89.7 X
W=
69.5 B.T.U.
between
Since
the
p,
v,
equation of
pvn
during Expansion or
gas during expansion or
constant, (seeequation20).
pzVz",
then
piVin
(47)
(48)
'"
Pi
"
ENGINES
HEAT
28
:;
equation of
the
From
perfect gas,
have
of
in terms
"
of p\ and
v%
have
equation (49),we
p2 from
Equations (48),(49),(51),and
or
the
in
temperature
relations
any
tween
be-
expansion
compression.
In the
of
and
volume,
pressure,
(52) give
of adiabatic
case
expansion
equations become
in these
7,
or
(seeparagraph 22).
Example.
"
expansion.
Solution.
"
T~i
expansion is adiabatic,
equation (52) becomes
Since the
'
i^)1'4^
(gg'y
(60 -f 460)
log 772
log T2
772
log 5^0 +
2.716 +
2.612
410"
410
.29
log .442
.29 X
1.645
abs.
460
50" F.
2.716
.104
520
.442
HEAT
30
in this
body, H, Fig. 6, as an
temperature T\\ a cold body, C, at
cycle,imagine a
of heat
at the
is lower
T2 which
hot
infinite
a
source
temperature
sorbing
TI, and with an infinite capacity for abany change in temperature; a non-conduct-
than
heat without
FIG.
ing cover, N;
ENGINES
and
FIG.
6.
Carnot
5.
"
cycle.
The
a
Engine working
"
in Carnot
pressure
pi
contact
with
volume
vz and
is first
the hot
placed
body
pressure
p2.
so
and
that
the
cycle.
perfectgas
conducting end
a
under
is in
ELEMENTARY
the
will remain
temperature
isothermal.
N,
volume
vs
falls to
T2 ".
and
the
C, the temperature
to
expansion will be
expand
to
the
adiabatically
time
same
ducting
non-con-
the
ture
tempera-
the gas
of which
the
remains
constant
Tz,
at
that
so
compression is isothermal.
the
again placed
is
At
cold
the
Then
allowed
ps.
pressure
31
next
gas
the
with
and
and
constant
cylinder is
The
cover,
to
THERMODYNAMICS
the
on
of pressure,
The
heat
to
isothermal
or
is
compression
along
absorbed
DA
and
AB,
rejectedalong CD
heat
are
isothermal
the
BC
As
the
and
"j- loge
loge --"
"jJ
step,
and
through
through A.
will pass
equal
such
to
third
The
temperature.
volume
adiabatics
Fig. 5,
is
there will be
equal
is
to
heat
no
v"
received
or
these
rejectedalong
will be
is
r2,
then
Tl
=-
T2
Hence
Let HI
the heat
equal
added,
and
H2 the heat
rejected,and
let
W
j
equivalent of
the
work
done.
Then
w
"
j
and
the
77
JnLi
"
rr
ri2,
is
efficiency
W
#1
-*
#2
ST
Substituting
absorbed
and
in
this
the
expression, the
heat
rejected as
given above,
efficiency
v3
we
have
heat
the
HEAT
32
for
Substituting
the
its value
"
the
in terms
of
v%
and
v\, and
fying
simpli-
expression,
E
From
ENGINES
equation of
(56)
perfectgas,
piVi
RT1} and
psvs
RT2.
T^f-
(57)
there
are
T% which
may
be available
of
engines.
It may
also be shown
that
by the followingdemonstration
in any working medium
in which
equal increments of temperature
increments
the
of heat,
expression for
represent equal
efficiency
applies.
scale of temperature so that each degree on
Assume
the
a
temperature scale represents
perature
unit, then heat and temwould
be represented by the same
cally.
quantity numeriFrom
equation (55)
heat
one
Hi"
H"i
//i
but
on
temperature scale
the assumed
#!
fji
hence
Tlt and
imperfect gases
as
applies to
working medium
may
T",
rrt
(compare equation57)
"
experience in
this law
#2
All
'
be.
ELEMENTARY
THERMODYNAMICS
Reversibilityof Carnot
27.
33
Cycle. The
Carnot
cycle is a
the gas may
considered
to first expand
reversible one
as
and then isothermallyalong DC, then
adiabaticallyalong AD
to be compressed adiabatically
along CB, and finallycompressed
It is thus possible to work
isothermally along BA.
"
be
cyclein the
Having proved that
around
the
direction.
reverse
the Carnot
rp
its
is equal to
efficiency
no
it is
"
^r
no
the Carnot
"
efficient than
cyclecan be more
reversible cycle can
that
cycleis
reversible
and
necessary
to
that
np
have
now
show
cycle.
Assume
non-reversible engine A
the
and
Carnot
engine B,
limits in temperature.
Engine
A takes QA heat units from the hot body and rejects
Q'A heat
units to the cold body, while engine B takes QB heat units from
the hot body and rejects
Q'B heat units to the cold body.
take less
If engine A is more
efficient than engine B, it must
both
working between
heat
from
the hot
body
same
rejectless
and
to the
cold
body,
or
in
other words
and
Now
assume
that A
that
is to drive
QA
"
QB
Q'A
"
Q'B.
is to
5, which
in the
run
acts
as
heat
reverse
pump.
direction
and
Since
is
running
engine, it will rejectto the hot body,
of heat that it takes
amount
in a reverse
direction,the same
from that body when
running direct. Therefore the combined
unit of A
B will,in each cycle,take from the hot body the
quantity of heat QA and rejectto the hot body the quantity of
heat QBBut
QB " QA
when
reversible
"
unaided
by any
self-actingmachine
external agency" is transferringheat from a body of lower to
This is contrary to the Second
of higher temperature.
one
for engine
It is,therefore,
Law
of Thermodynamics.
impossible
As these represent any
A to be more
efficient than engine B.
engines of these particulartypes, no non-reversible engine can
be more
efficient than a reversible one
working in the Carnot
which
means
that
this
"
cycle.
Now
assume
3
engine A
to be
It
can
HEAT
34
It
the Carnot
also be
can
cycle that
any
more
reached
is therefore
conclusion
efficient than
more
be
that it cannot
similarlyproven
Carnot
engine.
be
The
ENGINES
efficient than
the
cycle can
be
that
no
cycle.
cycle is the
follow when
working
this
that
proven
engine can
efficient
most
between
any
necessitates,however, a more
of thermodynamics than
thorough expositionof the principles
This
wise
will therefore be
to include
omitted.
PROBLEMS
GAS
PERFECT
inch absolute
pressure of 100 Ibs. per square
is its temperature in degreesF. ?
What
cubic foot in volume.
1. One
pound
of air under
occupies.3 of a
2. Ten
pounds of air under a pressure of 10,000 Ibs. per square inch
Find the volume occupied.
absolute have a temperature of 100" F.
of 50
3. Five pounds of air at a temperature of 60" F. occupy
a volume
ft.
cu.
Find
the gage
4. A tank
cu.
ft.
The
pressure
in the
is 100 Ibs. per square inch absolute and the temperature is 70" F.
the weight of air in the tank.
Find
tank
of
is the weight of the quantity of air which occupies a volume
of
100"
Ibs.
F. under a pressure
50
10 cu. ft. at a temperature of
per square
inch absolute?
6. What
is the temperature of
6. What
and
per
inch
absolute
square
8. A quantity of air at
of the
of 5
volume
cu.
is 5
the pressure
cu.
ft.
is 50 Ibs.
F.?
What
ft.
pressure of 14.7
is the volume
120" F. at constant
is changed to
its temperature
air when
same
160"
the temperature
and
its volume
pressure?
'"9.The
of
volume
quantity of air
at
is the volume
of 14.7 Ibs. per square inch absolute is 10 cu. ft. What
pressure
the pressure is changed at constant
of the same
air when
temperature to
inch absolute?
60 Ibs. per square
10. A tank contains 200 cu. ft. of air at
a
pressure
How
many
of 200
(a)
Ibs. absolute,
11. A tank
containing1000
cu.
What
at
assuming
12. The
per square
the
when
absolute?
the temperature
volume
inch
volume
of
to remain
is 4
cu.
cu.
ft. and
will be the
If
resultingpressure,
constant?
quantity of air
absolute is 20
(b)
ft.
the
at 70" F. under
What
is the
pressure
pressure
of 16 Ibs.
is 70
Ibs. per
square
inch
ELEMENTARY
13. A
THERMODYNAMICS
air
compressed
transmission
pipe
35
is 1 mile
long.
The
What
be the
must
velocityas
of the
pipe
at
The
velocity
(a)
second,
have
to
the
same
stant?
entrance, the temperature of the air in the pipe remaining con-
14. A
of 400
at
diameter
at
pressure
entrance
ft.
The
in the tank
pressure
is 60" F.
times
many
air tank
compressed
on
air
cylinderseach
60"
and
pressure
How
pressure.
pressure
two
at
The
8"
street
has
car
and
volume
of 250
10".
The
temperature.
How
many
brakes
take
times
There
aT*40Ibs.
air
will the
ft.
cu.
tank
gage
operate
the brakes?
17. How
18. A
B.T.U.
many
at constant
pressure
filled with
tank
60" F. is heated
to 150".
and how
many
B.T.U.
A tank
contains
AX^^
\ibk"lute.
tank
200
the volume
of 1 Ib. of air
melting ice?
at atmospheric pressure,
and at
resultingair pressure in the tank
of
ft. of air
cu.
will be the
cu.
added
B.T.U.
1000
of 40 Ibs.
pressure
will be the
it,what
to
resulting
in the tank?
pressure
contains 100
cu.
absolute.
double
requiredto
the temperature
What
temperature and
20. A
will be
from
of
of 50 Ibs.
pressure
will be
heat, what
\J
21. Ten
are
heated
100"
to
in
F.
(") What
to heat
of air enclosed
pounds
Ibs. absolute
tank
at 60" F.
(c) How
under
of the
will be
B.T.U.
many
of 100
pressure
is the volume
(a) What
air?
required
it?
22. A tank
contains
(a) Ho w
required to
absolute,
will be
(c) What
200
many
cu.
pounds
pressure of 50 Ibs.
B.T.U.
(6) How many
in the tank
to
when
100" F.?
heated
to
100" F.?
23. A certain auditorium
people.
being
admitted
Weight
24. A
into
hour,
per
of 1
cu.
and
vessel
is
heat
specific
\/ 25. How
many
will be
B.T.U.
piece of iron
the water
how
Ibs.;at
5 Ibs. is heated
weighing
containing 16.5 Ibs. of water
increased five degrees by the
outside temperature
to 212"
at 60" F.
heat
is supplied
If each person
the
ft. of air per hour for ventilation,
cu.
0" F. and that in the hall being 70",how many
with 2000
from
F. and
then
dropped
If the temperature of
the
iron,what
is the
of the iron?
many
foot-pounds of
heat
must
be absorbed
by
Ibs. of air in
HEAT
36
its initialvolume
to double
expanding
26. How
B.T.U.
many
ft. of air
cu.
of work
be
at
from
expands
at constant
must
its initialvolume
of air to one-fourth
27. If 1
ENGINES
expended
constant
gage
pressure
and
and
of 4
atmospheres
atmosphere without
is 2 sq. ft.,and
60" F. and compresses
transmission
the
3 Ibs.
of 15" C.?
of which
28. An
Ibs. gage
compressing
temperature
pressure
60
in
of heat.
Find
the
stroke
the
it to
final
temperature.
at 60 Ibs. gage
29. In
70" F.
expands
30. Two
absolute
and
pressure
in
compressed
are
into work?
converted
Given
33.
pressure
of 80
is 8
cu.
ft.?
(d) How
much
is 8
expansion?
34.
Given
work
is 2
cu.
(6) What
expanded adiabatically
will be done during this
air be expanded isothermally
ifthe air be
pressure
(c) How
work
much
will be done
if the
ft.?
cu.
of 100
volume
Ibs. absolute.
volume
It is made
is 2.2
cu.
through
the
following
pass
Carnot cycle: it is expanded isothermallyuntil its volume
is 4 cu. ft.;then
expanded adiabaticallyuntil its temperature is 30" F.; then compressed
and finallyit is compressed adiabatically
until its volume, presisothermally;
sure,
and absolute temperature are the same
at the beginning of the cycle.
as
(6) Find the total heat rejected
(a) Find the total heat added in B.T.U.
in B.T.U.
(c) Find the work done in foot-pounds during the cycle, (d)
Find the efficiency
of the cycle.
35. Given
is 10 cu. ft. at 60" F. under
a
quantity of air whose volume
a
pressure
pressure
of 20 Ibs. absolute.
is 200
40
at
Ibs.
Heat
absolute;then
is added
added
to
at constant
at constant
volume
pressure
lute;
ft.;then rejectedat constant volume until its pressure is 20 Ibs. absoand then rejectedat constant
until
its
volume
is
the
as
same
pressure
the beginning of the cycle, (a) Find temperature at end of first step.
cu.
(6) Find
rejected in
of
efficiency
B.T.U.
the
(/) Find
cycle.
work
done
in
temperature at end
(e) Find total heat
the
CHAPTER
III
PROPERTIES
28.
Formation
of
properties of
is
of Steam.
and
vapor,
suspension,
often
does
as
that
suppose
that
heat
is
the
water
in
the
increase
of
of the
is
the
applied
boiler
boiler
the
to
is heated
until
the
boiler.
of
the
water
"to
the
is at
applying
on
the
remaining
will
water
pressure
Steam
under
In
the
the
the
to
the
same,
is added
this
of steam
is said
be
to
divide
we
boils
depends
from
produced
the
as
is
If
we
pressure
and
steam
water
and
water,
saturated.
the
the
ticles
par-
is then
water
the
evaporated.
is converted
water
kept unchanged,
condition
formation
all the
pressure
small
boiler, the
of
all the
until
after
still being
in the
water
temperature
constant
The
be
to
perature
tem-
rise* through
steam
is said
steam
the
upon
temperature
same
As
boiling point
the water
The
us
water,
initial
They
at which
the boiler.
the
heat
remain
heat
more
the
in
the
surface.
Let
boiler.
is reached
steam.
the
to
temperature
this condition
keep
into
escape
the pressure
boilingwater
under
If
The
depending
in
slowly rises.
of the
temperature
boiling point
changed
and
boil."
entirelyon
the
are
of water
mass
said
When
of the
from
boiler
water
cold
its temperature
continues
the
of
weather.
foggy
and
ordinary
amount
shell
tion
opera-
nature
in
in
external
temperature
water
in the
certain
the
study the
to
atmosphere
a
understand
to
produced
as
contains
have
we
and
This
Steam
steam.
order
In
"
it is necessary
engine
steam
STEAM
OF
into
steam,
will rise.
temperature
superheated.
the
used
heat
into
three
different parts:
(1)
The
heat
from
water
its
which
The
heat
of
of the
(3)
the
the
which
"Heat
heat
temperature
raising the
of the
goes
to
boiling point
to
original temperature
goes
which
of
the
to
into
the
temperature
of
the
the
steam
water
at
the
at
the
perature
tem-
temperature
Heat."
changing
boiling point
38
of
Liquid."
changing
"Latent
goes
the
to
temperature
the
into
saturated
steam
steam
at
at
higher
PROPERTIES
temperature but
at the
OF
same
STEAM
39
called "Heat
pressure,
of
heat."
Super-
Saturated
Steam.
steam
Dry Saturated
always exists at
the temperature of the boilingpoint correspondingto the pressure.
29.
"
If this saturated
contains
steam
it is said to be
of water, then
no
moisture
in the form
or, in other
so
added
to
is often
dry
it will become
saturated
and
saturated
it will
The
has been
the
from
away
determined
is
dry
saturated
Dry
steam.
heat
of water
presence
is taken
wet
If
and
perfectgas,
volume,
simple
by experiment.
determined
propertiesof dry saturated steam were
originally
by Regnault between
sixty and seventy years ago, and
his work
was
carefully
so
become
moisture.
in
not
steam,
law, but
entrained
superheated. If heat
steam
is not
steam
called
until within
apparent
done
that
recent
very
no
errors
years,
in his results
when
were
culty
great diffi-
the
in
which
is exactly dry and saturated
obtaining steam
became
appreciated,and new
experimentsby various scientists
proved that Regnault's results were
slightly
high at some
sures
presand slightlylow at others.
tables given in
The
steam
this book
these recent
based upon
are
experiments,and are
probably correct to a fraction of 1 per cent.
30. Wet
Steam.
entrained
a
is saturated
steam
moisture.
saturated
When
steam
of
Wet
"
fluid is
in this
case
mixture
are
of steam
at the
used
and
is used
steam
moisture
The
steam
in
in the form
by the engine as
water.
tains
con-
working
and
water
temperature.
same
31.
contains
which
steam
Superheated Steam.
Superheated steam is steam at a
temperature higher than the temperature corresponding to the
times
of the boilingpoint at which it was formed. It is somepressure
"
called steam
remains
pressure
any
as
the
If water
were
to be mixed
with
heated
super-
steam, this
steam
gas.
water
would
that
be
of the
boilingpoint. When
raised to any
considerable temperature above the temperature
of the boilingpoint, it follows very closely
the laws of a perfect
ENGINES
HEAT
40
perfectgas. The
superheated steam, considered as a perfectgas, is
gas,
and
be
may
treated
pv
as
T, approximately.
85.5
equation for
is a variable and
specificheat of superheated steam
depends upon the pressure of the steam and the temperature to
is superheated. For approximate calculations,
which the steam
The
for the
followingvalues
the
heat
specific
of
superheated steam
be taken.
may
TABLE
When
more
VI.
accurate
heat should
be taken
and
Steam
Davis's
The
value
32. Heat
HEATS
SPECIFIC
results
from
OF
SUPERHEATED
desired
are
STEAM
the value
of
given in Peabody's,or
results
specific
Marks
Tables.
is
of y for superheated steam
of the Liquid. The heat necessary
"
approximately 1.3.
to raise one
pound
(t
32).
(1)
PROPERTIES
tables
the steam
the
the amount
of the
heat
of external
work
liquidmay
be considered
done
heat
boilingpoint, more
into steam.
The
the temperature
heat necessary
Experiments show
the pressure
When
water
is
that
to external
work.
is
volume
be
taken
work
done
the external
then
(V
or
about
is increased
volume
work
goes
done
that
the
1072.6
the
condensing steam
is
equivalentto
of steam
heat
diminishes
.695
(i
(3)
32).
of heat
amount
same
the
t be the
conditions may
212" the external
those
latent
for each
equals
(2)
under
one-thirteenth
units
is
given
up
was
34. Total
necessary
Heat
of Steam.
change
to
dry saturated
pound
one
steam
will be
H
heat from
given.
designatedby
=
h +
total heat
of
H.
(4)
L.
experimental results
It is
The
"
at the
steam
The
diminishes
v).
of water
pound
one
If
boilingpoint is increased.
point,then, approximately,
as
by
Let P
heat
.695
In
of steam
considerable
Experiments show
about
tempera-
same
units
73 heat
will denote
at
of
as
pound of water
at the
steam
the
this water
convert
one
changed
of the water:
volume
to
P
The
added
increasingthe
has reached
the water
to convert
We
to
all the
increases.
rapidly so
formed;
neglectedand
going
as
as
be
must
be
may
When
"
41
3.
of the water
of the water.
heat energy
33. Latent Heat of Steam.
L.
STEAM
in Column
shown
as
OF
as
1072.6
accurate, however,
the tables than
it is to
.305
to
(t
take
(5)
32).
the
compute them
values
from
of the total
the formula
HEAT
42
ENGINES
steam
in
we
pound of
wet
equals
(6)
qL
and
mixture
of
pound
one
h +
of wet
steam
equals
(7)
qL.
Tables.
pressure
The
"
of the steam
in
pounds
per
square
inch.
Column
heit
gives the corresponding temperature of the steam in Fahren3 gives the heat of the liquid,
or the heat
degrees. Column
ing
to raise one
pound of water from 32 degrees to the boilnecessary
4 gives the
Column
point corresponding to the pressure.
latent heat, or the heat necessary
to change a pound of water
at the temperature of the boilingpoint into steam
at the same
Column
5 gives the total heat of the steam, and
temperature.
is the sum
of the quantitiesin Column
Column
4.
3 and Column
2
6 is the volume
Column
of
pound of steam
7 is the weight of one
one
at the different
different temperatures.
TABLE
VII.
"
PROPERTIES
ENGLISH
OF
UNITS
tures.
tempera-
SATURATED
STEAM
at the
PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES
OF
SATURATED
ENGLISH
STEAM
OF
STEAM
UNITS
"
43
Continued
HEAT
44
PROPERTIES
OF
ENGINES
SATURATED
ENGLISH
STEAM
'UNITS
"
Continued
HEAT
46
PROPERTIES
OF
ENGINES
SATURATED
ENGLISH
STEAM
UNITS
"
Continued
PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES
OF
SATURATED
ENGLISH
47
STEAM
OF
STEAM
UNITS
"
Concluded
CHAPTER
CALORIMETERS
36.
is meant
steam
have
we
already
steam
seen,
the
saturated
of dry and
cent,
per
be
may
of
By "quality"
saturated, or superheated.
either
As
"
MIXTURES
MECHANICAL
AND
Calorimeters.
IV
in
steam
the
sample.
The
quality from
the
classes
two
are
100
of these
In each
but
will
be
Mechanical
as
shown
along
tested
of the
in the
is
37.
that
depends
is the
pressure
only
one
the
at
Calorimeters.
the
pounds
passing through
orifice
per
the
in
orifice
of
two
square
inch, and
square
into
main,
As
this
J-inch
of
series
the
steam
to
nipple, a
fair
should
nozzle
be
ture
mois-
entrained
the
of
weight
size
the
on
This
mixed.
The
"
given
pressure
of
and
where
point
nozzle,
the steam
across
sampling
thoroughly
most
through
area
in
main
steam
Society of
sampling
through
The
makes,
or
calorimeter.
the
end
calorimeter
is insured.
the
upon
the
steam
the
on
cap
of
use
with
types
American
39, the
imeter.
Calor-
of each.
two
or
present
Throttling
several
are
There
at the
use
enter
Separating
pass
around
likely to be
will
and
the
there
Paragraph
Fig. 9, with
must
inserted
classes
general
nipple, in connection
and
by subtracting
Calorimeter.
in
in
sample
in
seen
calorimeter
holes
be
of these
Engineers recommend
nipple is
of
means
instruments
As
or
by
Separating Calorimeter
time, the
is found
steam
cent.
per
determined
quality is
The
in the
of moisture
percent
the
in
orifice
sides
the
of the
inches, P
W
the
dry
given
time
If
orifice.
the
absolute
pounds of
atmosphere
steam
steam
second,
per
then
PA
W=-7Q
From
Napier's
orifice of known
This
exceeds
law
.6 of the
Rule
area
the
is
holds
higher
weight
of steam
proportional
true
(1)
(Napier's Rule).
until
pressure.
48
the
to
the
lower
flowing through
absolute
pressure
steam
an
sure.
pres-
equals
or
MECHANICAL
AND
CALORIMETERS
MIXTURES
49
fore,
flowingthrough any orifice may, thereR. C. Carpenter has a calorimeter
Professor
be determined.
eter,
steam
enters the calorimbased upon
this principle. Wet
Fig.7,throughthe pipe 6,,and is projectedagainst the cup
then turned
and
water
14.
The
steam
are
through an angle
outward
the water
to be thrown
of 180", which
trifugal
causes
by cenThe
of steam
amount
directly into
thrown
3, prevents
being picked up again
carried
4, and
is
around
annular
known, is so small
there
that
of the steam
loss in pressure
the
same,
and
there
temperature
is
chamber
inner
gage
chamber,
dredths
so
same,
from
with
the
the
The
the
ner
in-
graduated in hun-
is
of pounds,
so
that
the
separatedfrom
of moisture
-can
is the
radiation.
by
no
sure
pres-
being
loss of heat
no
is
The
chambers
two
fice
ori-
it flows
as
space
which
orifice,
of this
area
any
flowing
already
the
the
dischargedthrough
The
8.
moisture
of
chamber
outer
in the
instead
cup,
and
upward
down
flows
chamber
inner
is
top of the
the
after
steam
passes
cup
It then
7.
The
on.
leaving the
enters
chamber
the
out
and
to strike the
the steam
Causing
3.
in the cup
force
weight
the steam
FIG. 7.
Carpenter'simproved
separating calorimeter.
"
the
of
latter
atmosphere and
of the
proportionalto
readings are
results
not
to
obtained
the
absolute
by \isingthe
the pressures
pressures.
gage
may
The
be
above
the
accuracy
checked
at
fice
by condensing and weighing the discharge from ori8 for a given period of time.
If now
call w the weight of dry steam
discharged from
we
the orifice 8 in any given period of time, W the weight of mois-
any
time
HEAT
50
collected in 3 in the
ture
ENGINES
same
q the
quality
be
may
either from
obtained
reading of
the
and
by actuallyweighing
the
steam,
the
difference
the
readingson
and
end
38.
between
Throttling Calorimeter.
by
Prof. C. H.
FIG.
used,but
of the steam
"
Committee
at
is unsuitable
form
for
steam
pressure
through
doing any
up, and
as
it takes
at the
up
the
calorimeter
was
recommended
over
at
lower
work,
only objectthat
higher pressure,
can
is at
it
ture,
of mois-
cent,
is below
low
very
sure
pres-
pound of saturated
than
If steam
space
at
at
lower
absorb
If this steam
heat
pressure.
some
39
where
thermometer
more
4 per
or
follows:
orifice into
an
external
this heat.
steam
contains
(see paragraph
determiningthe quality
of saturated
without
beginning
of calorimeter
in
use
contains
high pressure
pass
of
Standards
on
by taking
at the
is the form
and
accurate
if the steam
if the
or
form
This
"
Peabody,
It is the most
below).
be
scale 12
or
Carpenter'sthrottlingcalorimeter.
8.
A.S.M.E.
the
can
is found
9,
gage
of the test.
invented
by
the
pressure
be
contained
some
pound
a
high
given
itself,
moisture
the pres-
AND
CALORIMETERS
is lowered
sure
will go to
excess
Let q
ti
MECHANICAL
will go
superheating the
the
the temperature
51
to
MIXTURES
quality of the
the
steam.
steam.
of the wet
before
steam
passingthrough
trieorifice.
Pi
fa
the absolute
the temperature
correspondingto
The
water
L2
heat
at
of
heat
liquid
and
latent
the temperature
fa.
contained
Ib. of the
in
temperature fa,or
heat
contained
A2 + Lz +
corresponding to
mixture
of steam
steam
expansion would
cp(tsup. fa)
-
H2
on
the
Solvingfor
qLi
H2 +
cp(tsup. fa),
But
on
since the
one
(tsup. fa).
side of
(3)
#,
H2 +
cp
(tsup. fa)
percentage of moisture
q=
The
cp
low-pressure
be
cp is the
hi +
and
be
heat of superheatedsteam.
specific
be the same
heat in a pound of the substance must
the orifice as it is on the other,
where
p\.
qLi.
in 1 Ib. of the
pressure
heat
pi, would
pressure
hi +
The
the thermometer
by
the
temperature
h2 and
shown
as
hi and Z/i
in the main.
steam
on
i sup-
of the wet
pressure
hi
Li
equals 1
"
(5)
q.
with
thermometer
that
has
part of
52
exposed,and
its stem
account
may
be considerable
calorimeter
the calorimeter
from
that
described in
as
take
we
does it
which
itself,
Therefore
well covered.
though
even
for
"normal reading"
paragraph 39
in
shown
Fig. 9
to. correct
for
instead
is observed
calorimeter
shown
one
being admitted
Fig. 8
the
subject to radiation,*nor
errors.
The
in
is thus
it is necessary
work
of the thermometer,
these
ENGINES
of the radiation
take
accurate
HEAT
of the
In
pressure.
to
other
FIG.
throttlingcalorimeter.
Barms'
9.
"
to
absolute
Barrus
pz,
on
the lower
long
calorimeter
exhaust
where
pipe
will
back
the
assumed
have
we
cause
to be atmospheric.
in the
pressure
to
pressure
be
atmospheric.
In
the
case
atmospheric
pressure
is not
known,
it
can
be
of a thermometer
column
considerable portion of the mercury
K must
be
correction
the
to
is
a
air,
measuring high temperatures
exposed
added
to the readings to obtain the true temperature.
*When
Let
reading of
the observed
t'
the temperature
the thermometer.
of the air
surrounding
the
exposed
stem
of the
thermometer.
D
number
of
Then
.000088
degrees on
the thermometer
D
to
cup
(t
"
the
upper
t') in Fahrenheit
,
of the
degrees.
mercury
liquidin
column.
ENGINES
HEAT
54
If the steam
pressure is constant.
the observations are
steam
pressure
when
at the observed
pressure
by
the
100.
multiplyby
determine
"To
If it is desired to determine
of the orificeand the absolute pressure.
the quantity exactly,a steam hose may be attached to the outlet of the
area
carried to
and
calorimeter,
is condensed
barrel of water
steam
and
"
the
manometer
29 in.
Find
Solution.
"
blows
Ibs. pressure
100
at
The
calorimeter.
platform scale.
certain
The
Example.
for
placed on
through
throttling
is 275"
thermometer
reading
Barometer
and
and
the pressure
in the
calorimeter.
Atmospheric
Pressure
Now
from
the
main,
pressure
Then
pressure
in calorimeter
the steam
.491 X
29
.491 X
5.6
14.25 Ibs.
2.75 Ibs.
114.25 Ibs.
cp
1153.1
(275
.46
correspondingto the
hi
(tsup. "2)
-
"2
in
219.4)
308.5
880.1
1153.1
.46 X
55.6
RQ a
869.6
308.8
Answer:
"
98.8 per
.988.
880.1
880.1
cent.
Example.
"
as
shown
dry
steam
.05 Ibs.
(6) Find
20 minutes.
the
diameter
of
the
orifice if the
length
of
the
run
is
CALORIMETERS
Solution.
AND
(a) From
"
MECHANICAL
MIXTURES
55
equation (2),
w
(6) Find
it w'.
weight
of steam
-988'
=4.55
4^+^05
orifice per
flowingthrough
second,and
call
Then
45
w'
From
45
6n""7"n
Zi\J X
OU
=
"
Ibs
-00375
equation (1),
PA
W
70
70
P
1004-
.OOS^1
-26250
114.25
.49O"29
%V^*"
*
"--S"-000732
*r*
"
.0023
.027
.054
Answer:
gV
*
(.
Pr
^-r
cent
PROBLEMS
1. Steam
after
at
temperature
at
absolute
above
"
an
^eam
through
of
246".
perature
Tem-
calorimeter.
Barrus
is the
What
an
the
is in the
a
at
mixture
What
pressure
an
quality of the
passing through
originalsteam?
of steam
pressure
and
95
What
containing 2
water
expands through
Ibs. and
What
where
will be its
per
per
pressure?
cent,
blows
temperature?
cent,
moisture
blows
tested
cent,
per
orifice to 15 Ibs.
at the lower
the pressure
atmosphere.
through the orifice? Barometer, 29.8 in.
6. Find the qualityof the steam
if,when
4.5 Ibs. of dry steam
blow through
an
quality of 98
containing 2|
What
The
after
pressure.
4. Steam
vJ
Ibalbliwsthrough
of the steam
pound
moisture
through
110
of moisture
cent,
3. One
Q^ni
(2)Steam
through
steam?
per
passes
with
after
passing
imeter,
separatingcalor1.5 Ibs. of mois-
HEAT
56
ENGINES
If the run
is thirtyminutes
long and the steam
separatedout.
orifice.
determine
the
diameter
the
of
Ibs.,
pressure
blows
7. Steam
at 10 Ibs. pressure
through a separating calorimeter.
flow through the
The run
is forty-five
minutes
Ibs. of dry steam
10.5
long,
Find the qualityof the steam
orifice and .5 Ibs. of moisture-are
collected.
ture
are
is 100
and
the
of the orifice.
area
40. Mechanical
and
temperature
mixed
Mixtures.
final condition
mechanically are
involvingthe resulting
Problems
"
various
when
with.
often met
They
substances
are
are
best treated
mixture
weight of
total
to
condition.
Another
method
of
to
to
be
decide
upon
placed.
In
such
state
a
case
mixture
during the
trial calculation.
other substances.
water
the steam
each
If
steam
one
the
sulting
re-
then
the
at
steam
temperature ti is
temperature "2,the
amount
of heat Hr
steam
given off
be
=
Li + c(t,
-
(6)
tz).
If the steam
was
condensed
H'
and
and
be different.
H'
where
with
steam
case
to
all be condensed
may
to make
necessary
cooled
may
is lowered
would
it is almost
process,
would
condensed
be
(7)
Li
be
is the
temperature
sponding
corre-
to the pressure.
If the steam
of steam
is only
condensed.
the temperature
cent,
Then
H'
and
per
of the mixture
to the pressure.
(8)
qLi
is the
temperature
sponding
corre-
AND
CALORIMETERS
MECHANICAL
MIXTURES
57
of
general laws
state
gaseous
be stated
may
follows:
as
liquidand c3
in the gaseous
state, w the weight of the substance,t the initial
temperature, t\ the temperature of the melting point, t2 the
temperature of the boilingpoint, t3 the final temperature, Hf
Ci be
Let
heat
Hr
of
and
liquefaction,
w[d (t,
heat
c2
SPECIFIC
HEATS
of fusion
of ice
144
solid,c2
of
L heat
t) + Hf +
VIII.
TABLE
Latent
in the
heat
specific
the
in the
vaporization.
+ L +
(tz
-
LIQUIDS
OF
AND
c3
(h
fe)] (9)
SOLIDS
B.T.U.
and
of water
takes
at
the steam.
Solution."
First Method
Heat
Heat
to melt ice
Total
10 X
heat necessary
change
to
(32
60
20)
144
10 X
.5
given
lowered
Heat
=
by
to 32"
in steam
20 X
above
32"
32)
(from tables)
(50
heat
steam
given
1500 B.T.U.
360
=2300.8
up
in
lowering
water
to 32"
available for
temperature is
when
water
2X1150.4
Total
Heat
up
1440
at 32"
Heat
and
=
use
2660.8
1500
2660.8
B.T.U.
1160.8
B.T.U.
of
of
HEAT
58
ENGINES
1160
mixture
36.3.
oZ
.'.final
temperature of mixture
36.3
Second
mixture
is t".
Then
the heat
F.
Method
is all condensed
68.3"
at 68.3" F.
32 Ibs. water
Ans.
Assume
-f 32
necessary
melting
pointequals
.5(32
10 X
The
to
heat
to melt
necessary
raise "he
melted
the ice
the
ice to
20).
equals 10
temperature
144;
of
"
the mixture
"
"
10 X
.5
(32
20) +
10 X
2 X
60
'+ 1440
Wt
144 +
970.4 +
320
20*
+
32"
t
(t
(212
10
32) +
t)
1000
20
1940.8
(t
424
50)
2t
2184.8
68.3"
10 Ibs.
Ibs. of
Mixture
at 68.3" F.
Example.
Solution.
Find
32 Ibs. water
"
First Method
"
10 X
.5(32
10 X
144
the
20)
60
1440
1500
B.T.U.
heat
to
raise ice to
at 32".
water
AND
CALORIMETERS
MECHANICAL
(50
32)
40 X .2375(82
32)
20(308.8 +.98 X 879.8)
20 X
MIXTURES
360
475
23420
B.T.U.
24255
heat
1500
40
.2375(337.9
32)
59
given
water, and
by
up
air,
steam.
heat available.
22755
B.T.U.
2905
B.T.U.
19850
B.T.U.
15440
B.T.U.
water.
50 X
308.8
heat
raise
to
water
to
337.9".
B.T.U.
4410
heat
available
to
rate
evapo-
water.
4410
.
Iks. steam,
5.01
oTft
o/y
o
o
40 Ibs. air
Ans.
Ibs
dry
" at
saturated
Second
Assume
the
the mixture
and
10
steam
be t".
.5(32
20) +
20
.2375(1 82)
-
60
+
6758
1440
-
IQt
10
144
320
879.8
.98 X
and
have
we
20*
50) +
40 X
1000
9.5Z
779
17250
20t
This result is of
higherthan
pressure
Method
all condensed
59.5*
be
steam
to
337 .9".
course
24670
413. 6" F.
the temperature of the mixture
absurd, as
at which
the mixture
takes
cannot
that part
and we know
be wrong,
ture
of it remains in the form of steam, and hence the temperature of the mixis equal to the temperature of the boilingpoint correspondingto the
pressure
is condensed
at which
must
the substances
are
mixed.
10
.5(32
20) +
10
of
50)
32) + 20(337.9
10(337.9
879. 8*
82)
+ 40 X .2375(337.9
144 +
60
HEAT
60 +
1440
3059
5758
879. 8
20 X
.98
Ans.
10 +
(20
14.49
The
originalweight of dry
19.6) +
Ibs.
5.11
difference between
14.49
[at
337.9".
steam
in these two
methods
this
account
problem
Ibs. water
44.89
dry saturated
working
we
of
took
the
method
and
steam.
40 Ibs. air
20 +
19.6
879. 8x
Ibs. condensed.
14.49
19.6 Ibs.
2431
12748
ENGINES
"
assumed
we
this
heat
specific
to be constant
equal to 1.
Example.
Find
"
10 Ibs. of ice at
pressure
and
the
resultingtemperature
400" temperature.
Solution."
10 X
.5(32
10 X
144
at
50",and
and
30 Ibs. of steam
at 100 Ibs.
Mixture
First Method
20)
60
1440
1500 B.T.U.
heat
at
32".
20 X
30 X
(50
32)
.57(400
337.9)
30 X
1188.6
360
1062
35658
37080
B.T.U.
heat
given up by
water
and
steam.
1500
60 X
235.7
35580
B.T.U.
heat
14142
B.T.U.
heat
available.
to
raise
water
to
266.8".
21438
B.T.U.
21438
97 Ibs. steam
22
.
933.3
Ans.
37
.
03 Ibs. water
at 266. 8" F.
97 Ibs.
22
'
dry saturated
Second
Assume
mixture
the steam
be t".
Then
steam
Method
to be all condensed
and
HEAT
62
of steam
2 Ibs. of ice at
and
20"
at
ENGINES
10 Ibs. of water
atmospheric pressure,
at atmospheric
mixed
are
pressure.
resultingtemperature?
at 60" and
9. Ten pounds of ice at 10",20 Ibs. of water
atmospheric pressure are mixed at atmospheric pressure.
at
60",
will be
What
the
and
temperature
10.
Y-
50 Ibs.
60" and
at
all
not
11. A
mixture
of ice at
20", 10
by weight
of
12. What
at 60"
of water
and
,4
and
are
Five
at 20 Ibs. pressure
at
steam
at
60"
)~^is.
of the mixture.
and
after
mixing
of
temperature
at 40" F.
takes
Mixture
at 60".
condition
temperature
at
What
is condensed?
steam
and
100
after
of 500"
at
is the temperature
at
the
pressure
having
mixed
are
mixing
and
Ibs. absolute
pressure
pressure,
is
What
of
quality
atmospheric
and
condition
resultingmixture?
Thirty pounds
temperature
condition
of water
of 400"
will the
What
60", 10
at
Ibs. of steam
115
at
F., and
be?
resulting temperature
Ibs. absolute
mixed
are
at atmospheric
What
is the
of the mixture?
Ten
pounds
at 75 Ibs. pressure
What
Two
5 Ibs. of ice
Find
22.
much
at 5 Ibs. gage
10 Ibs. of water
pressure.
21.
2 Ibs. of steam
of 98 per cent.
Five pounds of steam
20.
at80",
of the steam.
absolute,and
20 Ibs.
of the steam.
100 Ibs.
and
of air
at the pressure
20 Ibs. of water
19.
at 5 Ibs.
32", and
50",20 Ibs.
Ibs. absolute
of 30
pressure
with
mixture
of the
at
mixed
condition
and
F.,and
of air at
10 Ibs. of water
pressure
of
8 Ibs. of steam
1 Ib. of ice at
What
of water
are
and
pressure
condition
60", and
at
at 5 Ibs. pressure.
resultingtemperature
Required the temperature
10 Ibs. of
250.3"
and
5 Ibs. pressure.
at 5 Ibs. pressure,
the
15.
water
resultingmixture?
pounds of ice at 5", 10 Ibs.
5 Ibs. of steam
Find
40", 20 Ibs. of
place at
of steam
will be
(a) What
in the mixture?
water
takes
mixed
60".
5 Ibs.
pressure,
of the
condition
14.
at
pounds
atmospheric
Mixture
13. Ten
at
at
air,steam, and
will be condensed.
of the steam
cent,
per
of the
of 10 Ibs. of water
pressure?
what
Ibs. of water
would
at
of 10 Ibs. of steam
is made
the temperature
resulting
the
10 Ibs. of water
atmospheric pressure,
mixed
of air at 100" are
together at the pressure of the
is
will be the resultingtemperature?
(6) If the steam
of steam
(a) What
condensed, determine
steam,
Find
at
of the mixture.
condition
pounds
Twenty
5 Ibs. of steam
is the
of ice at 20"
and
90 per
resultingtemperature
of steam
pounds
at 22",and
at 150
10 Ibs. of water
Required
and
condition
and
at 60"
are
condition
and
mixed
of the mixture?
temperature of 400",
at
atmospheric pressure.
of mixture.
condition
after
mixing
at atmos-
AND
CALORIMETERS
pheric
containing
of
steam
at
60"
Find
23.
Ibs.
50
and
Ibs.
of
and
temperature
absolute
Ibs.
and
22"
at
MIXTURES
steam
at
63
Ibs.
100
and
pressure
moisture.
resulting
150
at
ice
of
cent,
per
the
F.,
Ibs.
pressure
MECHANICAL
and
air
of
at
condition
of
of
temperature
112"
F.
20
Ibs.
Mixture
mixture
400"
takes
F.,
of
Ibs.
10
place
10
of
Ibs.
water
atmospheric
at
pressure.
50
at
Ibs.
is
What
150"
to
140",
27.
pressure.
and
resulting
the
10
what
What
of
steam
cent,
of
steam
is
the
of
will
water
Ibs.
moisture
and
quality
Ibs.
100
100
10
in
the
of
Ibs.
and
mixed
are
of
raises
the
occupies
water
75",
at
at
the
dry
Ibs.
15
Ibs.
20
of
steam
absolute.
mixture?
heat
steam
from
50"
gage?
gage
is
of
water
condition
and
is
at
of
quality
cent,
per
pressure
of
per
pound
95
temperature
steam
Ibs.
0",
at
pounds
many
if
If
26.
ice
of
absolute
the
How
25.
to
pounds
Five
24.
steam?
93
steam,
3
cu.
Ibs.
of
radiation
ft.
at
from
water
being
110
Ibs.
zero?
absolute
50"
CHAPTER
COMBUSTION
Analysis.
Coal
41.
in
steam
all fuels
the
For
for different
the
of
volatile
gases
pitch,
before
after
been
It
that
to
the
the
and
ultimate
an
product
of these
value
calorimeter
fuels
proximate
ascertain
to
its
is
carbon,
fixed
matter,
such
of
hydrogen,
determined.
as
these
The
ash.
off.
the
left
are
The
ash
after
remains
gas,
from
ash
and
the
The
olefiant
distilled
be
driven
which
and
or
carbon
been
material
carbon
marsh
of
made
are
must
fixed
have
gases
of
determinations
burned.
sists
con-
fuel
the
burned.
noted
analyses
various
that
the
"
only
term
"
does
proximate"
approximate,"
of
of "coal
moisture
Mines
of fixed
and
as
received,"
and
ash
Bulletin
States,"
United
the
values
of
made
are
percentages
analysis,
from
of
proportions
are
All
naphtha.
analysis
between
facts
the
not
mean
being actually
contrary.
The
of
the
hydrocarbons
are
be
to
coal
analysis
completely
the
in
incombustible
should
duce
pro-
of
relative
the
sulphur
volatile
of the
has
and
being
all the
to
principal ingredients
comparison
moisture, volatile
and
tar
is used
value.
proximate
amounts
The
subjected
analysis
nitrogen
In
is
it is tested
ultimate
oxygen,
which
heat
hydrogen.
determine
coal
heating
the
fuel.
making
to
uses,
calorificor
fuel
and
and
analysis,
In
of
of
source
is the
and
purpose
mines,
various
boiler
carbon
are
The
"
FUELS
AND
air-dried
carbon,
free"
"moisture
No.
"were
obtained
or
22
not
the
on
obtained
by
the
64
of
"Analyses
directly but
analyses
of
analysis
coal," and
in the
U.
air-dried
"coal,
S. Bureau
Coals
were
the
ultimate
the
proximate
"dry
as
Therefore,
etc., in
hydrogen,
carbon,
free,"
coal.
in
the
calculated
coal."
COMBUSTION
"Calculations from
AND
FUELS
to 'Moisture
'Air Dried'
65
Free'
"*
Condition
'Moisture
free' condition
100
Volatile matter
"
100
volatile matter
fixed carbon
moisture
100
Fixed
carbon
Ash
100
molstur^
-Toisture
100
ash
sulphur
100
SulPhur
"
100
moisture
100
Hydrogen (-1/9
moisture) X
hydr"gen
100
moisture
100
Carbon
"
Nitrogen
"
Calorific value
"
carbon
100
moisture
nitrogen
-Toisture
=
100
100
oxy^en
100
"The
analyses are
calculated
to the
(moisture+ ash) as
in the calculation to the
taking100"
exactlyas
"The air-drying
loss of
mine
loss in
compositionof
coal in the
the
and
'drycoal' or 'moisture
sample
the
coal
indicates to
free' basis.
degreethe
some
evaporationof looselyretained
'as received' shows
mine.
After
the
coal
the
has
actual
left the
coal 'airdried.'
"The analysis
on
dryingat
"The analysis
stated on
221" F.
a
This relation
matter.
to
seems
(105"C.).
'moisture and
moisture
lies between
calorificvalue
100
and
be
ash
compositionof
fairlyconstant
in the
in certain districts,
especially
the
dry organic
for the
same
coal
parison
Appalachian region. Com-
numerous
are
determination
importance;they
matter, but
valuation of coals
U. S. Bureau
5
the
of Mines
not
are
and
proximateanalysis
usuallysufficient.
only displacetheir
evaporationof
Bulletin No. 22.
the
own
Moisture
weightsof
moisture
wastes
and ash
bustible
com-
heat.
HEAT
66
high
plant and
power
"The
the
of
percentage
of
type
increases
ash
decreases
best
furnace
the
of
cost
fixed carbon
to the
matter
burning
for
adapted
in
coal
handling
furnace.
efficiency of the
the
of the volatile
ratio
ENGINES
coal
in
indicates
with
way
maximum
efficiency.
volatile
a
coal
of coke
and
Heat
42.
in
result
carbon
in coal used
with
of
percentage
burn
to
ordinary steaming
for the
ture
manufac-
sulphur is
purposes
such
elements,
The
"
iron
as
perfect
combustion
term
of oxygen
union
The
heat.
requires
associated
low
of
is undesirable
Combustion.
of
containing
not
lime,
or
ering."
refers to the
here
For
unless
clink
that promote
smoke
sulphur
gas.
drawback
serious
without
of
high percentage
coal
of
difficult in furnaces
is not
matter
high volatile
combustion
smokeless
"The
with
substance
of ordinary
combustion
dioxide, nitrogen,
other
some
water
applied
as
fuel
and
vapor,
ducing
pro-
should
of
trace
sulphur dioxide.
"The
calorific power,
developed by the
of heat
amount
is
vapor
falls
as
The
latent
the
The
the
the
lower
nearly all
of the
of the
use
heat
in
in either
given
case
off per
fuels,together
combining
volumes
For
cases.
are
and
both
pound
by
and
air
in
above
therefore
lower
the
and
gases,
is the
with
for
is the
in
the
this
available
boiler
plant
engine
of the
are
shown
of
fuel.
ordinarily
weights,
the
able
actually avail-
value
elements
and
"
temperature
heat
heating
the
gas
the
tain
main-
use.
value
example,
this
atmospheric
at
This
the
as
to
necessary
higher heating
water
long
is unavailable
heating value.
stack
exhaust,
heat
rimeter
calo-
when
only
of steam
heat
vapor,
the
with
in
temperature
temperature
latent
the
by
So
unit
fuel is burned
condensed
of vapor,
between
is called
calorific value"
the
form
When
be
of
determined
as
boiling point.
weight of
the
difference
heat
will
the
such, i.e.,the
times
pressure
this
below
in the
remains
it
and
formed,
combustion
complete
temperature
water
value, of
calorific power
The
weight of fuel."
is the
heating
or
in Table
IX.
met
and
COMBUSTION
AND
FUELS
67
HEAT
68
When
ENGINES
coal is
includes not
which
existed in combination
water
(forall
As
the
with
the
oxygen
by weight of
16 parts
in the
oxygen
united
form
with
of
drogen)
hy-
unite
with 2 parts
in combination
oxygen
from
be found
of B.T.U.
the
ultimate
analysis
by the followingformula:
Heat
of fuel in B.T.U.
value
per
pound
14,650 C + 62,100 (H
S,
4000
--
(1)
bon,
symbols C, H, 0 and S represent the weights of carhydrogen, oxygen and sulphur in 1 Ib. of the fuel. This is
called Du Long's formula.
The heat value obtained from equation (1)is only an approximate
where
the
is desired it is necessary
result,and where greater accuracy
actuallyto test the coal experimentallyin a coal calorimeter.
43. Coal
Calorimeters.
for
used
is the
Mahler
steel vessel
"
One
form
of calorimeter
Bomb
into
which
This
very
monly
com-
of solid fuels
consists
of
strong
known
of
for the
of from
pressure
excess
combustion
150
of oxygen
over
of the coal.
to
250
that
After
Ibs.
This
allows
theoretically
required
the
bomb
has
been
vessel
rise in
heating value
of the coal
can
be
com-
ENGINES
HEAT
70
in a vessel
by shaking. The calorimeter is then immersed
containingwater and a short pieceof white hot wire is dropped
end opens
in the top of the long neck and a blow on the upper
the valve at M, Fig. 10, and allows the wire to drop into the
charge ignitingit. The water is stirred by fins attached to the
sides of the cartridgewhich is turned on a pivot bearing at the
The rise in temperabottom
ture
by a belt run by an electric motor.
mixed
of the water
After
noted.
in the
as
for
of the bomb
mechanical
The
furnished
oxygen
from
containingby weight
nitrogen,and by volume 21
mixture
23
Air
air.
the
cent,
per
to
is
oxygen
and
the combustion.
effect upon
the
For
"
it is obtained
just
calorimeter.
to burn
77 per cent,
the
peroxideand by
of the sodium
and
the heatingvalue
ignition,
case
44. Air
combustion
allowances
making
the combustion
given up by
wire used
to the
due
of
complete combustion
Ib. of
hydrogen
there
required8 Ibs. of
is
of 1 Ib. of carbon
Ibs. of oxygen.
2.66
For
there
pound of hydrogen
each
will
be
required "^
.
f\
34.8 Ibs. of
Zo
C*C*
"=
00
produce combustion.
Zo
.
As
stated,the oxygen
its
should
the
air
requiredfor
then be found
fuel may
of any
combustion
by
disregarded. The
be
from
the
plete
com-
its analysis
followingexpression:
Weight of
=
11.6 C +
In
of
hydrogen
and
of oxygen.
exist and an excess
pound
air per
34.8
(H
--
|)+
carbon
In
comes
actual
of fuel
assumed
in contact
(2)
4.35 S
with
each
that
a
proper
of air is furnished
in order
to
does
insure
atom
portion
pronot
com-
AND
COMBUSTION
plete combustion.
FUELS
71
combustion
with
will unite
to form
the oxygen
C02,
the
forming CO.
of the most
In the actual operation of a boiler plant, one
important considerations is the admission of a proper quantity
of air to the fire. As will be seen
later,the less the quantity
of combustion,
of air given to the fire the better the efficiency
balance
enters
all the
that
so
is burned
carbon
to
C02.
45. Smoke.
The
state.
of carbon
amount
usually small,
in the
is unburned
Smoke
"
coal.
Its presence,
handling of the boiler,which
of fuel.
Smoke
is
carried
exceeding 1
not
are
in
cooled
the
Any
oxygen.
in carbon
being cooled
the
total carbon
improper
largerwaste
much
the incandescent
before
of the furnace
point of
with
into contact
that
It is necessary
condition
condition
below
coming
them.
is
indicates
boiler when
before
sufficient oxygen
to unite with
carbon be in an
incandescent
with
result in
may
finelydivided
of the
cent,
per
by the smoke
away
however, often
produced
particlesof carbon
in
carbon
the
it will unite
which
incandescence
results
before
sufficient oxygen
has been furnished to unite with it,will result
in smoke.
Smoke
formed is very difficultto ignite,and
once
the boiler furnace must
be handled
not to produce smoke.
so
as
Fuels very rich in hydrocarbons are most
apt to produce smoke.
When
the carbon gas liberated from the coal, is kept above the
tion
for its combustemperature of ignitionand sufficient oxygen
The
red, yellow, or white flame.
slower the combustion
When
the flame
the larger the flame.
heat
is chilled by the cold heating surfaces near
it taking away
be incomplete, and part of the
by radiation,combustion
may
added, it burns
gas
and
smoke
enough
above
to burn
and
pass
with
off unburned.
the grate
not
so
as
giveroom
to
high
at once,
the amount
of smoke
Analysis of Flue
carefullyconducted
all
large power
plants the
flue gases
Gases.
power
"
In
houses
and
leaving the
HEAT
72
boilers
ENGINES
In some
records
cases
analyzed from time to time.
are
device, of the percentage of carbon
kept, by an automatic
dioxide in the flue gases.
In analyzing the flue gases it is customary
are
to
use
modification
some
of the Orsat
This
apparatus.
consists of three
FIG.
the remainder
from
is assumed
this apparatus
12.
"
Orsat
apparatus.
to be
givethe
volume.
The
followingdirections
the Orsat
apparatus
Potassium
Hydrate.
"
c.c.
the
how
the
reagents used in
prepared.
(1) For
the
of the commercial
(2) For
in
are
will show
determination
hydrate in
40
c.c.
of
C02,
1 liter of water.
of C02.
120 grams
use
of the
AND
COMBUSTION
73
FUELS
cent,
may
be
Potassium
acid
over
"
given
up.
c.c
Cuprous Chloride.
"
into
long piecesof
of
Let
bottle
number
Then
scale
of copper
inch
an
place in the
also
wire.
copper
to
chloric
hydro-
colorless. Then
becomes
which
1
and
of 0.
c.c.
from
Pour
2-liter bottle
is filledwith
copper
the
pour
pipetteF,
wires.
c.c
the
liquid into
from
1 to 2
c.c
of CO.
Solution.
"
Vol. in 100
cu.
Carbonic
acid,C02
Carbonic oxide,CO
Oxygen, 0
One
pound
of carbon
1 Ib. of carbonic
in 100
cu.
dioxide
oxide contains
would
ft.
X
.12341
.07806
.078
.08928
.625
i\
pound.
pound
weight of
weight of
1.481
* X
.078
would
oxide
1.077
.045
.625
1.481
2i X
.078
.404
X)33
437
oxgyen
1.747*
pounds
1.747
and
be:
In carbonic acid
In carbonic
oxygen
the carbon
of oxygen,
weight of the
oxygen
Total
the
The
In carbonic oxide
and
of
therefore be:
In carbonic acid
Free
1.481
12
contains
of
Weight
Density
.23
7.6,
the
pounds
pounds of
air
HEAT
74
and
the
pounds
pounds
would
1 Ib. of carbon
of air to burn
would
under
the conditions
of
be
7.6
The
ENGINES
-f-
to burn
of air used
.437
17.4
pound
given analysis
of coal of the
be
17.4
17.4 X
34
.80 +
34.8
(0.4~\
13.92 +
1.31
15.23 Ibs.
ally
weight of air theoreticrequiredto burn the hydrogen has been added to the weight actually
requiredto burn the carbon as shown by the stack gas analysis. While
this is,of course, not exactlycorrect,it is approximately
so, and the error
is slight,
of air used to burn the hydrogen is small as compared
as the amount
with the total amount
required.
The above results are such as might be expectedin a boiler plantusing
It should
induced
be noted
draft.
47. Theoretical
and
Combustion.
of
Temperature
given coal
total
If the
"
known, the
are
their combustion
may
be
approximatelycalculated.
The
calculated
temperatures
are
often
much
very
higher
be obtained
can
in
Carbon, 75
3 per cent.; nitrogen,2 per,
per cent.;hydrogen,5 per cent.; oxygen,
be disregarded. Find the theoretical
cent.; the ash and sulphur may
and actual rise in temperature of the products of combustion.
Solution.
A coal of the above compositionhas a heat value of 13,860
B.T.U.
The theoretical amount
of air required to burn 1 Ib. of it is
10.62 Ibs. 10.62 Ibs. of air contain 10.62 X .77
8.18 Ibs. nitrogen,
to which
be added
must
the .02 Ibs. of nitrogen in the coal,givingus
a total of 8.2 Ibs. nitrogen.
Example.
"
Assume
the
of coal:
following composition
"
Total
C02 formed
.75 X
3.66
Total
H20 formed
.05 X
The
thermal
through
1" would
units
be
required to
2.745 Ibs. }
.45
Ibs.
raise the
(See
IX)
Table
products
of combustion
COMBUSTION
Carbonic
Water
AND
FUELS
acid
Sp. ht.
B.T.U.
2.75 X
.217
.596
45 X
.460
.207
.244
vapor
Nitrogen
75
8.2
2.000
Total
2.803
theoretical
The
would
rise in temperature
of the
products
of combustion
be
2.8
13,860 -h
In the
actual
operation of
4950"
boiler it is found
necessary
to
add
50
tional
This addirequiredfor combustion.
air,as the following calculation shows, materiallyreduces the
theoretical temperature of combustion.
Assuming 100 per cent. more
to be required,there would
then be added
10.62 additional pounds of
air. The heat to raise this 1 degree would be
to
100 per
cent,
more
air than
is
10.62 X
Add
for undiluted
Total
The
B.T.U.
hand
is
degree
5.325
temperature would
5.325
more
be, then,
2600"
obtained
in
boiler
plant with
firing.
If the
temperature
of the
temperature
adding
coal
of the
boiler
the
assumption being
is the
same
room
is
products of combustion
this temperature
to
above, the
the
2.522
2.803
13,860 -^
This
products
per
theoretical rise in
.2375
as
that
given,
be
may
the
final
found
by
temperature as found
that the temperature of
rise in
made
of the
boiler
room.
stokers,temperatures in the
fire of over
3000" F. have been observed.
Such temperatures are
when
the boilers are
usually obtained
being crowded to their
full capacity and their operation is being given careful attention,
In boilers
operated by automatic
with reference
especially
to the
amount
of air admitted
to
the furnace.
48. Fuels.
"
Fuels
may
be divided
into three
general classes,
and gaseous.
solid,liquid,
The
larger proportion of the fuels used are in solid form.
The principalsolid fuels are wood, peat, lignite,
and coal. Coal
be divided into three principalkinds, anthracite, semimay
bituminous
and
bituminous
coal.
HEAT
76
ENGINES
comer"
for the
In
from
gases
Woods
"
hard.
The
producer, and
may
hard
commonest
woods
from
fuel
this
10
20
to
per
oak, hickory,
soft woods
are
being dried
followingtable
after
The
cent.
generalclasses,
are
The
commonest
maple, beech, and walnut.
pine, elm, birch,poplar, and willow. When
contains about
50 per cent, of moisture, but
this is reduced
similarly used.
are
gas
as
fuel.
as
often used
are
gases
coal is distilled in
the
cases
soft and
Coke-oven
boilers.
steam
some
blast furnaces
the
of the
composition and heat value of some
woods.
(From Poole's Calorific Value of Fuels.)
more
X.
TABLE
In boiler tests
to .4 of
pound
50. Peat.
It is formed
These
chemical
in blocks
60
per
of oxygen
table
is
from
intermediate
an
the immense
change which
carbon, and
70
and
cent,
80
leaves
per
cent,
air dried.
Good
to
of
OF
WOODS
usuallyassumed
as
equal
of coal.
that grow
in the swampy
in the presence
of heat
mosses
is
pound of wood
Peat
"
VALUE
CALORIFIC
"
carbon, 6
per
an,d nitrogen,and
givesthe heat
value
of
wood
and
coal.
3 per
some
between
cent,
hydrogen, 31
of ash.
The
per
about
cent,
following
HEAT
78
XIII.
TABLE
CALORIFIC
53. Semi-Bituminous.
but
in appearance
anthracite and
ENGINES
VALUE
This
"
burns
A
than
XIV.
CALORIFIC
semi-bituminous
20
per
cent,
latter.
rapidly,and
more
intense
VALUE
coal
should
volatile matter
BITUMINOUS
COALS
it is necessary
to keep a very
given in the followingtable :
TABLE
is
OF
is
heat.
It is
valuable
Its
not
as
coal where
compositionis
SEMI-BITUMINOUS
OF
anthracite,
lighterthan
COALS
carbon.
54. Anthracite.
"
This
coal
for domestic
comes
from
purposes.
flame
is very
all consumed
Pennsylvania.
An
COMBUSTION
AND
FUELS
79
less than
matter.
anthracite coals:
Efficiencyof Fuels.
55.
into steam
the
hour
per
the
they should
be
of
the
value
and
character
to
in the
burned
compare
in
are,
fact, so
In
It is easy
supplied,and the
variables
many
in
almost
than
40
boiler.
any
arch
the
over
40
containing over
form
some
use
with
be
with
good results.
With
brick
firecoals
these
so
that
the gases
are
to
mixed
chamber
large combustion
cost to
This
at 212".
the
economical
given coal
cost
principalcost of
usually more
from
results obtained
by the
and
Where
very
containing less
bars
plain grate
arranged
with
coals
coal
provided.
determined
from
of furnace
commercial
The
give
cent,
per
air, and
warm
should
fire
semi-bituminous
or
bituminous
For
volatile matter,
cent,
per
either anthracite
burn
accurate
an
the value
to
practice
the form
by
comparison of
involves
fuels in actual
is affected
of air
fuel is
it will evaporate
boiler.
same
given plant
There
draft.
of
This, however,
intensityof
that
COALS
value
water
at 212".
boiler,so
fuel in any
pounds of
and
from
of
efficiency
use,
of
ANTHRACITE
OF
commercial
The
"
the number
by
determined
VALUE
CALORIFIC
XV.
TABLE
to
water
10 cents
are
usually
into steam
to
18 cents.
freightrate, it
good grade of coal than
is
a
cheap grade.
PROBLEMS
anthracite
1. An
2 per
cent.;O,
2. A
2 per
has
cent.
semi-bituminous
cent.;H, 5
per
cent.;O, 3
the
per
cent.
Find
the heat
HEAT
80
ENGINES
Pennsylvania bituminous
3. A
cent.;O, 12
burn
Find
cent.
per
Illinoisbituminous
coal has
cent.; O, 15 per
cent.; H,
the air required to burn 1 Ib.
5 per
5. A
cent.
to burn
the
the
followingcomposition: C, 62
Find
cent.
the heat
units in the
followingcomposition:C,
Find
80 per
cent.;H, 2
85 per
per
coal and
cent.; H, 5
the air
required
1 Ib.
6. A coal contains
C,
1 Ib.
4. An
per
coal contains:
is its heat
C,
and
value
how
many
per
of
pounds
What
1 Ib. of it?
7. A
coal contains
and
C, 70
how
per
much
per
cent.
What
1 Ib. of it?
9. A coal contains
these
C, 90
given
1 Ib. under
the above
flue -gas
10. A
0 per
cent. ;
pound
per
O,
pound,
N,
and
what
will be
the
air
required to
burn
conditions?
shows
14 per
the
cent.
cent.;and
per
is burnt
off per
the B.T.U.
conditions?
1 per cent.
shows
the
^/.5 "
11. A
followingcomposition: CO2, 8.1 per cent.; CO,
Find the pounds of air
cent.
0 per cent.; O, flrtper cent.;
contains
^u;75 per cent.;H, Skper cent.;O, '8 per
per pound of coal, n the coal
flue gas
Nj^fc"pjer
us^d
cent.
12. A
flue gas
shows
the
cent.
13. A
the
0 per
per
cent.
8 per cent.
16. A flue gas shows
per
cent.;N, 80.9
per
the
cent.
followingcomposition: CO2,
How
much
air is burned
per
8.3 per
pound
cent.;O, 10.8
of coal if the
Find
the theoretical
temperature of combustion
AND
COMBUSTION
17.
coal
Find
cent.
air
is
used
C,
has
80
cent.;
per
theoretical
the
is
than
H,
per
for
the
O,
cent.;
of
temperature
necessary
FUELS
81
per
if 50
combustion
combustion.
and
cent.;
N,
cent,
per
of
Temperature
per
more
boiler
80".
rjaom,
18.
O,
in
burning
per
coal
gives
cent.;
it.
and
What
following
the
N,
is
per
the
cent.
ideal
C,
analysis:
Seventy-five
rise
in
75
per
temperature
cent.;
per
cent,
excess
of
the
H,
6
of
gases?
cent.;
per
air
is
used
CHAPTER
VI
BOILERS
56.
into
In
Boilers
fire-tube
the
tubes, while
the
tubes.
Boilers
divided, from
tubular
fire-tubeor
the
be
may
boiler
the
in the
hot
boiler
the
these
the
by
boilers.
fire pass
through
around
pass
depending
the
on
as
fire,
tubulous
gases
classes
two
known
are
or
from
gases
into
taken
path
water-tube
water-tube
divided
also
are
and
boilers
the
nally
inter-
fired boilers.
In
the
the
boiler
boilers
and
internally
and
forms
are
of
The
for
fired
marine
boilers
usually confined
largely used
are
The
is
boilers.
and
forms
Return
elevation
The
burns
coal
boiler
and
Tubular
of the
along
chamber
the
through
the
chimney.
of
used
for
motive
locoin the
These
necessary.
the
than
ordinary
Fig.
"
fire-tube
nozzle
nozzle
smoke
rest
and
in
back
of
at
return
the
type.
front
of the
under
pass
combustion
boiler, then
the
the
and
plan
flames
the
through
is shown
the
upon
The
tubes
the
of the
boiler
turn
the
through
pass
shows
wall.
bridge
shell, then
results.
13
which
tions
condi-
operating
proper
economical
the
boiler
The
setting is
under
grates,
upon
smoke
to
These
entirely enclosed
horse-power
per
same
the
upon
and
brick
no
Boilers.
setting
setting and
chamber.
commonly
fire is
of boilers
give essentiallythe
57.
external
boilers.
stationary
various
brick
is most
The
expensive
more
in
entirely
stationary plants.
boiler
boiler
fire is
breeching
front
out
to
of the
the
boiler
setting.
There
under
the
are
are
tubes
and
reenforced
made
66,000 Ibs.
together.
man-holes
usually two
are
of
with
boiler
The
The
top
flanged steel
steel
shell
heads
in the
one
in
having
of the
of the
boiler
boiler
82
the
of the
boiler,
boiler.
These
reinforcements.
tensile
which
The
strength
is rolled
to form
form
in
one
the
of
front
ings
open-
shells
55,000
and
tube
to
riveted
sheet
BOILERS
and
into which
the tubes
are
83
fastened
are
made
of
flangedsteel
of
55,000 Ibs. tensile strength. The tubes are made
Charcoal iron tubes are the best,but
steel,usuallylap welded.
difficult to get,so that most
manufacturers
use
a hot-rolled,
are
of about
lap-weldedsteel
Feed
tube.
Pipe M
Manhole
boilers
are
set
in brick
be set with
full flush
HEAT
84
mortar
jointsso
Fig. 13
shows
as
to make
the return
ENGINES
the
flue
FIG.
FIG.
15.
Boilers
as
"
Return
14.
tubular
of this type
shown
in
boiler support.
Steel frame
"
are
boiler with
often
14 and 15.
Figs..
independentof
the
supported by
This method
steel framework
is preferableas it
86
HEAT
ENGINES
BOILERS
87
filtration of air
passingaway
58.
InternallyFired
tubular
have
an
boilers
Boilers.
used
extensively
been
In
furnaces.
FIG.
made
with
three
be built in
or
19.
Scotch marine
"
The
shown
In very
in
are
very
steel back
of the boiler.
boilers
are
combustion
common
two
often
boiler.
chamber
brick
can
ticularly
par-
combustion
stationary purposes.
used in marine work,
Fig. 20.
provided at each
construction in
shows
cut
work.
of these
one
boilers
Fig. 18 shows
The
these
These
even
largesizes,and
shows
boiler.
largersizes
of return
large class
purposes.
the
Fig. 20
for marine
marine
internallyfired Scotch
internal
the fire.
Another
"
consequent cooling
internallyfired boilers.
the
are
from
the
are
chamber
in the middle
88
HEAT
ENGINES
BOILERS
59. Locomotive
boiler is used
Type of Boiler.
locomotives.
on
by a water space.
fire through the tubes and
fired
of the boiler.
boilers,often
boiler
are
They
are
combustion
gases pass
the stack.
As
up
in the
in contact
come
of
use
pit are
directlyfrom
rounded
sur-
the
internally
with
the shell
higherpressures
in these
heating where
21 shows
The
hot gases
This permits of the
FIG.
for
do not
the
boiler,
"
In
includingthe grates,and
space,
89
21.
"
type of boiler.
Locomotive
form
compact
of
of boiler is desirable.
Fig.
designedfor
stationaryuse.
60. Use
of Tubular
Boilers.
"
The
fire-tube
boiler,as
shown
of the
shell should
not
practiceit is found
In
exceed
in.
This
that
the boiler
can
carry.
It is
between
the
in the
customary
to
use
the
this
HEAT
90
ENGINES
majority of
used.
the
In addition
a
and
square
horse-power.
plants are being operated
recent
more
Ibs. per
125
125 boiler
largerthan
over
that
in sizes not
to exceed
not
therefore
it almost
make
be
the
very
power
at
boiler
used, there
were
requiredfor
space
would
this number
In
the
be
of
plant.
Safety Valve
FIG.
The
can
come
made
"
Babcock
is the return
carry as
in contact
thicker.
with
The
the
increased
and
Wilcox
is not
internallyfired boiler
that it
not
22.
boiler.
limited
as
fire-tube
pressure
in the
of
shell
the
shell
can
permits
be
the
conditions
owing
are
They
have
not
not
been
and
favorable to their
much
used for
the cost
use.
of
stationary
repairswhere
BOILERS
61. Water-tube
Boilers.
The
"
91
demand
and
for
stations
to-day
are
boilers almost
exclusively.The
using water-tube
principal
water-tube
boilers
the
in
for
using
reasons
largepower stations
are:
adaptabilityto high pressure, reduced space taken by the
boiler,and greater safety in operation. There are a great many
makes
different
boilers
of various
market
the
on
water-tube
of
Fig.
shows
22
Wilcox
boiler in
section.
Gases
and
Babcock
crosslongitudinal
from
the
Hand
fire pass
flected
being de-
Hole
PlatesN
up
located
between
the
directly above
They then pass
tubes
to
the
and
tubes
the
bridge wall.
down
around
of the
back
space
the
it is
tubes
heated, the
FIG.
23.
"
their per,
upfront end, then rises through
and
the steam
enters
and
the boiler
of the drum
Fig. 52 shows
and
a
and water
through the
down
cock
header in BabTube
boiler.
Wilcox
and
connection
separates from
in the drum
water
end
in the
water
or
back
Front view of
vertical header
of
Side view
vertical header
tubes.
rear
drum,
header.
feed
Babcock
and
Wilcox
boiler with
superheater
attached.
Fig. 23 shows
and
Wilcox
boiler and
side views of
indicates
clearlythe
header
way
in
Babcock
the tubes
are
"staggered."
gives very satisfactoryservice for highwork, having largedisengagingsurfaces for the steam to
pressure
leave the water, and ample ste'am space.
This
class of boiler
HEAT
92
ENGINES
set
curved
the
connected
their ends
that
surface.
This
to
mud
one
the tube
enter
drums
steam
FIG.
24.
above
the
water
curved
The
the
steam
middle
water
generated
drum,
give additional
steam
line and
steam
outlet,which
the drum.
which
tubes
sheets
at
rightangles to
so
cient
effi-
front and
tubes
by curved ^equalizing
Stirlingboiler.
"
and
above
middle
drums
the water
in the three
is set
below
the
connected
by
circulating tubes
curved
space,
may
water
contraction.
connected
are
by
of the tubes
curvature
drum
are
line
banks
higher than
thence
be located
only.
of tubes
it passes
the
passes
other
through
two
into
to
the main
94
HEAT
There
is a man-hole
the removal
in
ENGINES
of the man-hole
Fig. 25 shows
platesthe drums
of
cross-section
They then
consists of
and
up
upward
pass
a
of
row
FIG.
back
The
the
around
feed water
into the
then
enters
flows
then
forward
end.
From
down
the
tubes
in the Heine
25.
"
Heine
back
where
tubes,
they turn
boiler,where
opening
through the
the
dirt and
the
around
then
boiler.
the
the boiler
(which
baffle wall
forward
of the upper
shell to
drum
mud
end
bridge wall
completely burned.
the
over
lower
of the
boiler.
water-tube
they are
then
by
be entered.
may
Heine
pass
of the
to the front
pass
back
and
tiling)
parallelto them,
and
one
out
the
breeching.
front head, passing
to
sediment
of the
of the drum
the back
at
are
drum
the
posited,
deand
front
of the boiler,
boiler.
BOILERS
Where
plant is
desirable
shows
cross-section
located
are
boiler
to
"
in
limited
very
is often
use
of the Wickes
Oven"
Dutch
setting. The
gases
pass
the
and
and
steamers
Fig.28
and
as
Dutch
FIG.
occupy
"
The
Heine
and
pass
boiler
water-and-mud
pass
to
the
then
steam-and-water
as
half,
rear
The
water
The
type.
front
furnace
of the
boiler
shell
showing water-legs,
travel
the
up
and
tubes.
first pass,
down
of the
rear
water-and-
tubes to the
through the circulating
drum, up the vertical tubes in the front
front
passes
in the
drum.
the
steam-and-water
direction
in the forward
across
passes
front
the main
to the stack.
out
drum,
the lower
grates
front.
products of combustion
the second
mud
same
them
projectfrom
chamber
"
around
near
from
the tubes
Oven"
26.
around
up
The
These
compartments.
relativelysmall floor space.
rear
combustion
"
rear
vertical boiler.
down
flows in the
shows
95
over
drum
drum
where
the
steam
The
separated from the water.
through the circulatingtubes to the rear
pass
and
is
down
the
rear
bank
of tubes
to the
startingplace.
"The
steam
tubes
drum, the
space
moisture
of the
drum
rear
dropping
passes
steam-
into
the
96
HEAT
ENGINES
Steam
Outlet
Manhole
SafetyValve
Water
Column
Feed Inlet
FIG.
27.
"
Wickes
boiler.
Downcomers1
BOILERS
water
space,
while
the
steam
97
passes
"
used
as
matter
of convenience.
Steam
boiler to
-,
Steam
Tubes
;
Steam
Outlet
abilityof
The
\
!
Water
Column
Water
Circulating
Tubes--
^-Blow-off
'
Water and
FIG.
make
steam
depends
28."
the
on
evaporate
7
more
than
Mud
'
Drums-''
boilef.
Rust
for
that
square
the
foot of
3 Ibs. of
of
amount
water
best
results
in
the
HEAT
98
is
ENGINES
highly desired). In
it is customary
surface
to
for
writing specifications
number
the
state
and
evaporate
under
hour
per
the
boilers,
heating
of square
feet of
the pounds of water
given conditions,rather
it is to
than
the
"
boiler
boiler horsepower"
horse-power. In order to give the term
Society of Mechanical
a definite meaning, the American
Engineers has adopted the followingrating for boilers: A
"boiler horse-power"is 34.5 Ibs. of water evaporatedper hour from
and
212"
at
produce from
depending
the amount
The
amount
and
the
upon
cent,
of heat
in
generated in
the
rating,
furnace
of the
of draft,
grate, the amount
A very rapid rate of combustion
area
largeescape
their
will
usuallyresults
than
steam
more
boilers
that is
given off
used, the
Most
steam.
of heat
amount
of heat
of fuel
saturated
25 to 50 per
and
kind
dry and
into
reduced
economy.
There
is
relation between
no
number
horse-power. The
of
boiler
horse-powerand
boiler
engine
an
horse-power required to
63.
"
water
has
water
surfacehas
on
side and
one
steam
on
one
hot gases
side and hot
on
The
the
such
heatingpurposes,
as
are
used
coal it is usual
for
to
allow
with
locomotive
50, to
The
boilers with
forced
In small boilers
lightdraft
grate to from
and
20 to
hard
30*sq.
50, to from
draft the
1 to
ratio is from
70.
1 to
1 to 100.
rate
draft.
of combustion
With
five-tenths
per
In both
the other.
on
(jases
ft. of
the
Superheating
the side in contact with the hot gases is the one to be measured.
proportionof grate surface to heating surface depends upon
cases
In
the other.
square
coal from
foot of
varies with
anthracite
of
an
inch
coal
The
of coal and
moderate
of water, it is from
draft,not
with
ceeding
ex-
12 to 15 Ibs.
grate surface
15 to 20 Ibs.
and
the kind
per
BOILERS
the kind of coal and
upon
of the
grate
requireless
coal
usuallydoes
Anthracite
area.
99
air
and
the
opening
exceed
not
50 per cent.
minous
grades of bitu-
better
than
the
grades of
poorer
coal.
of
is used for
followingrule
The
horizontal
determiningthe heatingsurface
return
heatingsurfaceis
equal to two-thirds the cylindricalsurface of the shell,plus the
internal area
of all the tubes,plus two-thirds the area of both tube
external cross-sectional area
sheets,minus twice the combined
of
all the tubes,all expressed
in square feet.
a
water-tube
In
boilers it is customary
surface
heating
to
allow
s_q. ft. of
in fire-tube boilers
bQi]grrsp-pnwr,nrl
per
10
12 sq. ft.
The
to
for
connection
is from
to
of the
braced,and
of the grates,depending
area
The
should
the
inspection.
XVI.
TABLE
DIAMETER
OF
BOILER
TUBES
Outside
64. Boiler
as
pound
Inside
Economy.
The
"
the number
of
of
economy
pounds of
water
boiler is
pressed
usuallyex-
of coal fired.
The
water
water
fed to
steam
formed
necessary
to make
dry and
saturated
dry and
a
be made
weight of
steam
boiler is
saturated.
correction
percentage of moisture
may
on
in order to determine
might have
is less than
been
2 per
by simply subtractingthe
water
fed.
If the
is wet, it is
If the steam
formed.
cent,
moisture
percentage is more
how
When
much
the
this correction
from
than
the total
2 per
cent.
HEAT
100
if
or
great accuracy
"
multipliedby
is
and
q is the
(1
/h
ff)
which
(t
water
is
fed must
equal
be
to
32) \
{H^T- ~d)
}
qualityof
desired,the weight of
factor of correction"
ff +
where
ENGINES
of the steam
at the
of the
liquid
given pressure,
and
the
be
may
expressedas
different conditions
coals,it
conditions,and
same
the
the number
of pounds of equivalent
per pound of combustible burned.
the
under
of heat
amount
same
as
in evaporatingthe water
actuall^ased
is
the
8 to
12
performance
average
from
9 to
Ibs. of
under
10 Ibs. of water
per
water
usual
per
coal, a boiler
pound of coal.
working conditions
of coal.
pound
The
is
economy
of boiler
the
be
kept,in order
to
prevent
"
The
waste
of coal due
to
efficiencyof boiler,
per
pound of
pound of combustible.
The
"heat
per
is
at
HEAT
102
ENGINES
20 per cent.
It is often much
that the fireman
admits
too
much
this
than
more
air to
is necessary
for its complete combustion.
This
is heated from the temperature of the boiler room
of the stack
passes
important
be
not
by
the
up
that
the amount
has
as
under
is,therefore,very
This
absolutelynecessary.
is determined
of carbon
shown
12 to 13 per
It is
of CO2
cent,
A 48 in.'
X
Example."
in the stack
at 100 Ibs.
16.8 per
to have
What
cent,
more
Larger
gases.
centages
per-
of CO.
12 ft. return
cent.,and
per
usuallyundesirable
the presence
generallyindicate
tubes.
fire should
to the
of air admitted
been
CO2
is
It
the temperature
to
used
heat
all the
is wasted.
and
chimney
the amount
than
more
and
gases,
of air
excess
thirty4-in.
feed temperature
per cent, of its ratingis the boiler
per hour from
developing?
heating surface from
cylindrical
portion of shell
^-*"
H.S. of
"
First find
?~X-3.l4i6
X 4
H.S. of tubes
30 X
3.1416
-^r*
-.
H.S.
of tube
X 3.1416
-(30
2)
Total
12
sq.ft.
352.5
sq. ft.
'
-
2(8
38
X
-
"
2
.
62)
=11
.
heatingsurface
j"sq.
464
.
ft.
5 sq. ft.
'
From
Now
=100.
sheets
2[f(3.1416XJ2
12.
\."i
"
"
3^74
"
Solution.
38
.
horse-power developed.
The
heat
The
used in evaporating
is equal to the
a pound of water
actually
the heat
total heat in a pound of steam
at thfc given pressure minus
in
the
feed
water.
already
From
1400
[1188.6
(120
1,541,000
-Q7Q
from
32)]
1,541,000B.T.U.
evaporation from
paragraph 64, the equivalent
=
and
boiler
horse-power
hour,
and
at 212"
BOILERS
103
1588
46.
34.5
46
5^
1.19
119 per
cent.
00.
Ans.
Example.
fired. Feed
"
Ibs. of water
temperature, 120";steam
pressure,
pound
per
100 Ibs.
Coal
of coal
fired
as
2 per
moisture.
cent,
Dry
and
of the boiler,
furnace
(6) Find
grates combined.
efficiency
of the boiler and furnace.
efficiency
Solution.
(a) Heat necessary to evaporate 1 Ib. of water
"
1188.6
Water
(120
of
evaporatedper pound
8.23
=
1.
Heat
utilized per
B.T.U.
coal fired
=T98
pound of dry
8.4
coal fired
1100.6
furnace
Efficiencyof boiler,
Heat
dry
1100.6
8.23
00^02
32)
and
9245
B.T.U.
grates combined
utilized per
pound
of 1 Ib.
Heating value
of
0045
=
(6) Heating
.7223
72.23
per cent.
12800
13'474RT-U'
,
Water
EOO"-
"
~96~
.05
of combustible
burned
8'13
=
1.00
Heat
-(.02+
.12)
of boiler and
Efficiency
Heat
1100.6
9.57
Ibs.
.86
burned
10,533 B.T.U.
furnace
utilized per
pound
of combustible
Heating
value
of 1 Ib. of combustible
burned
,
the
HEAT
104
10533
ENGINES
-7817"
78-17
Percent.*
13474
f (a) 72.23
per cent.
17 per cent.
78.
?"\(6)
of coal
containing
is 550",what
per
is
70"?
Solution.
If there
"
no
were
pound
actual
giveoff a pound
fired would
the
there is alwayssome
would
of coal
case
as
weight
27 Ibs. The
pound of coal
heats of the various components of the stack gase?
average of the specific
is a littlehigher than that of air,.2375.
To be absolutelycorrect,then,
itwould be necessary to multiplythe weight of each of the various gases
in the stack gas by its particular
ucts
heat,and then add these prodspecific
of
raise
the
to
bustion
comB.T.U.
to
the
products
together
get
necessary
done, the method used
one
degree. This,however, is never
as that
heat of the stack gases to be the same
the specific
beingto assume
that 1
of air,.2375,although reallyit is slightly
higher,and to assume
Ib. of gas is given off from 1 Ib. of coal,although in realityit is a little
of stack gas per
result
less.
Thus
Hence,
degree
one
productsof combustion
to raise the
.2375(26 + 1)
6.41
one
B.T.U.
This
answer
550
may
70
480".
be checked
as
follows:
of grate alone
Efficiency
Combustible
burned
per
Combustible
fired per
Efficiencyof
boiler and
furnace
of boiler,
furnace
Efficiency
and
Efficiencyof grate
722S
=
1)237
alone
-
-9237
-7819
=78-19Per
cent-
grate
92-37
per
cent-
BOILERS
Heat
105
necessary
480
6.41
480"
3080B.T.U.
the stack
3080
=.2281
22.81
1Q"
cent.
per
loOUU
67. Boiler
condition
Accessories.
of the
provided with
In
"
and
steam
order to determine
in
water
the
physical
boiler,all boilers
are
gage
Elevation.
Interior mechanism
FIG.
with
to take
water
"
Pressure
place of
gage.
which
water
The
steam.
the
29.
opened from
to
time
the
to blow
the
the
made
into
lowest
point of
boiler.
This is usually
and settlings
mud
out
to
from
has been
of the boiler.
ordinary form
The
Pressure
gages
of pressure
is shown
in Fig. 29.
gage
be placed at a convenient point for easy
should
the
it changes
calibration
cock
and
union
portion
in
in
enter
of the instrument.
If hot steam
the
enters
gage-tube,which changes
It should
also have
gage
that it may
be easilyremoved.
The operating
of the gage consists of a flattened copper
tube bent
circle and
Fig. 29,
the gage.
the length of the copper
cannot
so
there
are
two
such
One
tubes.
end
is
When
fixed,or,
as
shown
fluid pressure
is
HEAT
106
ENGINES
Fig.
shows
30
column
the
and
elevation
with
arranged
its gage
glass. The section shows
that it will blow a whistle when
the
boiler is too
high
or
low.
too
is called
This
Elevation
The
water
the water
and
gage
important
gage
30.
accessories
on
attached
to
or
tri-cocks,
the
water
Water
float
water
in
"high
and
so
the
low
column.
column
in boiler
water
gage
"
water
fluctuations of water
lowest
the
Cross-section.
FIG.
as
water
alarm."
water
are
of
cross-section
cocks, used
column
point in the
On
as
length of
operation. The
boiler.
as
check
glassshould
to
the ordinary
cover
always be
It should
this water
is sometimes
gage
it is attached
which
be such
in the
column.
to
upon
column
are
the water
clogged
with
be set about
placed
column,
dirt.
The
3 in. above
BOILERS
of the
attached
and
the
to
bottom
the
The
steam
of the
water
and
gage
the
column
should
the
and
water
and
gage,
the
should
water
The
at
space
blow-off valves
gage.
off
position
column
it will
to
be
water
blown
be
should
cocks
column
The
usually determined
water
that
so
space
There
is
of the
top
water
boilers.
boilers
glass in water-tube
gage
by the manufacturers.
be
in tubular
the
107
both
on
columns
water
frequently. Fig.
30
shows
column,
tri-cocks.
Safety valves
constructed
are
in
great many
shows
31
the
safety valve.
valve
is
surface
The
of the
construction
size of the
The
usually determined
and
the
steam
followingrule
Let G
the
the
be used
grate surface in
safety
the
by
grate
carried.
pressure
may
nary
ordi-
square
feet;
pounds
per
FIG.
inch
square
the
in
pressure
total
31.
"
Safety valve.
gage;
safety valve, or
of
area
valves, in
square
inches.
22. 5G
Then,
Some
authorities
sq. in.
of
Formerly
it
the
lever
allow
to
on
if it is in
In
an
to be used
one
that
At
pressure,
and
seat
which
they
open.
at
be
the
tried
once
day
at
are
pressure
The
at
pop
safety
least, to
condition.
presented
been
the
was
grate surface.
used, but
type most
ft. of
sq.
should
working
article
have
valves
boiler
every
with.
at
safety valve
blow
8.62
in
for
is almost
as
safety valve
safety valve
adjusted so
see
T"
easily tampered
was
valve
"~
AJL
on
to the
boilers:
HEAT
108
45"
For
valve
seats
Z)
For
locomotives
For
fire-tube
ENGINES
and
-0095ifp'-
water-tube
boilers
stationary
H
J
LXP'
For
marine
boilers
Pounds
of steam
discharged,
boiler-evaporation,
or
per
hour.
L
Vertical
Steam
Nominal
Total
The
this
on
for
diameter
boiler
subject by
G.
pounds
in
surface
in
in
feet.
about
of
an
to
inch.
obtained
Darling
inches.
square
is
inch.
square
per
(inlet) in
safety valve
be
may
P.
in inches.
of valve
heating
lift for
results
exact
valve
(absolute)
pressure
average
More
lift of the
reference
by
A.S.M.E.
the
paper
Proceedings
1909.
The
and
feed
pipe
check
check
to
valve.
In
will
close
valve
boiler
the
is
of
case
and
provided
always
accident
the
prevent
feed
the
to
from
water
with
valve
valve
the
leaving
the
boiler.
It
sometimes
and
accidents
are
a
are
consisting
before
happens
any
called
of
boiler
avoided
a
brass
damage
that
explosion
results
by having
bushing
can
be
boiler
from
screwed
filled
done
are
shell
often
with
to
the
used.
this
into
a
become
may
heated
over-
Such
accident.
the
metal,
boiler.
boiler
which
These
plug
melts
plugs
110
HEAT
both of the
out
by
sprinklingtype.
John
Juckes.
FIG.
33.
"
may
The
Murphy
by Thomas
Murphy
the
first to have
bly
Stokers
ENGINES
be
of
The
first chain
first American
stoker
"
view from
Detroit,Mich,
divided
69. Inclined
and
33, is
overfeed
or
34.
Grates.
of furnace.
into .three
prod-
"
"
Elevation
The
principalclasses:
the
the under-feed.
of Detroit
Murphy
stoker.
stoker,shown
an
invented
was
slopinggrate.
FIG.
in
stoker
rear
brought
grate was
in
Figs. 32
as
the
side
AUXILIARIES
BOILER
"At
coal
magazine
111
furnace,extendingfrom
the
into which
front to rear, is
be introduced either
coal may
by hand.
At the bottom
of this
mechanically from conveyors, or
magazine is the coking plate,against which the inclined grates
ends.
The
stoker boxes, operated by segrest at their upper
ment
the
the
and
coal
out
shaft
over
racks,push
coking
gear
plate and
The
The
a
movable
bar
the
surface
rest
upon
grates.
grates
rocker
ash
to the
on
the
in
made
are
"
FIG.
exhaust
35.
steam
"
stoker
Detroit
from
the
from
view
"
ends
receives the
of furnace.
rear
grinderand
and
and
clinker
so
hollow
or
stoker
cast
clinker
rear
view
of
Detroit
In small plants
Murphy.
worm
a
type of feed is used (see Fig. 35). These
conveyor
revolve through the hoppers and feed the coal in
conveyors
through the magazines. This is a convenient arrangement where
the coal is shoveled into the hoppers from the floor by hand.
stoker.
Both
This
the
is very
Murphy
similar to
and
Detroit
the
stokers
are
adaptable to
all
HEAT
112
grades of
or
ENGINES
coal,but
bituminous
are
use
of
lignite
anthracite.
Dutch
The
effective both
the most
as
elimination
extension
or
oven,
settings,are
to
as
garded
generallyre-
and
efficiency
as
to the
of smoke.
Still another
form
is the
Roney,
Fig.36, in whichTh!Tc7)aT7s~T^
inclined grate from
of the boiler,and is pushed upon
an
in Fig. 37. To
is shown
front. The
feeding mechanism
shown
in
FIG.
36.
"
Roney
stoker
"
the
the
side view.
to them
the
fuel
rocking
in the
the fuel
movement.
It
vances
hopper settles down in front of it,and as it adAs the main operating
is pushed into the furnace.
shaft
runs
at constant
BOILER
connectingrod, the
AUXILIARIES
free end
of which
of
the
inclined
this is
of
given excellent
In conditions
stoker,but
"
freelythrough a
agitator an adjusting
it
rocker
grate stoker
works
of the
113
as
some
one
satisfaction,
of excessive
other
of the most
forms
factory
satis-
forms.
hopper
Feed
Plate
Wheel-.,
Agitator-Sector
Sheath-Nut
Hock- Shaft
Agitator..
Lock- Nut
Main
Shaft--Operating
ConnectingRod-
Rocker
FIG.
70. Chain
37.
Roney
"
stoker
"
Bar-
feed mechanism.
be
adjusted to
on
the boiler.
is
"
the
completelyburned
justas
it reaches
the back
of the grate.
If
114
the
HEAT
of the
over
the back
grate into the ash pit. If it is too slow, there will be holes
FIG.
FIG.
in the
ENGINES
39.
"
Green
fire toward
38.
Green
"
chain
the
chain grate.
allowing an
coal drops from
rear,
thickness
excess
of air to pass
the
hopper
of the bed
of coal
upon
this
being ad-
AUXILIARIES
BOILER
115
for the
FIG.
cross-section
of
of the ashes.
removal
easy
40.
chain
It also shows
the
of the ashes.
.This is
ash
under-feed
Jones
"
sub-basement
desirable
39
shows
the
stoker.
pit and
a
Fig.
Stirlingboiler.
removal
for easy
arrangement with
most
forms
of stokers.
71. Under-feed
under-feed
is the
"
One
of the
Jones, shown
commonest
in
Fig.
40
forms
of
applied to
boiler
stokers
Stokers.
HEAT
116
ENGINES
and
FIG.
passedthrough
form
41.
"
Section
of Jones
the incandescent
under-feed
fuel.
way
are
stoker.
smokeless
of stoker.
Fig. 42
shows
the
FIG.
American
42.
"
American
under-feed
is similar
stoker.
HEAT
118
pushes
ram
the
ENGINES
and
coal outward
green
tributing
upward, properly dis-
it in the
enters
and
the
escaping from
distilled from
and
the
upward by
rods and
shaft.
links from
The
FIG. 44.
"The
"
crank
speed shaft
Taylor
dump
stoker
from
the wind
"
in
the
fuel
box,
gases
outward
pushed
rams
are
by connecting
shaft which is driven from the speed
turn is driven by the fan engine.
Both
rams.
a
tuyere boxes
coal and
the
the
actuated
plates,which
hung on the
combination
with
an
Surface
are
in Stokers.
1 to
"
The
as
grate surface in
the
is termed
the stoker
55, to
area
of the
stoker
horizontal
The
projectedarea.
to the heating surface
1 to 65.
AUXILIARIES
BOILER
The
tages
principal advansmokeless
stokers are:
of mechanical
operation of the
furnace, adaptabilityto the burning of cheaper grades of coal,
73.
Advantages
and
119
Disadvantages.
"
and
steam
pressure,
which
adds
of the
the economy
the steam
cent,
small
45.
"
stokers
in most
cent,
of
to 5 per
generated.
of the steam
FIG.
In
is from
J to 3 per
generated,and, if fan blast is used, from 3
mechanism, which
General
arrangement of
modern
boiler
room.
vided,
coal-handlingmachinery is not proreduce the labor charge. In largeplants
plants where
stokers
will not
floor.
is forced into a
feed water
The
Pumps.
boiler either by a feed pump
an
injector. There are wot
or
which
belted feed pumps
may
general types of feed pumps:
74. Boiler
Feed
"
HEAT
120
be driven
from
ENGINES
consumption of
steam
from
use
150
Ibs. of steam
to 300
from
pumps,
feed pumps
The
of this type.
pumps
of the
per
80
FIG.
46.
pumps
horse-power per
150 Ibs.;compound condensing
to
60 to 75 Ibs.
from
is about
pumps
80 per cent.
Worthington
"
feed
indicated
direct-acting
type,
of these
efficiency
mechanical
Small
is called
The
belt-driven
wasted
when
pumps
may
the line
packed pump.
outside center
an
used
is often
pump
to
overcome
the
shafting.
In
from
some
steam
These
engine or from
driven by an electric
they
cases
has its
are
disadvantages.
The
speed of
motor.
This
the pump
of water
to go
back
arrangement
from
the
pressure
to
the
suction
AUXILIARIES
BOILER
If the feed is
be made
must
to the
suddenly shut
for the
off from
dischargefrom
121
all the
the pump
boilers,
provision
beingturned back
suction
the main
engine is shut
necessary
load.
The
to
down.
turbine
driven,turbine
pumps
are
speed
of
turbine
determines
pump
the
pressure
Overflow
Water
FIG.
47.
"
Steam
injector
"
cross
section.
the demand.
of water pumped depends upon
only and the amount
and requiresvery little attention.
This is,therefore,automatic
75. Steam
Injectors. Boilers are often fed by an injector,
invented
a device
by M. Giffard,a French engineer.
the operation
Fig. 47 shows the cross-section of an injector,
of which is as follows:
The handle, 137, is pulled back slightly,
thus raising
valve 130 from its seat and admittingsteam
through
"The discharge of steam
valve 126 to the lifter nozzel 101.
from this nozzle into the lifter combining tube, 102, entrains
the air in the suction pipe finallyproducing sufficient vacuum
The flow of water
to lift the water.
through both the
passes
intermediate
overflow, 121, and the forcer combining tube,
A further movement
104, and out of the final overflow, 117.
of the lever opens
the forcer steam
valve, 126, and admits
"
HEAT
122
ENGINES
steam
nozzle,103,
valve
while
is approaching
increase
of pressure
closes the intermediate
at the
time
same
in the
This
deliverychamber.
overflow valve,121, and opens
pressure
the intermediate or line check valve, 111, and when
the final
overflow valve, 117, is brought to its seat the injectorwill be
in full operation. The
overflow
intermediate
valve, 117,
its only function .beingto give direct
operates automatically,
relief to the lifter steam
nozzle when
liftingor priming, and
consevuent
its seat
to
comes
there
by
There
the pressure
are
conditions.
when
applied and
is held
by the forcer."
exerted
different forms of
many
The
is
made
injectors
for different
head
When
the
hot
the suction
on
water
exceeding 120".
meant
water
handle
hot water
exceeding100".
from
be
the
on
as
they
Where
15 ft.
than
more
handled, the
is to be
water
level of the
not
suction
side.
are
very
pumps
are
the
line of the
center
is
water
seldom
difficult to start
installed
be below
hot
By
Injectors are
used
to
with
water
handling hot
water
should
in the heater
5 ft. above
should
pump
cylinders if
pump
sible.
pos-
in the
water
suction
be raised
cannot
boils and
draws
from
the
suction
is steam.
77. Feed-water
be
fed
This
with
saves
addition
warm
Heaters.
"
water, usually
important that
It is very
at
necessary
temperature
to
make
to
over
boiler
180".
steam, and
in
difference
in
AUXILIARIES
BOILER
123
often
cold water
boiler with
all modern
the
exhaust
Devices
for
with
or
exhaust
waste
for
steam
The
gases
called
provided for
used,
using the
is
means
some
before
steam
method
commonest
leak.
plants
power
causes
Feeding
is termed
from
economizer.
an
feed-water
are
heater
the
are
the boiler.
on
fuel,and
itself in
78.
few
the installation of
the
the
the exhaust
Heaters.
and
open
feed
the
with
When
which
feed
filter before
should
that
5 ft.
for the
hot
for other
uniform
which
water
condensed
The
closed
heater
this type of
into direct
come
be
can
tact
con-
pans,
over
passes
heater,it is only
the
at
heater
or
deposited.
necessary
to
Before
also be used
may
shown
from
which
steam
certain
This
pressure.
is drained
automaticallyallows
a
In
usually
level is maintained
of water.
the
heater
feed pumps.
The feed-water
sufficient height above the feed pump
so
which
water
hot
The
more.
pass
the
to
at
through
to
enteringthe heater
oil separator.
be passed through an
form of
usually passed through some
will enter
water
or
is
is admitted
cold water
steam
clean them.
should
going
be located
the
and
water
The
feed-
open
wrought-ironshell
or
is allowed
water
clean
to
these pans
the exhaust
steam
hot
for
general
two
The
matter
scale-producing
any
it is desired
cast-
exhaust
The
other.
take out
The
and
water
each
trays, upon
cent,
usuallypay
are
dosed.
the
sheets
or
There
"
is led.
steam
in streams
steam
heater
will
12 per
months.
exhaust
temperature
about
save
heater
into which
the
increases
Types of Feed-water
water
be
which
heater
from
types of heaters:
at
water
as
the steam
does
not
in the heater
to enter
distance
should
receptacle
mains, and
contain oil.
by
the heater
float valve
when
the
point.
in
Fig. 49
consists of
cylindrical
HEAT
124
shell of cast
header
at
tubes
one
other.
on
In
48.
form
one
a
to the header
of the heater
end
in the
admitted
the
FIG.
or
ENGINES
of coils of
side of the
closed
feed-water
Open
"
heater
Steam
feed
other
end,
heater.
pipe. The
tubes
the
at the
and
the
water
exhaust
feed
and
steam
water
the
on
steam
is
the
used
Outlet
Feed
or
Inlet
Blow
FIG.
do
are
not
come
49.
in contact
usuallyused
where
"
Closed
with
feed -water
each
heater.
other.
it is desired to pass
The
the
closed
water
heaters
through
HEAT
126
ENGINES
cleaned
placed
in
with
from
as
to make
FIG.
caused
by
51.
that
the
the
should
strong draft
The
or
number
of cold
admission
location
economizer
boiler
the
in
never
with
be
used
mechanical
the
except with
of tests
have
economizer
been
may
plant which
water
the
to
breeching.
and
the
leakage
friction.
mizers
Econo-
chimneys having
draft.
is very
horse-powerfor plantsof 1000
of the
thus
advantage
particulardisdraft owing to the
additional
causes
boiler and
so
Their
water.
first cost
$5 to $6 per
A
Economizer, showing
gases
Economizers
deliver
is
installed
are
fact
"
be
can
economizer
leavinga
it
carries the
Economizers
chimney.
small
flue which
in heat
the waste
boiler at
metal
use
be installed also to
is too
sheet
or
boiler to the
the
reduce
brick
that
made
of the
high, varying
horse-power
economizer
or
from
over.
where
A UXILI
BOILER
net
saving of 10
cost
From
ARIES
127
per
4 to 5 sq.
was
ft. of economizer
surface
should
be
allowed
boiler
horse-power.
Superheaters. In the past few years the use of superheated
with both reciprocating
steam
engines and turbines has
become
The
general. The benefits derived are many.
very
remains
in a dry condition until all the superheatis lost.
steam
while passing through the piping
heat lost by the steam
The
from the superheater to the place where it is to be used, does not
per
81.
"
FIG.
52.
"
Superheating
coil in Babcock
and
Wilcox
boiler.
condensation
as
it is
consequently increasingthe
Recent experiments have
from
steam
consumption.
shown
that
is
when
saving
is heated
superof 1 per cent, in
steam
HEAT
128
ENGINES
the conditions.
the
In the
majority of
cases
it has been
found
that
highestcommercial
"When
700"
the temperature
F.,the change
is constant, even
varies
where
where
certain to
steam
"The
82.
unsuitable
for
is inadvisable
be
safelyused
The
Chimneys.
chimney is a very important part of a
plant, and the operation of the plant depends
steam-power
the draft and capacityof the chimney.
upon
ference
83. Draft.
The
draft in a chimney is produced by the difin weight between
the column
of hot gases inside the
outside
dimensions
of gases of the same
chimney and a column
the chimney.
forced up the
The
hot gases, being light,are
chimney by the cold gases coming through the grates.
The
the intensityof
height of the chimney then determines
the draft.
The
draft is always measured
in inches of water,
be determined
and for a given height of stack may
as follows:
"
"
Let
T"
129
AUXILIARIES
BOILER
the
the
absolute
of the
temperature
gases
outside
the
chimney.
T'
absolute
the
of the
temperature
inside the
gases
chimney.
w"
the
weight of
temperature
/T7O
w''=
weight of
the
air at
foot
cubic
temperature
T'.
Then
Hw'
Hw"
Hence
of 1 sq.
area
ft.,the
(1)
~r
equals
weight of
The
Hw"
an
Hwe
(2)
draft,
rpo
F'
Hw"
Hw'
Hw"
Hw"
7^
Therefore
F'
This
water
is in
pounds
be
this must
draft in inches
per
Hw"(lJ")-
(3)
multipliedby
reduce
To
foot.
square
of
inches
Hence
.192.
to
of water,
F
.W2Hw"l
(4)
~-
The
"
of
will burn
Let
the gases
be found
may
=
the
head
follows:
Then
producing velocity.
producing the
hw'
as
Hw"
head
the
weight
of
Hw'
Hw'
Hw'.
(5)
HEAT
130
ENGINES
Therefore
IT'
u"
Let
(^0 1.)
(6)
the
u'
and
Then
the
the velocity
(7)
Let W"
the total
weight of the
gases
passingup
the
chimney
second,then
per
W"
w"u"
w'u'
--
or
For
an
outside temperature
the
530.
Assume
Then
in
or
area
pounds
chimney
W"
.30A
per
.075 and
V#
in
to
be
T"
500" F.
equation (8),
(9)
.247.
in square
in
feet,then
pounds
per
(10)
second,
hour
per
3600
.3A
Vff.
(11)
assumes
shows
of the
TF"!
This
values
.602
Substitutingthese
If A
3600
.35 X
.3A V#
3784
V#.
is
(12)
Each
VH
3.15A
V#-
(13)
AUXILIARIES
BOILER
Various
varying from
measured
in this
expression
3.5 to 3.0.
Height of
85.
the constant
give values of
authors
131
Chimney.
heightof
chimney is always
grate and, in any given case,
level of the
the
from
The
"
depends upon the kind of fuel that is to be burned under the boiler.
The
height of chimney for
followingtable gives the minimum
various
of fuels :
kinds
XVIII.
TABLE
For
straw
bituminous
35 feet.
lump,
free
ordinary slack
ordinary bituminous
slack
the
capacity. As
of
"
150
"
chimney should
too
in
proportionto
example,
an
exceed
not
*'
125
coal
reduced
show
height may
115
very
"
100
coal
the
height of
diameter.
burning
100
anthracite
or
anthracite pea
The
HEIGHTS
wood
or
small
CHIMNEY
In
ney
chim-
general
8 per cent, of
its height.
86. Materials
used
in
Used.
Brick
"
buildingchimneys
chimneys
are
hollow
or
than
other
any
desired.
tile is
material
life of
The
extensively
more
brick
where
manent
per-
chimney
is
materials
These
used in
are
probably forty or fiftyyears.
plantswhere few changes are expected.
In most
plants the station is not expected to remain without
extensive changes more
than twenty or twenty-fiveyears, and
the expense
of a brick chimney is not warranted.
Many of
steel chimneys.
the recent power
houses are usingself-sustaining
For
temporary
used.
commonly
steel guy
not
wires.
than
more
sulphur
not
are
There
shells
than
"
be
parts, an
and
outer
sheet
where
in
very
coal
as
an
contains
much
Fig. 53,
inner shell,usually
burned
expand.
gases.
and
the inner
Brick
chimneys
the outer
permanent
in
shown
be taken
steel
the
shell and
forms
an
expensive to erect,but
should
unlined
five years.
Brick chimneys,
fire-brick which
should
so
years,
Chimneys.
built in two
lined with
are
ten
more
87. Brick
chimney is very
to brace these chimneys with
It is necessary
The life of these chimneys is short,at the best
the
use
in character.
Care
is to support
132
HEAT
ENGINES
much
are
chimney.
lighter than
They
much
are
the
less
solid
expensive than
cost
brick
than
self-
sustainingsteel chimney.
88. Steel
Chimneys."
Steel
chimneys of the
built of boiler plates
self-sustaining
type are
riveted together. They
foundations
the
wind
which
anchor
heavy
very
to
supported
are
they
ple
am-
bolted
are
The
bolts.
on
by
of
pressure
are
length.
89. Mechanical
Draft.
will not
In
"
some
cases
ditions
con-
of
the draft
chimney, and in other cases
than the ordinary chimney
required is more
a
tall
will
some
give. It
form
is then
of forced
Mechanical
Where
inside
are
90. Systems
(2) A fan
FIG.
53."
Brick
chimney.
^
ash
pit and
the fire.
are
termed
may
to
require
be used
Draft.
be used to
be
used
to
"
There
produce
force air
.,
P1^
Both
ash
jet may
pit.
steam
so
perature
tem-
"
of Mechanical
(1) A
of the chimney.
used, the
such
are
CC
be
chimney may
draft.
draft.
outside
or
of the economizer
mechanical
to
entirely
independent of
economizers
in the
resistance
mechanical
or
draft is
the temperature
to resort
necessary
of the above
forceddraft,as
through
HEAT
134
ENGINES
coal should
be utilized,
how many
pounds of water would be evaporated per
Steam
200 Ibs.;feed temperature, 250".
dry coal?
pressure,
11. Efficiencyof a boiler,
Coal burned
furnace and grate is 65 per cent.
contains 12,000 B.T.U. per pound.
Steam
feed
200
Ibs.;
ture,
temperapressure,
180".
How
pounds of water will be evaporated per pound of
many
of
pound
*""
coal?
12. A boiler burns
coal
Ibs.;feed temperature,
200
-*
"
under
pressure
18. A
500".
coal contains
burn
to
of 80 Ibs.?
it.
What
per
of the heat
cent,
the stack?
up
of heat
-
is lost up
20. A
4000
the
stack,if the
coal contains
14,500 B.T.U.
per
pound?
Ibs. of water
of 60 Ibs.
Which
from
an
of 110" and
initial temperature
of the two
under
pressure
of heat per
hour?
21. A
Coal
contains
hour.
boiler evaporates 6000 Ibs. of water
per
Steam pressure,
100 Ibs.;feed temperature, 180";efficiency
13,000 B.T.U.
of boiler and
burn
""
per
grate, 70
engine
perature, 120"; steam
water
per
per
uses
pound
pounds
many
/\k
hour?
22. An
How
per, cent.
30
Ibs. of steam
pressure,
of coal.
How
120
many
Ibs.
I.H.P.
per
The
pounds
hour.
per
Feed
tem-
of coal
are
requiredper
I.H.P.
hour?
23. A
per
pound
of
coal.
Steam
AUXILIARIES
BOILER
""
the
heating surface
25. A
66-in. boiler
heating surface
and
and
16
rated
ft.
rated
long
135
Coal
ft.
costs
from
and
long
has
surface
and
rated
(Boiler Horse-power).
ninety-eight3-in. tubes.
has
and
28. A
rated
and
""
and
rated
rated
Ibs. of water
heating
Find
and
the heating
the
heating
temperature,
superheat. What
pounds of coal used
have an efficiency
of 70
pound dry.
Ibs. of water
120".
How
feed temperature
100" of
number
grates combined
14,000 B.T.U. per
from
hour
per
and
Ibs.;feed
the
Find
twenty-six3-in. tubes.
at
31. A
150
Find
twenty-six4-in. tubes.
evaporationT^oiler
H.P., and
heating
B.H.P.
cent,
the
B.H.P.
the factor of
Find
B.H.P.
the
B.H.P.
surface
Find
B.H.P.
4-in. tubes
seventy
B.H.P.
"
What'
at 212"?
of
hour.
per
Steam
boiler
many
is
per""
per
pressure,
horse-power
is it
developing?
"
32.
hour
"
from
pressure
should
an
of
boiler which
1000-H.P.
33. A
engine uses
feed
180 Ibs.;
at boiler,
have
to
steam
we
supply
15 Ibs. ef steam
feed temperature
for the
H.P.
Steam
hour.
per
What
boiler H.P.
engine?
Ibs. of water
of 120".
per
temperature, 120".
water
34. A
from
is the H.P.
What
per
hour
at
of steam, 98 per
Quality
16 ft. and
hour,
is
pressure,
If
4-in. tubes.
fifty-four
its
under
it working over
or
100 Ibs.; feed temperature
has
200"
"
36. A
return
fire-tube boiler is 60
contains
13,000 B.T.U.
and
uses
long, and
per
Steam
hour.
above
or
has
below
its
pound of coal.
pound to burn it.
per
Temperature of the boiler room, 70",and of the stack, 550". Steam pressure,
this result be possible? If not,
Would
100 Ibs.;feed temperature, 70".
how
pounds of water could the boiler evaporate per pound of coal?
many
The
38. A plant burns
1500 Ib. of coal per hour.
height of the stack
is 130 ft. Temperature- of boiler room
is 70" and of the stack gases, 500",
and
per
24 Ibs. of air
pound.
is lost up
water?
are
What
the stack?
used
to burn
should
What
be the
1 Ib. of coal.
area
Coal
of the stack?
is the pressure
contains
What
12,000 B.T.U.
per
cent,
of heat
of inches of
136
HEAT
r.
/5. H*"
K/*rt
ENGINES
boiler?
tain?
What
(6) How
should
40. In
"
many
(c) How
a
many
be the
feet of
square
square
breeching?
boiler plantwhat should
stack,if the stack is 125
100 H.P.
"
should
con-
it have?
(d)
of the
area
heatingsurface
The
auxiliaries use
feed
temperature,200".
or
be the
of the grates,and
plant carries
area
ft. high?
If the
fire-tube boiler be
26 Ibs. of steam
per
used,and why?
H.P.
per
hour.
many
per
the
furnace
boiler,
"
212".
of the boiler,
furnace
efficiency
and
grate?
44. A
boiler evaporates 7.5 Ibs. of water per pound of coal. Coal contains:
150".
Steam pressure, 100 Ibs.;feed temperature,
13,000 B.T.U.
-"
What
is the combined
45. What
"
is the combined
evaporates 8 Ihs.of water per Ib. of coal from a feed temperature of 150" into
steam
at 150 Ibs. pressure? Coal contains 13,000 B.T.U.
per pound.
46. A boiler evaporates 9 Ibs. of water per pound of dry coal containing
13,500B.T.U. per pound. Steam pressure, 100 Ibs.; feed temperature, 200".
What is the combined
furnace and the grate?
of the boiler,
efficiency
""
with
pound of coal,what
grate?
*
"*
H.P.
developedby
furnace
boiler,
and
the boiler?
(6) What
of the boiler,
furnace
efficiency
"-J "50.
A boiler
uses
6 Ibs. of water.
is the combined
are
evaporated
(a) What
is the
of
efficiency
the
grate?
it evaporate with
at 100 Ibs.
and
grate?
from
and
pound.
At the
at 212" F. per
What
same
is the
pound
of
combined
what
efficiency,
will
steam
pressure of 200 Ibs. and feed temperature at 200"?
1 Ib. of dry coal containing13,000 B.T.U. to evaporate
Steam
pressure,
100
Ibs.;feed temperature,
100".
(a)
AUXILIARIES
BOILER
is the
What
of
efficiency
the boiler
will
(") What
plant?
of the
137
heats
will be the
of coal
after
efficiency
(c) What
F.?
feed-water
the
heater
is
installed?
51. A
boiler
9 Ibs. of water
evaporates
Coal
pressure, 150 Ibs.
B.T.U.
contains
14,000
per
temperature, 70";steam
moisture.
ash
coal
Dry
Twelve
by analysis.
in form
of ash
furnace?
and
(6) What
cent,
per
is the
efficiencyof
is the
and
pound
is taken
Feed
3 per
cent,
has 6 per
cent,
from
efficiencyof
the
fired.
fired contains
as
of coal fired
(a) What
refuse,
of coal
pound
per
the
ash
boiler
the
boiler,furnace
and
pit
and
grates
combined?
A
52.
boiler
cent.;and
O,
balance
CO.
to
8 per
coal
burns
plant
cent.
evaporation is 8
The
of the carbon
Ibs. of water
pressure,
boiler and
(6) What
furnace?
C,
contains
which
Two-thirds
is the
75
cent.; H, 6 per
to CO2 and the
per
is burned
of
efficiency
Steam
of coal.
pound
per
(a) What
is the
of the
efficiency
boiler,furnace and
the
grates combined?
A
53.
boiler
180"
of
Dry
coal contains
Ten
per
pound
Combined?
if
of
the boiler?
54.
/hours;
of dry
Given
dry
4 per
ash and
cent,
per
by
into
refuse
ash
dry
(c) What
by
steam
at
from
feed
absolute.
Ibs. pressure
B.T.U.
13,000
per pound.
(a) What
pit.
The
H.P.
is
actual
following data
from
boiler
test
furnace
Duration
and
grates
alone?
of
Ibs.;total
fed
total
tion
evapora-
being developed
of the boiler,furnace
is the efficiency
is the
perature
tem-
115
the ash
from
taken
are
hour
per
analysisand
coal is 9 Ibs.
(6) What
the
saturated
cent,
water
test, 24
weight
of water
amount
to boilers,240,000
perature
-30,000 Ibs.;total weight of ash and refuse,3000 Ibs.;temfired,
of feed water, 180" F.; steam
150 Ibs. absolute;quality
pressure,
of steam, 98.5 per cent.; dry coal contains
13,000 B.T.U.
per pound and
3 per cent, ash by analysis, (a) What
H.P. is the boiler developing?
(6)
What
is the evaporation from and at 212" per pound of dry coal?
(c) What
is
and grates? (d) What
is the combined
of the boiler,furnace
efficiency
should
be the
alone?
the efficiencyof the boiler and
furnace
(e) What
heating and grate surfaces in this boiler?
55. A boiler received
10,000 Ibs. of water per hour at 100" F. Steam
150 Ibs. absolute;qualityof steam, 98| per cent.
Dry coal burned
pressure,
B.T.U.
Per cent, of ash
each
1250
Ibs.,
pound containing 13,000
per hour,
by analysis, 3 per cent.; ash and refuse taken from ash pit per hour, 125 Ibs.
Coal
10
Plant
hours
costs
$3 per ton.
a
runs
day, 300 days in the
is the efficiencyof
H.P. is the boiler developing?
(6) What
(a) What
year,
What
is
the
the boiler,furnace
and grates combined?
efficiencyof the
(c)
boiler and furnace
alone?
(d) If the interest and depreciation is 10 per
coal
cent., how
much
could
you
boiler
and
cent.
costs
If
at
add
for
heater
that
would
increase
the
perature
tem-
to 212"?
evaporated
pay
9000
145.8
Ibs. of water
Ibs. absolute.
feed-water
heater
that
will increase
13,500 B.T.U.
and
the
feed temperature
grate, 70
temperature
per
to
138
HEAT
212",
what
hours
day,
67.
will
be
plant
70";
pound
per
will
interest
68.
steam
per
15
59.
hour.
The
and
boiler
Coal
of
hours
from
water
the
It
the
coal
30
stack
changed
N,
75
per
per
After
that
later
10
runs
this
runs
water
is installed
how
much
heater
hours
if the
day,
per
cent.
stack
Boiler
6 per
be
pressure,
raising
of
and
economizer?
per
(a)
tori,
make
raises
(c)
10
operates
owner
7 per
per
temperature
$3
the
which
interest
on
feed
the
tion,
deprecia-
cent,
What
would
be
condition?
day
15
for
$3
CO2,
is
in
14
N,
4 per
per
dollars
75
cent.;
per
The
cent.
The
O,
plant
is
cent.;
per
Stack
year?
Boiler
year.
analysis
per
cent.
70".
the
The
ton.
per
O,
; and
cent.
in
days
300
cent.;
per
temperature,
room
is
coal
will
per
Feed
Ibs.
150
the
H.P.
per
plant
is added
saving
the
The
the
allowing
coal
added
costing
O,
Ibs.
of
Ibs.
without
steam
Steam
$500.
per
analysis
gas
will
uses
cost
last
cent.;
H,
and
100"
from
10,000,000
of
feed
the
heater
repairs?
interest
the
day
per
pay
is
cent,
for
hours
F.
600
5 per
for
and
economizer
an
of
pounds
Ib.
what
pay
coal
to
The
year.
24
What
radiation
gas
loss,
cent.
this
per
final
per
is
change
pound
the
for the
paid
perature,
tem-
of
heater
180",
to
evaporates
1000
costs
under
per
plant
per
plant
the
of
dollars
is CC"2, 5 per
80
The
heater
owner
of
tons
temperature
be
the
the
of
water
If
temperature
Heater
days
plant
cent.
temperature,
4
of
B.T.U.
depreciation,
can
C,
so
Ibs.
water
water
be
Feed
is 8
feed-
Plant
B.H.P.
500
300", allowing
to
gases
contains
If
can
depreciation
200".
to
(6)
boiler
burns
10
operates
hour.
per
feed
the
afford
feed-water
300
much
water
the
percent.?
we
cent,
cent,
efficiency
60.
of
for
200"
how
of
evaporate
develops
120"
7 per
to
13,000
investment?
the
plant
evaporation
much
Ibs.
can
per
120".
day
Allowing
contains
from
water
of
ton.
how
10
100
cost
plant
temperature,
$2.50
increases
What
cents.
interest
cent,
The
and
are
pressure,
year.
is
Ibs.
temperture
year
heater
Steam
heater
if the
year,
year.
feed-water
200".
to
the
Ibs.
costs
depreciation
in
per
30,000
150
the
per
cost
year?
coal
increase
saved
and
days
300
be
the
coal
pressure,
and
coal,
will
in
in
evaporates
steam
of
that
money
days
300
boiler
saving
the
ENGINES
the
made,
stack
of
year
after
gases
Feed-water
coal.
of
temperature
this
600"
from
the
second
feed
to
400".
The
temperature
water?
change
which
is installed
economizer
an
is made?
What
reduces
evaporation
is 120"
the
is 9 Ibs.
What
will
will
be
the
saving
in
CHAPTER
VIII
STEAM
91.
The
steam
engine and
small
direct
and
bolted
on
cast-iron
the
outside
by
FIG.
is
steam
shown
in the
the
piston head
serving
piston
to
rod
loose
piston
the
to
carried
and
a
piston
is
serve
other.
by
through
make
the
material
means
the
section
the
to
The
of
cast-iron
the
valves
and
cylinder.
The
The
ports.
gland
The
other
with
the
139
cross-head.
and
The
of
into
nut, and
and
joint.
side
one
usually fastened
rod
The
spring rings
leakage from
is
ging.
lag-
engine.
taper-ended
and
cylinder.
rod
valve
is surrounded
these
piston
slide
and
through
prevent
steam-tight
connected
of Skinner
exhausted
fit in
to
It is
Fig. 54.
containing the
chest
steam
stationary
by cylinder heads
ends
jacket
chest
steam
in
balanced
its
steam
no
Vertical
"
admitted
the
then
the
from
54.
piston is made
with
at
of
simple form
is shown
use
non-conducting
shows
55
"
engine
engine has
leading
ports
general
cylinder closed
The
Fig.
in
one
Engine.
double-acting
on.
the
Steam
Simple
ENGINES
is
packing
end
of
power
the
is
HEAT
140
from
communicated
attached
the
to
is fastened
by
the
main
connecting rod
shaft.
of
means
ENGINES
To
the
to
this main
set-nuts.
The
crank, which
shaft
valve
the
of the
stem,
valve
stem
through
passes
the
is
eccentric
engine is
the valve
chest, being
of the piston
steam
the
tightby
made
.Balance
Valve
Steam
Port
Plate
Steam
Chf-st
Cover
Packing
Packing
Gland
Packing
Picking
Lagging
Gland
Counter
Piston
FIG.
the valve
55.
Section
"
opens
up
through
the ends
steam
of the
Bore
'Ring
engine cylinderand
valve.
space
haust
valve, this space being connected to the expipe of the engine,and the space outside of the valve being
connected
to the steam
pipe admitting the steam to the engine.
to
Fig. 55 shows the slide valve in a position admitting steam
the head end of the cylinder. On the crank end, the cylinder is
As the steam
enters
behind the piston, the
to exhaust.
open
in the space on the opposite side of the piston is forced out
steam
through the space under the valve and out of the exhaust port.
When
the piston reaches the opposite end of the stroke,the valve
in the center
of the
142
HEAT
point C.
At
this
ENGINES
is
side of the
pistonwe
termed
indicator
by
an
an
93. Theoretical
Steam
"
engine it
steam
In determining
Engine.
no
of
is
sumed
as-
of steam
occur
FIG. 57.
"
to be
expansionis assumed
is pv
equation of which
which
of
horse-power of
the
diagram is
graphicallyproduced
a
that the
curve
be
may
Such
and
instantly,
The
and
Horse-power
that there is
pressure.
the indicator.
as
theoretical
is maintained
exhaust
diagram
known
instrument
the
have
coincides most
rectangularhyperbola,
constant,
as
this is the
curve
in
simple non-condensingengine.
Let the pressure at the point of cut-off b be pi, and the volume
at the point d be pz, and the volume, vz.
Vi] and let the pressure
The
of work
area
is
representedby
abode
Area
oabg
Area,
the
area
oabg + gbcf
oedf.
"
/v2
pdv.
gbcf
Area
oedf
Vi
Substitutingthese
of
values
in the
previousequation,the
area
work,
/l"2
pdv
"i
"
p2v2.
(1)
STEAM
ENGINES
the volumes
before and
143
t
As
of
vi
and
are
after
expansion,
be is
expansion curve
Since the
pv
substitutingfor
Hence
equationfor
work
rectangular hyperbola,
piVi.
in terms
its value
of pi
dv\
("v2
/v2
-
-P"z
piVi I 1
Vi V
and substituting
r for
Integrating,
abode
card v2,
theoretical
the actual
Pl-:
"^-
the
practice,however,
actual
the
the
mean
lengthof the
actual
The
theoretical M.E.P.
(Trans.A.S.M.E.,
Vol.
effective pressure
mean
are
is less than
effective pressure
mean
to the
M.E.P.
(4)
-p*
assumptions made
effective pressure.
mean
e.
factor,
The
(3)
or
M.E.P.
In
P"2.
is termed
card, which
by dividingthis by
is found
effective
pressure,
the
)
V
Vi
p2v2.
"
on
I
J
have
--, we
piVi(l+ loger)
pressure
average
vi} the
becomes
dv
The
and
not
the
proportionborne by
is termed
gram
the dia-
24, p. 751.)
is
(5)
This
diagram factor
70 to 90 per
To
by experiment and
is found
varies from
cent.
determine
it is necessary
the
to
indicated
find the
horse-power of
work
done
engine,
in the engine cylinder; /
a
steam
the
HEAT
144
is 2
minute
per
Since
plan.
ENGINES
2plan
:
33,000'
Cut'
Example. A 12" X 15" double-actingengine runs 200 r.p.m.
| stroke;steam pressure, 100 Jbs.; back pressure, 2 Ibs. absoluteoft7,
Card factor,
Find the rated horse-power of the engine.
80 per cent.
From
Solution.
equation (2),the ratio of expansion,
"
"
v2
=
^
and
4'
from
M.E.P.
^(1 +
e"
%-r)
[i^p(llogA)
.80
2}
.80J68.5
+ 1.39)
.80(28.7(1
j"
=
2)
66.5
2 Ibs.
53
.80 X
of the
cross-sectional area
The
^2
cylinder,
62
3.U16
equation (6),the
From
I.H.P.
?"
33,000
53.2 X
2 X
1.25 X
113.3'X
200
33,000
#**-
91.4.
Ans. 91.4
in
94. Losses
the steam
as
the
Steam
The
as
basis of
engines.
The
Engine.
"
engine is different
ideal action.
however,
actual
rated horse-power.
from
action
that
of the steam
action
which
of the
has been
ideal
enginethe
steam
assumed
engine is useful,
In the actual
in
steam
in
expanded
higherpressure
is never
expansion a
than the back pressure in the exhaust pipe. It is not advisable
to give the steam
complete expansion, as there will be no added
work
due to the complete expansion of this steam, the pressure
completely,and
being insufficientto
overcome
engine. Qwing
STEAM
to the fact that
do not have
we
bring the
Comparing
pressure.
to
the back
to
remain
there is no
down
so
the ideal
of the stroke
of the stroke
end
at the
pressure
145
valve
the exhaust
to open
ENGINES
reduction
enginethere is a transfer
cylinderwalls during a portion of
of heat from
the steam
the
stroke,and during
other portionsof the stroke from the cylinderwalls to the steam.
In an actual enginethe back pressure in the cylinderis always
to the
greaterthan the
of exhaust
in the condenser
vacuum
valve
and
In
owing to
the
the resistance
ideal
volume
passage.
the actual
to
as
1. Heat
This
more
or
loss is
to the
usually 70
per
cent,
engine.
2. Initial condensation.
3. Wire
drawing at
6.
and
This
conduction
in exhaust
duringcompression.
space
from
the
valve.
cylinder.
95. Heat
the
and
in the clearance
4. Condensation
5. Radiation
admission
Lost
engineby
in the Exhaust.
Most
of the heat
is rejectedby the
the steam
"
70 per
cent,
enginein
of the heat
brought
to
the exhaust.
of the steam
in
and
Re
steam-engineeconomy
and
-evaporation. Early
"
found
perimenters
ex-
important part
in the economy
of the steam
engine. The inner surfaces exposed
in the engine naturallyhave a temperato the action of the steam
ture
the
cylinderwall
very
10
close to
steam
that
ports played
of the
steam
very
itself. When
the steam
HEAT
146
enters
the
moves
out
ENGINES
in contact
with the walls of the
cylinder,it comes
cylinderwhich have justbeen exposed to exhaust steam and are
A part of this steam
at a lower temperature.
necessarily
will,
be condensed
in warming the walls,and as the piston
therefore,
more,
increases
After
and
the
more
to
point even
steam
of the
at this
the
same
as
the temperature
ceases
cylinder. Condensation
cylinderwalls are by this time covered with
in the
steam
film of moisture.
densation
con-
that
evaporate.
smaller
Usually the
than
still wet
If the
when
the
also continues
exhaust
during the
valves
when
of heat from
by
and
much
the
open.
It is very
desirable
the surface of the cylinderbe evaporated
on
exhaust
increased
of re-evaporationis very
amount
the steam
the presence
steam
stroke.
If it is not
der
evaporated,the cylinis again admitted to the cylinder
will be
greatlyincreased.
The
fer
trans-
cylinderis always
of moisture.
In the average
is
non-condensingengine,initial condensation
from
steam
15 to 20 per cent., in small reciprocating
pumps
initial condensation
an
as
high as 75 per cent, sometimes
occurs,
and
in the most
97. Factors
perfectengines it is from
10 to 12 per cent.
Initial condensation
AffectingInitial Condensation.
"
is
in the
It also increases
the
range
of temperature
STEAM
the
As
cylinderwalls.
the
time,
the
the walls of
increases.
initial condensation
only affect
the element
with
is in contact
steam
ENGINES
inner
surfaces
The
147
of time
of the cylinder,and
depth
of
the
cylinderwalls that
greater
will be
affected.
increases
Initial condensation
of heat
to
taken
the same,
increases.
becomes
cut-off
the
admitted
steam
amount
the
so
as
cut-off
the
ratio
becomes
is
of
is
expansion
This
shorter.
shortened, the
is
weight
the
less and
the
cylinder becomes
remains
stantially
subup by the cylinder walls
that the proportion of steam
condensed
With
very
this
increased.
point,the
The
steam
consumption
of the
in most
engine will be
single-cylinder
In an
engine
increased
"
by
steam
action
of
omy
econ-
pressure,
initial condensation
is
This
with
The
Jacket.
the
be
may
at boiler pressure.
jacket. The
Such
an
arrangement
is called
"
HEAT
148
The
steam.
ENGINES
the
cylinderwalls entirely
to the
The
"
cylinderof
in the
engine is
steam
much
increased,thereby
In order to reduce
to expand
partially
into
in
cylinderin
cylinderand
one
which
then exhaust
the
the
expansion is completed.
the range
of temperature in each cylinder is
By this means
reduced.
reduced
and initial condensation
Compound cylinders
is sufficiently
the steam
are
high so
only used when
pressure
steam
that
second
the steam
more
the range
economical
initial condensation
the
would
be excessive
101.
Wire
#orts, and
Drawing.
passages
do
not
release.
dry the
would
This
steam
be
shown
It is not
necessary
Ibs. pressure
offered
of the steam
by
is reduced
the rounded
resistance is often
and, if it
small
pressure
effect of this
The
drawing."
less than
pressures
by
the
in the
the
closing,or cut-off,
port opening. This is
and
resistance
steam
unless
valves,
cylinder
and
during admission
valves
The
"
if the
amount
were
of
owing
to
corners
As the
point of
the
small
at cut-off
called
or "wire
"throttling"
throttlingof the steam is to slightly
absolutelydry to start with, there
lutely
diagram, Fig.56, that the initial line DE is not absohorizontal,but that there is a gradual reduction of pressure
initial pressure
line is always lower
The
from
D to E.
than the boiler pressure, owing to the resistance of the passages
the indicator
between
The
loses
cylinder.
passing through the pipingleading to the engine
certain quantity of heat, with a correspondingcondensation.
It is customary to place a separatorin the main justbefore
steam
it reaches
removed
the
the
from
in
engine
so
the steam.
that
this water
"
of condensation
can
be
HEAT
150
clearance
The
per
of the
engine are
steam
than
higherpressure
of steam
masses
to reduce
sumed
con-
the amount
of
at each
to fillthe clearance
serves
of steam
amount
to fillthe clearance
live steam
of the
ENGINES
the exhaust
pressure.
with
space
In
steam
at
addition,
compression
to retard the
ing
reciprocatof the
If
an
parts.
cushioningthe piston and reciprocating
the
consider
the
steam
cylinderas composed
occupying
may
which
parts: the part that has been left in the clearance,
is called cushion
boiler,which
determine
weight of
to add to
The
expanding in
compression
involves
loss.
the
of the steam
Just
from
desired
an
to
engine,
the boiler
The
the steam
cylinderfeed. If it is
of steam
that is expanding in
the weight of the steam fed from
is called
the amount
it is necessary
the
admitted
to assist in
serves
the
to open
sum
will
engine.
in the
clearance
space
always
been
During compression
exposed to the exhaust steam.
the steam
compressed has its temperature increased,and when
tlie temperature of the compressed steam
exceeds the temperature
have
of the
walls,condensation
beginsto
occur.
The
action is similar
to initialcondensation.
PROBLEMS
electrical
plant
runs
of
size.
equal
the
are
of their
dimensions
cylinders?
Assume
600
piston speed.
minute
ft. per
What
151
ENGINES
STEAM
of revothe number
lutions
effective pressure to be 40 Ibs.,
to be 75 per minute, and the length of the stroke to be 42 in.,and
3. Assume
determine
develop
the
mean
the diameter
200
4. An
cylinderof
of the
engine which
Double-acting
will
H.P.
engine
is 18"
and
36"
runs
100
Initial pressure,
r.p.m.
What
100
will be
H.P.
stroke.
cent.
be the
would
9. What
stated
horse-power developed
8, if a condenser
in Problem
were
under
added
tions
the different condi-
and
the back
pressure
to 2 Ibs. absolute?
reduced
100 r.p.m.,
and. initial pressure is 100
engine is 18" X 30"; runs
is added
A condenser
bringing the exhaust
Atmospheric exhaust.
10. An
Ibs.
down
In both
to 2 Ibs. absolute.
cases
cut-off
occurs
\ stroke.
at
Card
creased?
horse-power of the engine inis sold for $60 per horse-power per year, how
(6) If the power
could
be
for
mifch
a
condenser, allowing 5 per cent, for interest and
paid
6 per cent for depreciation?
11. An
engine is to develop 600 H.P. at a piston speed of 600 ft. per
factor,80
Initial steam
minute.
Cut-off
What
at
should
\ stroke.
much
if the back
An
and
steam
exceed
minute.
factor,70 per
diameter
pressure
engine is to develop
125 Ibs; back
pressure,
Card
is the
Exhaust
1 Ib. gage.
100 Ibs.
pressure,
pressure,
cent,
(a)
Card factor,85 per
Speed, 100 r.p.m.
be the stroke
be the diameter
J2.
(a) How
cent,
per
1000
What
of the cylinder?
(6) What
should
is 2 Ibs. absolute?
H.P.
pressure,
should
at
\ cut-off and
120
r.p.m.
Initial
cent.
HEAT
152
cutting
and
Card
off
factor,
1,4.
An
will
by
be
A
has
number
of
and
r.p.m.
inch
X
of
air
12"
is
will
the
17.
of
60"
F.
12'.
their
These
through
original
(a)
cut-off
the
If
engine
ft.
70
of
air
of
off
volume
swept
I stroke,
at
that
what
Ibs.
60
per
is
when
the
of
one-quarter
pressure
F.
This
200
that
Ibs.
1000
tank
is
retically
theo-
r.p.m.
square
per
used
to
run
initial
The
inch
steam
etc.
of
square
running
of
weight
radiation,
at
60"
H.P.
97
What
Ibs.
\ cut-off;
will
ft.
cu.
it
Cut-off
of
air
operate
|
4"
Ibs.
200
at
stroke.
absolute.
an
pressure
How
absolute
and
long
takes
air
temperature
air
double-acting
6"
Engine
the
the
runs
supply
in
pressure
air
is
acts
150
at
the
engine
Ibs.
60
at
(6)
r.p.m.,
valve
tanks
assuming
100
at
being
1000
will
long
the
Ibs.
card
per
Ibs.
ning
run-
absolute.
factor
square
60"
F.
will
of
square
run
90
be
per
tanks
cylinders
per
tanks
horse-power
many
air
two
The
of
temperature
how
How
has
cylinders.
12"
constant
isothermal,
cylinder?
8"
two
reducing
pressure
locomotive
air
compressed
tanks
engine
the
in
hour
per
constant.
the
in
the
miles
engine?
double-acting
air
is
200
r.p.m.?
18.
3'
the
long
Temperature
of
cut
develops
assuming
engine;
engine
contains
How
100
40
0.08
be
condensation,
cu.
air
is
steam
engine
temperature
run
tank
of
expanded?
through
1000
the
tank
is
hour,
per
acting
entering
speed
which
the
Pressure,
lost
and
double
it
cut-off.
contains
tank
absolute
8"
times
I. H.P.
per
required
16.
If
double-acting
f
at
used
actually
at
volume
stroke.
per
14"
traveling
clearance
piston
12"
while
cent.
per
the
the
16.
260
75
engine
through
f stroke,
at
ENGINES
and
the
take
inch
lute,
abso-
inch
lute,
abso-
the
engine
developed
.cent.?
each
sion
expanat
when
CHAPTER
TYPES
AND
IX
DETAILS
103.
Classification.
whether
they exhaust
Engines
"
STEAM
OF
into
be
may
the
ENGINES
classified
atmosphere
according
into
or
to
condenser,
into:
1.
Non-condensing
2.
Condensing
In
the
the
to
non-condensing
into
cold
steam
is
the
exhaust
that
by
Another
at
condensed
of
steam
cooling medium,
lower
than
is removed
and
vacuum
so
of the
that
the
vacuum
air pump.
an
be
may
speed is governed,
made
according
the
to
in
way
as:
Throttling engines.
In
the
of
of the
engines.
valve
pressure
of the
controls
the
Engines
entering
cylinders in which
1.
be
also
may
the
steam
2.
3.
Triple expansion
4.
Quadruple
is then
of the
there
expansion
allowed
expansion
the
further
pressure.
steam
and
the
to
the
governor
cylinder.
expand
successively
the
expands
steam
In
in
but
compound
cylinder,
one
engine
portion
in the
passes
to
the
the
successively in three
as:
engines.
exhaust.
to
to
of
number
the
to
occurs
expanded
In
to
according
is allowed
engine the
automatic
the
pressure
engines.
simple engine
regulatesthe
constant
admitted
classified
Simple engines.
Compound
engines.
In
remains
steam
of steam
amount
In
engine.
engine is controlled
the
pipe which
in the steam
entering the
steam
speed of
the
throttling engines
means
and
steam
exhaust
produces
pressure
directly
passes
the
of
means
This
water.
occurs
2. Automatic
by
where, by
classification
their
exhaust
condensing engines
to
means
the
engine
chamber
The
is sustained
1.
In
changed
atmosphere.
which
engines.
atmosphere.
passes
the
engines.
pressure
approximating
in the
the
steam
quadruple
from
it is
exhaust
expands
in four.
154
HEAT
ENGINES
AND
TYPES
A
DETAILS
OF
STEAM
ENGINES
the
155
as:
1. Vertical
2.
engines.
Horizontal engines.
104.
is the
Plain
valve is shown
cross-section of
is shown
in
"
in its normal
The
simplestform of engine
shown in Fig. 59.
positionin the steam
showing the
steam
chest.
ports
Fig. 90.
FIG.
This
Engine.
The
A
Slide Valve
60.
"
Portable
engine and
boiler.
high
economy
is not
sary.
neces-
chest.
156
HEAT
105.
Automatic
ENGINES
High-speed Engine.
"
This
class of
of
developed rapidly since the introduction
machinery, and is designed primarily for the
FIG.
61.
"
engineshas
electrical lighting
direct drivingof
and
valve
stem.
electric
FIG.
62.
valve be balanced
Fig. 61 shows
Bed
"
so
the
of
high-speed,center-crank
that it may
governor,
be moved
engine.
158
HEAT
ENGINES
DETAILS
AND
TYPES
this class
STEAM
OF
ENGINES
159
well
Engines of
The
are
piston speed
may
the
Fig. 62 shows
bed
is
bed
of
designedthat
so
It may
removed.
600
This
exceed
be
one
center-crank
all parts
machined
at
the
type
so
that
casting.
high-speed engine.
accessible and
are
engine
may
be
one
in 1886
out
but had
been
not
used.
It obtains
its economy
losses. It is
have
heads.
In the uniflow
exposed to
are
the
that
return
in
the
exhaust
the steam
clearance
jacketthe
and cylinderheads
engine,the pistonfaces
temperature only during the short
pistonuncovers
stroke
the valves
spaces
time
ports. On the
remaining in the cylinderis compressed
and
up
the exhaust
covers
to
the
admission
pressure.
not
The
only due
cast
in the middle
passage.
The
steam
chest is
with
integral
up
*
Taken
from
the
Power, June
No.
24, p. 830.
ENGINES
HEAT
160
largevalve
valve
open
into
automaticallyto
opens
entrained water.
It also serves
if the
pressure
serve
as
as
extra
should
vacuum
the
valves
relief valve
to
let out
clearance to prevent
be lost when
engine described
This
the
particularform
Corliss valves
sive
exces-
engine
of
is
inflow
and
operated by
These
the usual Corliss valve mechanism.
engines have shown
steam
low
consumption particularlywith superheated
very
In a recent test a simple single-cylinder
steam.
engine,noncondensing, developed a horse-power with 11J Ibs. of steam.
In addition they have
flat economy
and
are
a
curve
capable
of taking very
heavy overloads.
FIG.
65-.
"
are
Section
of
Stumpf engine.
Engine Details.
Fig. 66 shows the piston and piston rod.
The
piston is turned a little smaller than the cylinder,and is
made
of spring rings. These
tight in the cylinder by means
in the figureleaning against the piston rod.
rings are shown
that they
of cast iron and are so constructed
They are made
108.
have
"
to
be
compressed
in order
to
get them
into the
cylinder,
shown
when
the
in the cross-head.
TYPES
DETAILS
AND
OF
STEAM
ENGINES
161
made
of brass and
FIG.
66.
FIG.
67.
FIG.
68.
"
"
"
Piston
Piston
and
with
of the rods.
These
pistonrings.
ringsin place.
Piston,pistonrod
and
crosshead.
of
by means
bearings,or brasses,are taken up when they wear
wedges held by lock-nuts as shown in the cut.
Fig. 70 shows a strap-ended connecting rod. In this form of
rod the brasses are held in place by steel straps that encircle
These straps are fastened to the body of the connecting
them.
11
162
HEAT
rod
by
rod
are
of
means
shown
lined with
babbitt
metal
brasses
The
cotter.
which
in this
is much
softer
than
FIG.
Fig. 71
which
of
ENGINES
are
69.
connecting rod.
Solid end
"
shows
open-hearthsteel.
The
The
its counterbalance
crank-shaft is
counterweightsare
made
weights
solid forging
of cast iron.
'"*!"'
FIG.
The
crank-shaft shown
engine.
Fig. 72 shows one
The
figure shows
FIG.
bearingproper
or
70.
71.
up
in the
figureis designedfor a
center-crank
of the main
what
is
Counter-balanced
"
is made
brasses,take
"
up
most
of four
of the
crank.
pieces.
wear
The
in the
two
side
pieces,
bearingand
are
TYPES
adjustedby
AND
DETAILS
of set
means
OF
STEAM
fastened
screws
ENGINES
with
163
lock-nuts.
The
FIG.
72.
"
bearing,four part.
Main
the
FIG.
which
73.
is determined
Eccentric
"
by
strap and
the governor.
eccentric
rod.
Fig. 74 shows
the
tric
eccen-
sheave.
in detail.
The
Fig. 75 is shown the eccentric strap more
strap is splitin two parts and bolted together so that it can be
In
placed over
In
the sheave.
Fig. 76 is shown
the
main
frame
for
side-crank
engine.
HEAT
164
This
cut shows
brasses
on
FIG.
Figs. 77 and
having
an
oil which
main
in this box
ENGINES
are
The
side
set-nuts
bearing.
74.
Eccentric
"
78
show
oil cellar.
is carried
two
The
up
FIG.
sheave
views
lower
onto
75.'
"
for shaft
the
of
governor.
main
engine-bearing
bearing by
Eccentric
means
of
chain
strap.
hangs over the shaft and dips into the cellar. The chain
is moved
by the rotation of the shaft,bringingthe oil up on to
which
the shaft,
166
HEAT
ENGINES
FIG. 78.
"
Main
bearing with
FIG.
"
Steam
79.
being admitted
thus
forming a
"
oil cellar
"
der
cylin-
transverse-section.
Sight-feedlubricator.
into
column
which
condenser
exerts
'F'
a
denses,
con-
pressure
AND
TYPES
equal
oil
and
By
this
the
tube
H.'
of
excess
'S'
through
and
the
to
the
feed
feed
chamber
passage
top
"I"
tube
oil
sight
the
OF
STEAM
difference
the
pressure
sight
floats
the
plus
through
water,
The
oil
head
its
to
DETAILS
is
nozzle
and
and
in
'P'
from
'N'
support
into
filled
being
passes
specific
on
forced
to
the
arm
167
ENGINES
oil
the
in
'
with
point
'K.'"
sight
feed
water,
to
'A.'
reservoir
reservoir
the
between
gravity
be
A'
through
chamber
the
drop
lubricated
CHAPTER
TESTING
110.
The
Indicator.
of the
pressure
graphically
and
has
OF
It
recorded.
are
three
First, the
average
piston, which
Second,
the
point
By
the
not
the
use
high
80.
the
distribution
at which
of the
engine has
the
valves
indicator
a
of
proper
the
are
of the
by
determined
the
engine is
James
Watt
by
an
indicator:
indicator.
(M.E.P.).
pressure
in
engine
able
steam
steam
distribution
168
by which
perfection.
the
of the
we
stroke
effective
mean
device
invented
of
state
of
is
in the
first
Crosby
"
pressure
is called
the
was
point
principal things
FIG.
ENGINES
indicator
for each
steam
since reached
There
STEAM
The
"
to
are
the
engine; that
opened
determine
of steam.
and
is,
closed.
whether
or
TESTING
Third, from
of steam
the indicator
which
indicator
OF
makes
STEAM
we
ENGINES
determine
may
169
the actual
weight
engine.
Fig. 80 shows
steam
This
the space
cross-section
instrument
under
FIG.
the
81.
"
is attached
cator.
Crosby steam-engineindiand
to the engine cylinder,
Crosby
of
indicator
pressure
a
with
outside
of the
spring above
the
spring.
steam
it.
with
The
acts
agianst the
pressure
of the
an
arm
170
HEAT
to the movement
of the
ENGINES
piston,and
pressure
of the pressure
diagram, therefore,
in the stroke of the engine. The
of the
upward movement
have a
in the cylinder. We
in the cylinderfor each point
springsused above the piston
the
of various
are
be
one
under
is termed
a 40-lb. spring would
strengths. What
of such strength that a pressure
inch
of 40 Ibs. per square
the pistonwould move
These springs
the pencilone inch.
calibrated so that
carefully
give a correspondingmovement
A brass stylusis sometimes
of the
certain movements
are
piston
of the
used in
the
Cross-section.
Elevation.
FIG.
One
paper
disadvantageof
is that
82.
the
use
of the
traced
outline
the
indicator.
Thompson
"
stylusand
by the
metallic surfaced
brass
point
is not
comparativelyshort time.
Fig. 81 shows a similar indicator with the spring external to
the indicator piston. The
temperature of the spring in this
The
indicator is independent of the steam
spring
pressure.
in this indicator may
easilybe changed without removing the
indicator piston. This form is particularly
adapted for indicator
permanent,
work
where
indicator.
This
111. Use
the
hard
and
elevation
the
adapted to
is desired.
accuracy
shows
Fig. 82
upon
great
form
of
cross-section of the
indicator
is
Thompson
particularlywell
service.
of Indicator.
accuracy
with
"
The
which
accuracy
the
of
an
pressure
indicator
in the
depends
cylinderis
recorded
with
the
on
ENGINES
drum, and
indicator
of the
the motion
which
STEAM
OF
TESTING
171
also upon
pistonis conveyed
the
accuracy
to the indicator
properly, the
following conditions should be observed: the piping leading to
than 18 in. long, and should
the indicator should not be more
drum.
order
In
the
have
to
recorded
pressure
be connected
diameter; the indicator should never
is passing;the holes
of steam
to a pipe through which
a current
connecting the indicator with the cylindershould be drilled into
the opening ;
the clearance space so that the pistonwill not cover
be placed in a vertical position.
the indicator should, if possible,
in. in
be
Where
great
FIG.
83.
"
has the
engine which
The
of the
movement
head, must
motion
The
to the
of mechanism
exact
by
of
means
commonest
are
also
on
the
makes
of the
reducing
used
various
reduction
so
are
by
that
the
motion
an
segment
forms
of
of the
is
one
reduction.
reducing wheels
piston
of the
There
which
means
more
cross-
diagram by
reduced
motion
accomplish this
to
the
from
cord.
any
the indicator
lever and
the market
clutch
lengthof
reducing motions
with
as
connected
means
the
make
part of the
the engine piston.
from
is usuallytaken
which
form
is then
spring_should
of attachment.
method
relative motion
drum, which
be reduced
indicator
be taken
may
same
some
drum
the
and
before
be calibrated
is desired
accuracy
of
172
HEAT
ENGINES-
wood
splinesand
of
segment
for every
circle at the
pointof
Fig. 84 shows
not
Cord
on
that
It is better
segment.
that db is the
point 6,so
to
of
use
distance
same
the stroke.
reducing wheel
to disconnect
necessary
the paper
brass
the
the drum
is
has been
having
the motion
from
clutch,so that it is
the cross-head
when
replaced.
stretched should
and
be used
the indicator
on
reducing motion,
lengthof
the card.
long cords
is better
to
not
the
reduce
the
Wherever
found
are
that
so
very
it
necessary,
piano wire.
FIG.
84.-Reducing
112-
wheel.
Taking
an
Indicator
Card.-
oil
attaching the indicator,
the parts of the mechanism
with watch oil and the pistonwith
cylinderoil. Be sure the piston is working freelyin the cylinder.
The pistonshould drop by gravityin the cylinderwhen
the springis removed.
The pencilshould have a smooth, fine
point. Be sure there is no lost motion in the instrument.
The
reducing motion should be adjusted so that the length
of the card is from 2^ to 3 in. The higher the speed,the shorter
should be the card.
tension of the indicator drum
The
spring
Before
should be justsufficientto prevent slackness in the cord.
taking a card, try the indicator and see that it does not strike
Before
the
of the
the indicator
over
be turned
the indicator
so
as
to
on
warm
113. To
should
the
of the
the
be obtained
stroke,as
should
run
to
of the
the Power
of
piston area
cord
the instrument.
up
Find
cross-section
the center
The
stroke.
a.
on
"
cylinder. The
with
The
caliperand
pistonarea
the crank
end
pistonarea is the
diameter
of the cylinder
is
the correspondingarea
Engine.
is not
the
area
The
the
same
of the
at
bojhends
pistonrod
must
be subtracted.
The
stroke
travel of the
is found
by
pistonin
per
minute.
of the
by
the
174
HEAT
Let ph be the
ENGINES
effective pressure
minute.
mean
the indicated
horse-powerwill
be
IHP
(2)
The
head
total I.H.P.
of the
114. Indicator
the
to determine
engine is the
sum
end'.
Diagrams.
settingof the
"
indicator is very
often used
valve and the distribution of steam
The
FIG.
86.
Indicator
"
card
from
in the
line,and 00'
OY
is the line of
end of the
of the
and
CD
no
vacuum,
volume
or
zero
cylinder. The
pressure
horizontal distance
cylinder. The
clearance
on
lute.
abso-
the crank
between
end is
similarly
shown.
115.
Graphical
Initial condensation
Determination
may
be
of
determined
Initial
Condensation."
graphicallyfrom
the
OF
TESTING
In
indicator card.
/ENGINES
STEAM
determiningthe
175
of steam
working in
the amount
the engine cylinder,
suppliedto the engine per stroke
is determined
by either weighing the water entering the boiler,
which passes over
into the engine,or by weighing the
steam
as
in
condensed
steam
attached
condenser
amount
to the exhaust
of the
engine.
This total
to the
quantityof steam
of steam
amount
cylinderfeed.
determine
card is
used
at
the
be added
of cushion
amount
selected,and
by
engineis then
stroke,and
per
this must
To
the
used
the cushion
steam,
To
steam.
an
average
point after compressionhas
reduced
indicator
begun
and
FIG.
87.
From
Indicator
"
this pressure
and
card
and
saturation
curve,
condensation.
volume, by reference
showing
effect of initial
to the steam
steam
may
then
calculated,
assuming the steam to be saturated. The total
in the cylinderduring expansionis then found by adding
steam
of saturation
A curve
this cushion steam
to the cylinderfeed.
be
quantity of
diagram,and
stroke the volume
Fig. 87
card.
YR
shows
this
steam
will
curve
of steam
enteringremained
in the
constructed
of the steam
as
on
has occurred.
an
indicator
suppliedto the
cylinderat
steam.
cator
the indi-
curve
upon
initialcondensation
if no
saturation
then be drawn
can
The
boiler pressure
curve
RS
of
representsthe volume
HEAT
176
of this
weight of
same
The
ENGINES
for the
steam
difference in the
volume
expansion line
and
the actual
in volume
to
condensation.
due
varying pressures
of sion.
expanthis theoretical
between
densation
at the
be
77
and
at
any
other
kl
point, such
Example.
k, would
as
8"
An
"
hour.
be
12"
Steam
.,-"
engine
230
runs
and
r.p.m.
700
uses
Ibs.
ance,
Ibs.;exhaust,atmospheric;clear10 per cent.; scale of indicator spring, 60 Ibs. Find the total
weight of steam in the cylinderdurmg expansion.
Solution.
First find the cylinderfeed,or amount
of steam
supplied
by the boiler to the engine per stroke.
steam
per
100
pressure,
"
Cylinder feed
230
700
To
uO
distance
and
cent,
-uv
equal
-f-
2 X
60
27,600
27,600.
Ibs.
.02536
10 per
cent,
of the
Fig.87, the
u,
clearance
is 10 per
If the
length uv
cylinder.
The
602.4
The
in.
cu.
volume
662.6
clearance
in.
cu.
Ov represents 662.6
take
Now
has
and
OX
.07187
cu.
ft.
The
.07187
The
.0836
tables
we
find that
ft. of
cu.
dry
the
in the
cushion
.006
such
as
80
.0314 Ibs.
of saturation
volume
.0314
cylinderduringexpansion is therefore
for .0314
at that
5.47
.1718
Ibs. of steam.
Ibs. absolute
of 1 Ib. of steam
valve
.006 Ibs.
ft.
curve
ft.,or
cu.
of
.0254 +
5.47
cu.
are, p
From
the steam
of .07187
cu.
in.
steam
weight
The
60.2
207
is then
the compression
N.
as
OY
saturated
In other
3.2
point on
such
closed,
axes
-f-
volume
cu.
ft.
and
from
pressure.
then
be
297
cu.
in.
the
This
To
do
steam
equals
TESTING
the ordinates of this
Hence
STEAM
OF
ENGINES
177
pointwill be
en
in.
L33
60
297
and
This
point is
then
same
way.
curve
1.43 in.
2^7
curve.
116. Determination
of Steam
measure
suppliessteam
great
of feed water
to the
should
care
engineto
be
taken
engine,the
be measured
and
the
going to
be tested.
When
engine.
hours, so
24
as
The
engineshould
load.
engine should be
run
as
may
to allow for
in the boiler.
in the steam.
gins
time before the test be-
operatedfor some
as
level of water
The
test the
does
length,and stillbetter
effectof varyingconditions such
so
done,
produced
see
in
be
this is
amount
deducted
to
to the
goes
not go to the
10 hours
"
be uniform.
During the
nearlyas possibleat
uniform
Indicator cards
are
Proceedings.
The
number
12
of
pounds of
steam
used
HEAT
178
summarized
engines are
generalfor
very
are
in the
the various
CONSUMPTION
STEAM
XIX.
TABLE
ENGINES
followingtable. These
classes of engines.
VARIOUS
OF
CLASSES
OF
results
ENGINES
Pounds
44 to 45
engine,non-condensing
Simple throttling
Simple automatic engine,non-condensing
Simple Corliss engine,non-condensing
Simple automatic engine,condensing
Simple Corliss engine,condensing
Compound automatic engine,non-condensing
Compound automatic engine,condensing
Compound Corliss engine,condensing
TripleCorliss engine,condensing
Uniflow engine,simple condensing,superheat
117. Brake
Table XIX
But
Horse-power.
"
are
based
on
All
30 to 35
26 to 28
22 to 26
22 to 24
25 to 30
18 to 20
14 to 16
12.25
11.25 to 12
of the
88."
Prony
given in
economies
the indicated
FIG.
to 13
that
can
be
brake.
horse-power obtained
the brake is termed
the "brake," or "effective" horse-power.
the brake horse-powerusually
The brake used to determine
Prony brake
at
consists of
brake
The
an
wheel
brake
holding
or
some
adjustablestrap
which
is fastened
be
which
The
encircles the
to the crank-shaft
provided
used for keeping the rim cooled.
wheel
water
similar device.
should
with
rim
of the
interior
To
of the
engine.
flangesfor
the strap
which rests
the brake wheel is rigidly
fastened an arm
encircling
on
a
platform scales. The friction of the strap DE, Fig. 88,
TESTING
tends to carry the arm
The force tending to
The
net
force
OF
FK
STEAM
179
on
ENGINES
is measured
the distance
AC
on
the scales.
is the moment
of
and
friction,
this
brake
arm,
and
B.H.P.
the brake
horse-power.
Then
2irlwnRHP
33000
Mechanical
"
horse-power. A card
engine,as
so
taken
does not
give
an
increase
of load.
After
180
HEAT
mined
from
ENGINES
Heat
eitherindicated or brake.
Since
heat
the
Let S
power
equal the steam consumption of an engine per horseper hour,q the qualityof the steam, L the latent heat,h
the heat of the liquidabove 32",and t the temperature of the
feed-water.
this temperature
(The British practiceassumes
to the exhaust,or back,
to be the temperature corresponding
would be
pressure.)Then the actual thermal efficiency
2s45
M
____
S[h+qL120.
Duty.
expressednot
"
The
as
of
economy
the number
(J-32)}'
pumping
engines is usually
of pounds of steam
per
I.H.P. per
of
"duty."
In the earlierhistory
the definitionof duty
of pumping engines,
the number of foot-poundsof work done in the pump
was
der
cylinto
per 100 Ibs. of coal burned in the boiler. The objection
this method
of determiningduty is that it includes both boiler
and engine economy.
In purchasinga pumping engine it was
necessary
obviate this
To
it is better
difficulty
of foot-poundsof work obtained
number
per
1000
pounds of
steam
state at what
Duty
may
work
also be
furnished
pressure
duty
as
the
in the pump
cylinders
to the engine. The specifications
this steam
must
be furnished.
working
to express
of
expressingduty, as it
steam
Engines
pressure.
under
be compared
widely different conditions may
when their duty is based on foot-pounds developedin the pump
cylinderper 1,000,000 B.T.U. furnished to the engine.
The amount
of "work
done"
is equal to the weight of water
pumped times the "head" pumped against. The total head is
made
of the pressure
shown
by the gage on the discharge
line plus that on the suction fine,
both reduced to feet,
plus the
up
HEAT
182
various
loads.
shows
curve
upper
the
enginewas runningnon-condensing,and
it was
running condensing.
when
In these
representthe
the ordinates
curves
consumption
steam
the lower
the
when
per
The
ENGINES
curve
consumption
steam
cated
the abscissae represent the indi-
Example. The area of the indicator card from the head end of an
8" X 12" double-actingsteam
engine running 227 r.p.m. is 1.34 sq. in.,
and from the crank end 1.16 sq. in. The length of both cards is 2.19
in.,and the scale of the spring used was 60 Ibs. The diameter of the
pistonrod is 1| in. A Prony brake was attached to the engine and the
is 54
103.5 Ibs. The length of the brake arm
gross weight on it was
and
the
tare 28.5 Ibs.
in.,
Find
the (a) I.H.P., (6) B.H.P., (c) F.H.P., and
(d) mechanical
efficiency.
Solution.
ordinate,of the card
(a) The average
height,or mean
is equal to the area
divided by the length,and this multiplied
by the
scale of the spring used will give the mean
effective pressure.
Hence,
"
"
Head
end
Crank
end
Head
end
Crank
end
34
0'
60
27.7 Ibs.
23.95 Ibs.
J;JJ
M.E.P.I
Area
60
"
3.1416
4 X
4)
4 X
(3.1416 X
(3.1416 X
Y)
indicated
horse-powerfor
end
each
/ fl
7?
equals oonnn*
Hence,
,
"
Head
H
end
27. 7 X
50. 26X227
1 X
23.95X1X48.5X227
/c-1
Crank
Total
I.H.P.
end
^3000
9.58 +
8.02
brake
on
17.6.
103.5
28.5
75 Ibs.
54
Length
of brake
arm
4.5 ft.
=
~
2V*3
/\
1"l1fi
(d) Mech.
V
/\
997
A^i
/\
7^
iu
^
33000"
I.H.P.
Eff.
/\
33000
(c) F.H.P.
4.
iTtiu
V^V
B.H.P.
l.Xl.-T.
i^'A
l/.D
17.6
14.6
-829
.75)
The
.75 X
3.
82.9 per
cent.
"
TESTING
STEAM
OF
ENGINES
183
"
Tl
(337.9 + 460)
(212 '+ 460)
(337.9+460)
T2
Tl
797.9
-672
125^9
"
_
79779
797.9
.1575
thermal efficiency
(6) Actual
2545
"
S{H
-(t-32)}
2545
2545
~
"35X1008.6
.0721
7.21 per
35300
cent.
pumped
Head
(a)Weight of water
81 X 18,000,000
pumped against
Work
done in 24 hours
150,000,000X 161.7
24,255,000,000ft.-lbs.
24,255,000,000"*" 24
ft.-lbs.
1,010,625,000
Solution.
"
70 X
Work
done
per hour
Steam
Duty
used
per
hour
150,000,000Ibs.
2.31
500
15
161.7 ft.
7500
Ibs.
1,010,625,000-5- 7.5
134,750,000ft.-lbs.
*A
A
One
gallon of
water
inch
weighs 8|
water
pressure
of 1 Ib. per
of mercury
equals a
Ibs.
square
inch
pressure
equals a
of .491 Ibs.
head
of 2.31 feet.
HEAT
184
ENGINES
PROBLEMS
1. An
the head
engine
end has
is 8"
an
area
12"
and
runs
250
of the crank
of both
of
end
8"
12"
has
an
area
engine
runs
250
r.p.m.
r.p.m.
of the
The
The
indicator
card
of
card
from
the
TESTING
engine is fitted
The
with
OF
STEAM
ENGINES
185
brake
Prony
is 29.25
million
B.T.U.?
21. A
steam
in twenty-four
15,000,000 gal.of water
pumping engine pumps
head
H.P. with a
of
Ibs.
inch.
It
450
65
a
against
develops
per square
(a) What' is the duty per
consumption of 13 Ibs. per I.H.P. per hour,
Ibs. of steam?
is the mechanical
(6) What
efficiency? (c) If the
is 125 Ibs. and
is the
the feed temperature
130", what
pressure
duty
per
hours
steam
1000
22. An
1,000,000 B.T.U.?
I.H.P.
and
uses
6300
Ibs. of steam
It pumps
600-,000gallons of water an hour against a head
What
is the mechanical
of the engine and pump?
efficiency
duty
and
per
1000
Ibs. of steam?
is
per
hour.
of 70 Ibs.
(6) What
pressure
million
is 125
heat
(a)
is its
Ibs.
units?
186
HEAT
23.
20,000,000
Ibs.
has
Ibs.
and
feed
gallon
duty
of
ENGINES
pumping
engine
120,000,000
pumping
foot-pounds.
180",
temperature
how
If
against
the
pounds
many
of
head
steam
of
pressure
will
steam
70
is
180
used
be
hour?
per
24.
Ibs.
40,000,000
has
Ibs.
for
feed
the
of
what
If
boiler
The
against
the
head
steam
is
pressure
will
horse-power
70
of
180
required
be
duty
of
120"
of
boiler
mechanical
the
coal
hundred
F.;
120,000,000
toot-
absolute;
Ibs.
pumped
pressure
will
horse-power
of
per
and
the
per
year,
pressure
of
be
haust
ex-
against,
required
to
is
pump
B.T.U.
if
the
days
(c)
per
plant
per
to
90
per
If
the
pound
operates
year?
Ibs.
per
what
efficiency
costs
twenty-four
will
$3
per
(6)
be
is
the
70
ton,
hours
(a)
feet,
10
boiler
of
center
plant?
cent.,
and
"inch;
square
gage,
the
feed
absolute;
between
suction
operate
pounds.
foot-
160,000,000
Ibs.
distance
of
required
is
2
60
gage,
mercury;
hour?
13,000
sixty-five
be
engine
exhaust,
attachment
will
I.H.P.
cost
in.
of
pumping
absolute;
of
20
point
horse-power
contains
Ibs.
reading
gage,
and
per
coal
of
150
pressure,
boiler
gallon
180
F.;
efficiency
consumption
duty
120"
What
gage.
12,000,000
suction
gage
What
has
Steam
temperature,
pressure,
temperature,
pressure
engine
units.
pump?
Steam
reading
pumping
feed
inch
square
the
26.
three
pumping
foot-pounds.
heat
absolute;
per
operate
gallon
1,000,000
Ibs.
Ibs.
the
engine
180",
temperature
per
be
160,000,000
40,000,000
pounds
and
pumping
plant?
26.
70
duty
and
gallon
If
steam
cent,
per
what
the
day
will
for
CHAPTER
XI
GEARS
VALVE
122.
The
AN
essential
function
of the
the
proper
the
cylinder
the
atmosphere
engine
In
time
the
to
and
the
condenser.
largely
In the
is
to
common
the
in
also
use
are
shown,
the
steam
so
that
controls
space
has
D-slide
called
the
space
the
to
open
either
escape
of
distribution
proper
to
of the
action
proper
is admitted
from
D
is open
just ceased
then
it admits
the
side of the
one
it is admitted
Most
other.
steam
90."
steam
to
valve
one
either
D-slide
used,
of the
end
valve.
Fig. 90
shows
longitudinal cross-section.
the
is
exhaust.
is filled with
to
the
to
engines, only
Valves."
its
to
double-acting.
of steam
FIG.
Plain
steam
double-acting engine
side and
arranged
so
stroke
return
The
upon
one
simpler forms
cylinder and
valve,
let the
single-acting
engine, steam
engines in
the
cylinder at
the
to
steam
valve.
cylinder.
alternately,first
123.
on
exhaust
very
which
stroke, and
to
or
admit
is the
engine
steam
every
is to
valve
in the
depends
in the
steam
part of
live steam
exhaust.
flowing from
187
In
the space
under
the
plain
D-slide
In the
figure
pressure,
and
position shown,
D, through the
steam
188
HEAT
ENGINES
The
valve
is
moving
the
The
point of cut-off has justbeen reached.
expand in the cylinderuntil the valve has moved
exhaust
will
steam
far
port C, when
exhaust
now
enough
uncover
C.
space
the
the left to
piston,steam
with
to
the
will
B.
When
it has moved
still
the left.
if given a
plainD-slide valve will,therefore,
reciprocating
motion, control the admission and the exhaust
of the steam
that
the
will
be given a reciprocating
so
piston
motion.
124.
sider
Lap, Lead, Angular Advance, and Eccentricity. Convalve such as is shown
This valve is conin Fig. 91.
"
FIG. 91.
structed
valve
so
"
Simple valve
without
that it
is moved
to
just covers
the right,
or
the steam
the
the
end
stroke
and
to
of the
ports A
"
Indicator
gram
diaZeuner
valve shown
and
B.
If the
to the
to
FIG. 92.
and
card
from
in Fig.91.
lap.
as
shown
will admit
steam
and
stroke
compression of
steam
on
the
exhaust
stroke.
190
HEAT
cylinderat
valve
return
ENGINES
the
Lead
is the amount
the end
the steam
port is
when
open
the
piston is
at
of its stroke.
If the valve
eccentric would
of the crank.
is necessary
greater than
to be
were
be
to
the eccentric
set
90"
by
shown
as
Fig. 91,
of the
crank
sufficient to "move
amount
an
ahead
distance
in
the
of the position
exactly90" in advance
the valve having both lap and lead,it
set
with
But
constructed
This
an
the
angle
valve
angle of advance.
The angle of advance is the anglewhich the perpendicularto the
line of motion of the pistonmakes with the center line of the eccentric
when the engine is on the dead center;or it is the anglebetween the
center lines
of the
eccentric and
the crank
minus
of the eccentric
eccentricity.
throw
twice the
125. Relative
study the
of the
FIG.
94.
"
equalto
of Valve
Position
action
is
valve,it is
Relative
positionof
90".
center
the travel
and
and
the
shaft and
or
of the valve,
Piston.
necessary
valve
of
In
"
to know
order
to
to
its exact
piston.
to
distance
between
produce
the
the
same
it,any
motion.
two
In
cranks
and
the
having the
the
same
arm,
or
crank-pincenter, will
eccentric
the
arm
is called
crank, our
VALVE
GEARS
191
the center
the line
on
point U found
than
rather
However,
OB
or
as
extended
as
the
as
OB,
ratio
to the
left,and
the
with
the line
EH,
arc
D.
of the
the
length of
the eccentric
error
caused
by using the
negligible.
126.
Valve
Diagrams.
"
above
The
method,
although
the
of
apparent
way
"
the
FOG
crank
is in the
equalsthe
position OA.
angle of
FOA
But
Draw
advance, 5
90"
90"
180"
180"
DO A
B
0
6
Therefore FOA
OF
a
so
90").
FOG
(a
90")
a.
that
BOE.
BOE.
the
Then
angle
HEAT
192
As
is
Draw
from
equal and OH
are
of the valve
to
from
FHO
OA,
may
its
will be
will
the
Then
equal OC,
circledescribed
the
or
mid-position. Since
a right angle for any
will be
pointH
of 6.
triangles
ment
displace-
is dicular
perpenvalue of 0, and
FH
OF
on
as
eter.
diam-
the
OA.
perpendicularto
BOG
and
FOR
FH
ENGINES
Thus
FHO.
OA
represents any
the crank at
with
is at its extreme
intercept is again
the valve
and
zero
FIG. 95.
positiontoward
"
Elementary
we
obtain
has
the
returned
Zeuner
diagram.
crank
does
second
to
the
its mid-
intersect
not
circle
when
LO
right;at
on
the
from
OMN,
of its
and OMN
known
as
are
mid-position. The circles FHO
valve circles. It is important to note that in the arrangement
which we
have selected (clockwise
rotation with the cylinderat
the left of the shaft)the interceptson the crank line made
by the
upper
valve
toward
the
right,while those
displacementstoward
indicate
128.
Effect of
valve
will have
equal
to
the
Lap.
"
to
be
In
moved
made
displacements of the
by
the
valve
valve
circle
is evident
the
lower
the left.
valve
from
having lap,it
mid-position a distance
begins,and on returning to
its
GEARS
VALVE
port when
small
lap and
reduced
to
effect of the
193
of admission
lap is to close
a
of steam
very
large
might be
zero.
amount
FIG.
crank
"
Zeuner
of this
examination
the
96.
at
diagram, showing
diagram shows
OF, and
ends
since admission
practicable
at
must
effect of steam
that
OG.
occur
admission
lap.
begins with
arrangement is not
before the pistonbegins
This
be obtained
This result may
stroke,by the amount
in a counter-clockwise
by revolving the circle DCWO
directionabout 0 as a center until D, the point of intersection
zontal
falls below the horiof the valve circle with the steam
lap circle,
in Fig. 97.
axis OL as shown
tricity
In rotating the valve circle to its new
position,the eccenremains the same, but the angular positionof the eccentric
what
To see
relative to the crank has been altered.
change
of the lead.
its
in the actual
center
to
13
HEAT
194
ENGINES
the
between
the
figureshows
advance
that
In
that with
increases
for
reduces
and
crank
any
the
eccentric.
the
lead
and
Fig. 97
the
causes
valve
in the
positionOJ.
at the
time
cut-off to
is in its
This
of admission
occur
if there
therefore
were
no
FIG.
the crank
the
crank
These
are
97.
diagram showing
be 01.
sooner.
the crank
is
be the crank
position
lap. Similarly
steam
Zeuner
"
earlier.
mid-positionwhen
would
of the
angular
Also,
increase in the steam
lap
cut-off
makes
an
examination
increase in the
given lap, an
An
effect of
As there is steam
cut-off
0
lap.
are
OH
through D
circle and
steam
and
lap,
OC.
W, the
lap circle.
and
is the lead.
If the valve
had
exhaust
VALVE
left-hand
of the
end
cylinderuntil
of live steam
129. Exhaust
GEARS
OH
195
is
reached, when
the admission
begins.
The
valve
shown
in
Fig. 93 is extended
side so as to give it exhaust
the exhaust
lap. The effect of
on
the exhaust valve to
this is similar to the steam
lap and causes
close before the end of the exhaust
stroke,giving the engine
compressionat the end of the exhaust stroke of the engine. On
the valve diagram the exhaust
lap is treated in the same
way
radius
In
with
OR
the
the
steam
to
a
lap.
Fig. 97,
as
equal
is drawn, and through the points
exhaust lap, the lap circle RT
T and R, are
this circle cuts the valve circle,
where
drawn
as
the lines 01' and OJ', giving the position of the crank at the
time the port is opened to exhaust, called the point of release,
and at the time the port is closed,called the point of compression.
indicator
card
The
distribution
resulting from the steam
below
brought about by the valve analyzed in Fig. 97 is shown
the valve diagram and is obtained as follows:
crank
Take
position, as for example, OC, the cut-off
any
the arc
CV
with the length of the connecting
position. Draw
rod
as
Lap.
"
and
radius
with
the center
which
actual
indicator
card
events
are
found
in
similar way.
for the
engine we
are
considering
rounded
off,due to wire drawing.
cards, the point of cut-off is the
confined
"
to
must
see
be admitted
has been
place in both
ends
it is
as
of the
our
sary
neces-
cylinder,we
be able to draw
Fig. 93 shows
end
takes
LV
from
the
piston has moved
be projected
cut-off,and V may
The
other points of the diagram
would
what
Then
the
on
the valve
to the crank
moved
end
distance
of the
cylinderas
equal to
the steam
soon
lap
as
on
the valve
the
right
of the valve.
Fig. 98 shows the valve diagram for both the head and crank
ends of the engine. In this figure,LZ and Z'L' represent both
the stroke of the piston and, to a different scale,the travel of the
placement
As the lower circle of the crank diagram shows the disvalve.
the diagram for the admission stroke on
to the left,
HEAT
196
the
crank
be
must
ENGINES
drawn
below
valve
line O'L'.
the
end
must
be
In
Fig.
Similarlythe
drawn
above
the
lead
has
line O'L'.
131.
been
Effect
taken
of
the
Connecting Rod."
same
for both
the head
and
98
the
the crank
end.
It is
in the
Y"
FIG.
98.
"
cut-off upon
the
in which
of the
on
and
angularity of the
This difference in the angularity of the rod on
sides of the
less than
line LZ
the
cylindermakes
head
end.
it is necessary
cut-offs,
In
to the
the
cut-off
order
to have
to
a
on
correct
smaller
necting
con-
the
the
crank
this
inequality
lap
on
end
the crank
HEAT
198
rod has been
ENGINES
neglected.) Draw
the lines
U, OC at J, and OP at L. Then
OH
equals OU equals the steam lap, and OL equals the exhaust
lap. With 0 as a center and the radius OH draw the steam lap
circle HVJ
Then
UV
will equal
the line OM
at V.
intersecting
the lead.
With
at
H, OM
at
center
and
as
the radius OL
the exhaust
draw
the
Draw
the valve circle TLO
at K.
lap circle intersecting
line OKR
from
0 through K.
This line represents the crank
to
R drop the perpendicularRG
position at release. From
on
the line MN
the angularityof the connectingrod).
(neglecting
Then
MG
at the time
of release.
133.
D-slide
Piston
Valves
tions, has
number
An
of the valve
100.
Balanced
Valves.
of inherent
is
exposed
pressed against its seat
large frictional resistance
faults which
plain
The
certain
concli-
it offers when
of
to
Fig. 90
used
shows
with
must
preclude its
among
which
examination
"
Riding cut-off,
piston valve.
"
Prominent
cases.
to movement
steam.
Other
FIG.
in many
and
with
that
be
overcome
of resistance
high-pressure
the
entire back
use
in consequence
moving it.
it is
a
VALVE
GEARS
199
FIG.
valve
seat
is
101.
"
Compound
by the
steam
is present, and
in
pressure.
In the
piston valve
no
such
force
HEAT
200
ENGINES
FIG.
102.
"
engines,compound locomotives,and
high-speedstationaryengines.
also in
number
of
types of
The
sectional view
of the
piston is
high-pressure
right-hand corner
of the
shown
figure. The
more
in
piston
VALVE
valve
The
the
on
valves
are
engine is a shaft
high-pressurevalve.
103.
"
which
governor
ported valve
Double
controls
with
the action
of the
plate.
cover
on
201
this
FIG.
GEARS
cover
plate. This
FIG.
placed
over
the
cover
104.
"
valve.
plate is made
Steam
its
cover
the valve
plate are
chest showing
This
a
prevents
balanced
seat
it is
scrapingfit when
valve
any
seat.
steam
pressure
on
valve.
in the steam
chest.
The
whole
The
valve
arrange-
ENGINES
HEAT
202
in cross-section in
is shown
ment
at the
of the
ends
Fig. 55.
chest, and
steam
the
The
steam
ports
are
exhaust
port between
noticed
that
them.
It will be
Double-ported Valves.
diagrams so far discussed in this text have
134.
"
in the valve
introduced
earlier
an
so
short
changing from
in
gear
off
cut-
late cut-off to
that the
so
diagram is constructed
f stroke,the results obtained will show
for
valve
cylinderis at
cut-off in the
that
If
one.
drawn
half stroke.
later than
been
all valve
is
impossibility.
practical
too
FIG.
D-valve
must
In
is
to
is shown
early cut-off.
in the
past the
a
be made
begun and
valve
evident
that
simple
Modern
"
quite
Fig. 105
for
105.
is thus
It
high-speed engines.
tion
modificaearlycut-offs and some
form.
obtain a satisfactory
able
a modern
high-speedengine valve suit-
At
the steam
the
ordinarymanner.
upper
corner
same
directlypast
At the
enters
the
time
steam
flow of steam
passes
coming
corner.
The
through
VALVE
eccentricityand
the
plainD-slide
Another
valve
extends
the
of the
and
friction.
in its
place by
and
steam
rests
is the pressure
and
ducing
consequently replate extends around
pressure
the valve
upon
In
chest.
plate
of the valve, thus relieving
pressure,
The
large as for
as
distribution.
of this valve
flat
one-half
steam
same
over
203
lap are
giving the
action
wear
the
the steam
important feature
A, which
it from
GEARS
of
case
It is held
seat.
when
there
is
steam
no
large quantity of
water
it would
to
otherwise
tight condition
when
plate which
pressure
the clearance
The
This
do.
between
the valve
be restored
may
worn
bear
of valve
form
and
seat, thus
reducing
plate.
pressure
governor
changes.
This
variation
First.
of three
one
eccentric
revolving
eccentricityconstant
the
keeping
in
center
the
By
"
in cut-off is effected
around
while
by changing
ways.
the
varying
shaft, thus
the
angle of
advance.
Second.
By
"
moving
the
eccentric in
straight line
at
to the
and
crank, thus alteringboth the eccentricity
angle of advance, but keeping the lead constant.
angles
Third.
"
of which
center
center, and
this
case
Of
these
because
very
the
varied,but
is
not
in
the
and
in the
same
forms, the
it is the most
as
way
third
the
eccentricityare
in the second
is the
the
on
angle of advance
three
center
right
shaft
In
both
type.
commonest,
largely
convenient.
diagrams corresponding
to
204
HEAT
ENGINES
FIG.
cut-off.
In the
106.
Meyer
"
ridingcut-off
valve.
compression depend
each other, and one
be changed without
cannot
changing
upon
the other.
In order to regulate the speed of the engineby the
same
it is desirable
cut-off,
without
changing
This
cut-off.
FIG.
be
may
107.
The
"
any
done
way
to have
some
of
means
changing the
other
Cross-section
cut-off
of
Buckeye
valve
gear
for
be done.
may
tandem
compound
engine.
Such
to
the
valve is shown
D-slide
body
these
ports.
fastened
hand
of the valve
The
thread,and
and
steam
the steam
cut-off valve
"togetherby
The
in Fig. 106.
rod
main
valve is very
enters
the
consists of two
threaded
similar
cylinderthrough
blocks
with
that
are
left-
a
through one
through the other with a right-hand thread.
a
206
HEAT
extend
where
arms.
motion
ENGINES
eccentric rod.
Valve
of the
permanently connect the arms
exhaust valves to the wrist plate,but for the steam valves a trip
at the point of
disengages the valve arm
gear is provided,which
cut-off and
sudden
allows
rods
the valve
piston.
As
the valve
to close with
to the
dash-pot
the dash-pot piston is raised,producing
opens,
partialvacuum
This
rapid motion.
in its
cylinder,so
To
that
soon
as
as
the
with
the
Governor-
Inlet
Valve
FIG.
trip gear
109.
"
releases the
valve
wrist
plate,atmospheric
down
and
In
The
of the
The
arm
111
is raised
cam
to oscillate about
the wrist
forces
pressure
end
the
arm
knock-off
one
its connection
the
dash-pot piston
steam
valve is shown.
Figs.110 and
steam
from
arm
of valves.
or
lever and
the valve
the bell-crank
stem
the outer
as
of the bell-crank
rocking motion
stem, and,
as
an
axis.
lever with
and
the valve
lever
The
its seat.
on
both
are
end
valve
rod
free
nects
con-
the wrist
plate,and as
forth,the bell-crank is given
stem.
The
other
arm
of the
GEARS
VALVE
207
lever carries
steam
about
the bell-crank lever has been turned
opening it. When
its axis until the point is reached where the inner leg of the steam
hook strikes the knock-off cam, the outer leg will be forced to the
Governor
Knock-
off Rod
Knock-
off Cam
Lever
Double
Arm
Bell-crank
FIG.
110.
"
Line
diagram
of Corliss
which
arm
right releasingthe steam
downward
by the dash-pot rod which
sudden
of the steam
movement
sharp cut-off.
The
governor
arm
or
Lever
tripmechanism.
will
suddenly be pulled
is attached
controls
the
to
it.
and
This
givesa
hook
the steam
thus determining the point at which
off cam,
and cut-off takes place. A safety cam
releases the valve arm
is provided so that in
the governor
balls will rotate the
case
belt
HEAT
208
analysisof
An
ENGINES
the motion
of
properlydesigned Corliss
valve
important points:
reveals two
That
First.
"
"
first of these
The
and
makes
the
is the
than
FIG.
by
with
111.
"
the
card
Corliss
the wear,
reduces
of the indicator
corners
case
features
tripmechanism
more
The
for steam
pressure
wire-drawing effect
is
sharply defined
second
reduces
valve.
pressedagainst its
of the
period
off
port is closed. The use of the tripgear makes the cutindependent of all the other events, and consequentlythe lead
for all
the same
and points of compression and release remain
when
loads.
steam
the
With
gear
the combination
of excellent
mum
distribution,
slightleakage and wire drawing,with a miniof clearance,is obtained,resultingin a high degree
amount
of economy.
VALVE
A
GEARS
209
direct-connected
to
an
electric
FIG.
137.
112.
"
Corliss
engine and
alternatingcurrent
In
Changing the Direction of Rotation.
valve diagrams, the cylinderhas been taken
"
rotation
in
clockwise
generator.
all the
ceding
pre-
at the left of
assumed.
14
HEAT
210
of stroke
ENGINES
as
the direction
of rotation.
purposes
"
gear
which
has received
This
has been
the
of the
name
widely used
more
than
Stephenson link
other
any
motion.
type of reversing
gear.
a
FIG.
two
eccentrics.
113.
the end
On
By
stem.
it to the
the valve
the
of
free to turn
a
to take
bell crank
One
its motion
end
link motion.
of the valve
on
and
of the link.
"
means
Stephenson
"
from
pin
any
carried
the
desired
go-ahead" position,and
the
block,fitted
to
the valve
by
or
is a
stem
other
link,and
cause
end
so
arc
eccentric for
an
of the
link to
an
is
"back-up"
thrown
to the end controlled by the go-ahead eccentric,
the valve
is moved
thrown
to drive the engineforward,and when
to
so
as
the opposite end, the engine reverses.
As the block is moved
nearer
of the
the middle
of the
position. When
link,both
eccentrics
block
When
are
the
the middle
found
to
occur
of
at
VALVE
GEARS
211
link block
the
the
valve
arrangement
oppositedirections.
each of the eccentrics is placed at an angle of 180"
For this reason
In marine
in Fig. 113.
the position shown
from
practice the
the end of the valve stem
link block is usually carried on
as
in the figure.
shown
the valve and
causes
139. Radial
Motion,
or
less
Gears.
common
In
"
of other
number
either
have
the
This
stem.
One
use.
addition
connecting rod, or
are
to
in
the
Stephenson
eccentric and
one
move
are
in
Link
more
radial gears,
from
part of their motion
these,known
derive
entirelywithout
as
derive
eccentric and
an
iftingArm
Center
FIG.
114.
from
is the
large number
of Walschaert
Diagram
"
Walschaert
with
point of support.
lever which
derives
The
way
to
as
valve
its motion
most
tant
impor-
being fitted
A diagrammatic
now
in
of this gear is shown
crank
pin, a second crank
a
is
locomotives.
of American
which
gear,
STiaft
gear.
The
connecting rod.
the
sketch
the
valve
of Lift
cause
is connected
stem
both
from
link,and from
of the
to the
its
vertical
on
engine. By settingthe
be varied
block at different points along the link,the cut-off may
the Walschaert
With
the engine reversed.
or
gear, the lead
instead of increasing
for all cut-offs,
when
remains
the same
cut-off is made
as in the Stephenson gear.
earlier,
the
the cross-head
it to oscillate about
HEAT
212
ENGINES
Another
gear,
from
fixed.
permanently
almost
exactly the
lead is constant
Another
having a
Valve
the
gear
for both
same
method
which
ends
distribution is
steam
of the
is to
used
for
cylinder,and
the
reversingengines
change, by
steam
steam
be
may
slide valve
balanced
ports into
this
cock, the
way
With
of
means
ports and
the
three-
exhaust
ports.
Stem
Center
line of
Cylindej
Wrist
Pin
FIG.
115.
radial
Joy
"
gear.
140.
In setting a valve,
Setting the Valve by Measurement.
the first step is to place the engine on dead center,that is,the
end of its stroke.
To do this,proceed in
piston at the extreme
and turn
the followingway:
Place the engine near
the center
it away
a fixed
While
and
"
from
the center
point
the cross-head
coincide.
From
the
with
again
marks, and
on
turn
the
length of
engine will now
in the
the cross-head
and
same
tram.
the
be
turn
on
wav.
line
Bisect
the
from
center.
across
tram
from
the wheel.
mark
the
cross-head
the
the
between
fly-wheel
the
tram
fly-wheeluntil
the tram
same
fly-wheeland
guide. Now
the
with
Measure
position,mark
same
15".
to the
the frame
on
in the
about
this
Fig.
118
shows
before,this card
Fig. 119 shows
an
may
an
card
indicator
be corrected
Indicator
card showing
118.
effect of too much
lead.
"
with
too
by changing
card
indicator
Ad
FIG.
ENGINES
HEAT
214
with
too
much
lead.
the eccentric.
much
compression.
Indicator
FIG.
119.
effect of too much
"
As
card showing
compression.
this often
single-valveengines with automatic
governors
be corrected by
In Corliss engines it may
at lightload.
occurs
changing the length of the rod connecting the valve and wrist
In
plate.
FIG.
Indicator
card showing
120.
effect of "wire-drawing
"
card showing
Indicator
121.
FIG.
effect of insufficient exhaust lead.
"
FIG.
122.
"
Indicator
card
showing
effect of too
short cut-off.
VALVE
card
indicator
The
lead;
that
valve
engine
the
is,
be
will
correct
the
exhaust
When
be
may
and
occurs
The
until
below
in
shows
an
122,
the
the
way
cut-off
atmospheric
is
pressure.
will
the
single-
be
usually
companied
ac-
line
admission
four-valve
the
will
lead
steam
engine,
of
is
the
lead
it
enough
is
by
of
so
work
the
off
cut-
below
from
As
it
work
the
steam
expansion
is
has
d,
to
this
When
operation.
for
the
exhaust.
to
negative
reducing
that
load,
expanded
opens
of
large
too
be
will
valve
loop
light
very
steam
the
condition
engine
long
the
gives
correct
to
and
With
Correcting
with
operated
uneconomical
regularly
best
this
lead
exhaust
increased.
before
pressure
Fig.
be
insufficient
late.
too
exhaust
In
that
short
so
atmospheric
shown
is
engine
is
lead,
lead.
has
121
position.
dotted
should
valve
an
of
steam
exhaust
215
Fig.
release
condition
the
the
in
of
insufficient
in
shown
as
shown
point
this
by
GEARS
to
do.
pressure
not
carried
CHAPTER
XII
GOVERNORS
it is essential that the engine
142. In stationaryenginepractice
at
operate
uniform
which
power
it
in the steam
or
pipe near
of balance
other
form
the
engine.
This
valve, is
valve
is
trolled
con-
in such a manner
that, when the speed
by the governor
of the engine increases,
the area
of opening through the valve
is reduced,thereby increasing
the velocityof the steam
through
the valve and reducingthe pressure
of steam
enteringthe engine.
This governor
regulatesthe speed of the engine by varying the
of the enteringsteam, the cut-off remaining constant.
pressure
144. Automatic
attached
are
the
load
which
the
to the valve
earlier.
come
is admitted
remains
145.
are
to the
Governors.
These
"
nors
gover-
mechanism
as
during
to the engine is reduced by making
less,less
Thus, as the load becomes
engine is reduced,
is admitted
steam
cut-off
steam
123
the
on
Variable Cut-off
or
engine,but
the
length of
the pressure
time
of the steam
unchanged.
Relative
taken
Economy.
from
an
"
The
indicator
cards
shown
engineusing a throttling
governor.
216
in
Fig.
This
GOVERNORS
figureshows
of cards taken
number
217
at different loads.
Under
the steam
light load, owing to the action of the governor,
is very low, while under
the card shows
a heavy load
pressure
is expanded almost
At the light load the steam
high pressure.
but at the heavy load, the cut-off being
to atmospheric pressure,
kept the same, there is a very small expansion. This condition
is not favorable
to economical
operation.
Fig. 124 shows a card similar to Fig. 123, but taken from an
automatic
engine. In this form of governing the initial pressure
a
remains
the
enables
all loads
for
same
and
cut-off
the
varies.
This
FIG. 123.
Indicator
card
effect of throttlinggovernor
load on engine is varied.
"
requiringthe
this
at
Under
governor
FIG. 124.
Indicator
card
effect of automatic
governor
load on engine is varied.
showing
"
when
to maintain
the cut-off
as
showing
when
nearly as possible
point.
conditions this form
most
of governor
is
more
ical
econom-
in its
Actual
periment
exoperation than the throttlinggovernor.
with an
and throttling
engine having both an automatic
shows
the automatic
to give a steam
governor
governor
consumption of about 75 per cent, of the steam
consumption
of the same
engine operated with a throttling
governor.
146.
which
Governor
Mechanism.
is to maintain
"
The
mechanism
of the governor
the
used
rotated by the
engine,and
as
the
HEAT
218
the balls
valve
and
out
move
ENGINES
or
the
mechanism.
In the second
the governor
is fastened
to the
balls
suspended by
are
FIG.
weight W
by the
around
rotate
point A.
along
The
the
125.
"
BC.
axis AC.
The
As
the
to
the
fly-ball
governor.
balls of the governor
and
arms
is free to
also attached
are
vertical
weight
and
diagram of
Line
arms
the
AB,
arms
in
move
pivoted
are
a
at
the
vertical direction
one
vertical direction
the
2Pdh
2wdh
Wkdh.
k W
Therefore
"-.
(1)
GOVERNORS
(Ifthe
The
horizontal
force
actingon
then
taking
lower
and
upper
arms
zero.
for F the
in
A,
about
moments
Pr
and
2.)
length,then k
Let F be the centrifugal
it in the dotted positions;
same
ball to maintain
each
Substitutingfor P,
the
are
will be
work
219
Fh.
equation
(2)
in
equation (1),
the
"
tion
equa-
becomes
kW
(3)
where
second.
wV2
If W
0, thenw
-h,
or
gr
r2
V2
7
This
equationshows
is independent of
is considerable
friction in the
have
mechanism
considerable weight
"*"
"
balls be
of the governor,
in order easilyto
If the number
and
come
over-
of revolutions'
minute, then
per
""
Substitutingin equation (4),the value of F2
and solvingfor n
n
Substitutingequation (5)for
svs
F2 in
as
found
from
(5),
"
k
equation (3),and letting
2, then
2936
(l+." )
'
n*h.
(8)
This
governor
design.
HEAT
220
148.
Shaft
Governor.
to control
In
the
the
ENGINES
There
"
speed of
earlier form
an
are
two
engine by
of governors,
principalforce
was
centrifugal
force.
FIG.
FIG.
127.
126.
"
"
Elementary centrifugal
governor.
Actual
construction
of
centrifugal
governor.
governor
HEAT
222
ENGINES
The
governor.
centrifugalforce
has no effect upon the movement
of the weight,but only produces
SM.
a stress in the arm
But, if the wheel were suddenly stopped,
and exert a
due to the inertia,
the weight would continue to move,
force upon a spring(notshown) againstthe resistance of which the
of this weight is arranged to
ball acts.
The
motion
governor
Inertia alone is not used as the
change the positionof the valve.
of centrifugal
force and inertia
actuatingforce,but a combination
In
is used.
forces.
The
two
is fastened
that
so
of governor
combining these two
weights are fastened to a singlearm
form
governor
around
rotates
to the governor
arm.
149. Isochronism.
and
quantities,
then
An
must
one
variation
travel in
makes
This
it
ifthe governor
is
governor
speed and
from
one
given governor,
this
direction
or
impossible for
result is
the governor
one
only
speed
in which
at one,
governor
and
are
fixed
that h is constant,
becomes
the balls
isochronous.
in
equilibrium
and any
except for friction,
will send
the other.
a
is so constructed
be constant, and
isochronous
at
For
"
them
to
are
the
limit of their
approximately obtained
The
by using
crossed
the
arms
so
height h
of governors
that their motion is an
guided in a parabolicguide so
value.
exact parabola and give h a uniform
150. Hunting.
Over-sensitive
often
exhibit the
governors
known
how
as
phenomena
"hunting." No matter
quickly a
its
in
demand
for
to a
change
position
may
response
governor
less steam, the engine does not respond instantly. This
or
more
the balls
are
"
GOVERNORS
when
moment
stored in the
of the energy
is in consequence
223
of time
that must
is admitted
steam
moving parts of
elapsebetween
by the
and
governor
the
the
the
much
the
on
This
is admitted.
steam
point and
the desired
beyond
the oppositedirection.
the revolutions
causes
the
over-control
same
tojncrease
is exercised in
"
spring.
governor
151. Practical
Considerations.
When
"
properly designed
not
govern
springis used.
If the engine operates at a lower speed than that desired,the
If this tension
tension of the governor
springshould be increased.
then additional
has been increased to the limit of the spring,
balls.
weight should be placed in the governor
than
one
of governors
mechanism
be made
In all forms
valve
it is necessary
as
small
as
and
possible,
it
should, if
possible,be a constant
quantity. It is better to have balanced
and
valves, where they are directlyoperated by the governor,
In the D-slide type of
the valves should have a small travel.
valve, small travel is obtained by using a double-ported valve.
In direct connected
engines, 2 per cent, variation in speed is
the maximum
to be
allowable,and
less than
is sometimes
of 5 per
152.
Fly-wheel.
within
certain limits
cent,
1 per
"
The
requirethe
specifications
most
In
cent.
mill
riation
va-
engines a variation
allowed.
governor
of
an
It
HEAT
224
takes
few
ENGINES
revolutions,however, to bring
the
into
governor
action.
The
in the
steam
fraction
controlled
to three
of
revolution,and
these
of
speed that
occur
fluctuations must
fluctuations of speed
are
be
due
principalcauses:
First.
The
"
is not the
of steam
pressure
same
stroke.
Second.
The
"
motion
of the
of the
piston is carried
connectingrod and
reciprocatinginto rotary motion
means
varies from
Third.
zero
to
crank.
causes
means
the
of
shaft
by
changing
maximum.
reciprocating motion
The
This
to
of the
to the
force to be transmitted
A
fly-wheelis fastened
crank.
to the main
shaft of the
engineto
reduce
power
The
effectiveness
stored in it.
As most
the load.
of the
of the
fly-wheeldepends
upon
the
energy
2g V 60
4rr2
2
ft.lb,
The
the
(9)
pends
expressionshows that the effectiveness of a fly-wheeldeof the radius of
the weight of the rim, the square
upon
of revolutions that it
wheel, and the square of the number
makes.
CHAPTER
XIII
ENGINES
COMPOUND
Compound
Reducing
less.
"
of temperature
the range
the condensation
losses.
in the
cylinderreduces
-The
principalobjectof compounding is
to reduce the amount
of steam used per horse-powerper hour, and,
under proper
conditions,compounding accomplishes this,owing
to
the
from
of initial condensation.
reduction
loss and
to increase
losses
the
are
losses
simple
increased
by
a
the mechanical
decreases
hand, compounding
radiation
engine are
compound*
The
losses.
thermodynamic
On
the other
losses
by
range
of temperature
in each
engine.
Ibs.,the single-cylinder
condensing
economical
than the compound
engine. But for
engine is more
above
100 Ibs. the compound
engine is usually more
pressures
In the case
of the non-condensing engine, the comeconomical.
For
under
pressures
*The
term
"compound"
100
as
here
used
etc.
15
225
includes
triple-expansion,
ruple-expan
quad-
ENGINES
HEAT
226
becomes
pressures
greater than
The
the
show
any
economical
150 Ibs.
is
single-cylinder
engine,Fig. 112,
engine when
compound
is less than
steam
six to
use
FIG.
154.
Tandem
When
there
of
economical
more
from
are
than
expansions of the
of
number
in the
little difference
the number
When
the
expansions the
fifteen
economical.
is usual to
four.
is very
there
from
not
compound
four
to
six
With
economy.
engine
expansions exceeds
pansions
ex-
is
more
fifteen it
triple-expansionengine.
130.
"
Tandem
Compound
arrangement
of
Engines.
cylinders.
.
tandem
compound
engine,Fig. 130, is one in which the two cylinerdsare placed one
The
in front of the other.
pistons of the two cylinders are
attached to the same
piston rod, and there is but one connecting
flows directlyfrom the high-pressure
The steam
rod and crank.
cylinder into the low-pressure cylinder, and the connecting
pipes are relativelysmall, there being no receiver except the
tandem
the cylinders. The
compound engine
piping between
than
the
The
less
cross
compound.
principal
occupies
space
objectionto this form of engine is the difficultyof getting at
"
COMPOUND
ENGINES
155.
Cross-compound
Fig. 131,
the
two
Engine.
cylindersare
"
227
This is the earliest
cross-compoundengine,
placed side by side, and each
In the
ENGINES
HEAT
228
cylinder has its separate piston rod, connecting rod, and crank.
The
steam, after leaving the high-pressurecylinder, usually
reservoir called a receiver,
and from this receiver
enters a steam
The
cranks
in a
low-pressure cylinder takes its steam.
cross-compound engine are usually set 90" apart, so that when
the high-pressurecylinder is at the beginning of its stroke the
the
A
cross-compound
low-pressure cylinder is at mid-stroke.
engine with cranks at 90" must always be providedwith a receiver,
when
the
be taking steam
the low-pressure cylindermay
as
high-pressurecylinder is not exhausting. The cross-compound
the tandem
engine,
but the parts are lighter. Each
piston,cross-head, connecting
rod, and crank does only approximately one-half the work that
engine. The turning effort on the
they would do in a tandem
uniform
crank-shaft is made
by placingthe crank at 90".
more
engine occupies
the
reduces
This
fluctuation
the
much
size of
of the
than
larger space
the
speed
fly-wheel necessary
engine,and
of the
to
also
overcome
assists the
governing.
cross-compound engine is often termed a "fore and
aft" compound.
of Cylinders in the Compound
156. Ratio
Engine. In the
compound engine the strokes of the two cylindersare usuallythe
A
vertical
"
If
same.
we
of
value
the
termed
cylinder. The
value
varies
from
as
exhaust
admission
of L
high-speedengines,and
be such
of L should
"drop," between
cylinderand the
of the
diameter
the
*
The
two
high-pressurecylinder
the low-pressure cylinderby D, then
cylinders by L, and
by d, and that
of the
volumes
3 to
to avoid
pressure
pressure
fall in pressure,
in the high-pressure
in the
low-pressure
2J to 4 for
4| for engines of
from
automatic
the Corliss
is
See note
at bottom
of page
225.
HEAT
230
ratio of
expansion, and
ENGINES
that
all the
of the
compound*
mitted
engine could be developed in its low-pressure cylinder if we adinto that cylinder the same
mitted
adas
was
weight of steam
to the high-pressure
cylinder,expanded the steam in this
number
of times as it was
cylinder the same
expanded in the
whole
back pressure.
engine, and exhausted
against the same
If the horse-power obtained
by assuming all the work done in
the low-pressure cylinder be multiplied by a card factor, the
result will be equal to the horse-power of the engine. This
be expressed mathematically as follows:
may
Let
power
the diameter
of the
the diameter
of the
the
the
low-pressurecylinder.
high-pressurecylinder.
in square
of the low-pressurecylinder
area
length of stroke of the engine in feet.
the
mean
number
d
A
/
effective pressure
for the whole
of revolutions per minute.
the per
the
cent,
of the stroke
inches.
engine.
point of cut-off in
to the
high-pressurecylinder.
expansion for the whole
ratio of
Pi
initial pressure
pz
engine.
enteringthe engine.
steam
of the exhaust.
pressure
D2
Then
(2)
~2
(1 + logs)
Pi
and
(3)
"
-
p2
2plAn
Horse-power
The
and
value
of the factor
varies from
from
Cut-off
in the
f stroke; in
*
See
note
15"
at
24"
36"
30"
cylinder,f stroke; in
L.P. cylinder,
\ stroke.
bottom
engine,
high-speedengines,and
t"
^
X
H.P.
the
upon
Corliss engine.
^
A
depends
Example."
"
of page
225.
engine
the
runs
100
intermediate
Steam
pressure,
r.p.m.
cylinder,
225
Ibs.
ENGINES
COMPOUND
Indicator
taken
having
of
vacuum
26
in.
rometer
Ba-
from
231
the
"
Atmospheric
pressure
28.65
Exhaust
pressure,
p2,
D2
r
M.E.P
36 X
.8
26)
36
.491
8 X
36 X
36
{ lO.oO
15 X
log"r)
15
3 X
15 X
15
(1 + log-15.35) 1.3 \
-
L.P.
.8(58.1
1.3)
45.46
cylinder
3.1416
2 X
Rated
15.35.
pt
Area
1.3 Ibs.
xd*
239
=
(28.65
14 Ibs.
"""
M.E.P.
.491
45.46
Ibs.
X
18 X18
2.5 X
1018
1018
sq. in.
100
I.H.P.
33000
a 700-H.P.
Practically
engine.
H.P., H.E.,
H.P., C.E.,
I
70.3 Ibs.
72
"
160
Q8X
50
30
50
28.5
20
13.4
"
20
13.6
"
M.P., H.E.,
"
M.E.P.
1Q71
X
M.P., C.E.,
"
L.P., H.E.,
L.P., C.E.,
HEAT
232
ENGINES
Area
LN
Constant
H.P., H.E.
H.P., C.E.
M.P., H.E.
M.P., C.E.
L.P., H.E.
L.P., C.E.
I.H.P.
2.5 X
100
.007575.
70.3 X
176.7
.007575
94.4
72
173.6
.007575
94.7
.007575
102.5
.007575
96.5
.007575
103.5
.007575
104.2
595.8
30
452
28.5 X
447
13.4 X
1018
13.6 X
1011
X
X
Total
Per
cent,
of rated H.P.
developed
595.8
.851
700
85.1 per
f(a)
700
H.P.
1(6)85.1
158.
a
Combined
hypothetical figurewhich
expansion and
the
exhaust
would
all took
low-pressurecylinder of
which
on
be
may
of that
steam.
appears
in its true
In
any
it the
combined
The
"
be obtained
place in
one
compound*
measured
any
cent.
per
Cards.
Indicator
cent.
if the
admission,
cylinder,and that
indicator
of the steam
cylinders,and
card
combining
necessary
volumes.
to. reduce
from
all to the
compound*
at
cylinder
same
engine,it is first
scale of pressures
It is
the
to
and
diagram
change the
diagrams.
each
of the
line
cylinder. These
Divide
*
gram
dia-
the volume
each
convenient
to use
generally more
from the low-pressure
cylinderas the basis to which
On
proportion.
When
other
It is
engine.
the pressure
of the
is
diagram
See note
the
at
high and
bottom
clearance
of page
225.
volume
intermediate
mission
of the ad-
diagrams into
zero
any
volume.
convenient
COMPOUND
number
ENGINES
of parts by vertical
from
lines
the
233
atmospheric line
of each
of the
i 5
points where
cross
HEAT
234
ENGINES
that
in the
used
stroke
be
may
determined
from
the
indicator
card
for
that
points on
the
volume
the
abscissae of the
the
diagram.
Now
axes
will be
results obtained
The
from
which
to
measure
pointsso plotted,draw
abscissae.
the ordinates
and
the combined
diagram.
Through
and
pressures
from
each
parts and
cylinder was
the pressure
volume
and
volumes.
into
cylinder,it
will be
noticed,does
the
zero
The
expansion would
in the
zero
saturation
have
been
engine had
of
equal number
of these points was
indicator
begin
volume
representingthe
of volumes
dotted
not
curve
if the
remained
shows
actual
indicator
an
at each
The
at
the
of the
volume
what
zero
volume
indicator card
of the
the
weight of
curve
steam
ance.
clearof
panding
ex-
saturated.
PROBLEMS
1. A
Initial
300 r.p.m.
engine is 8" X 16" X 12" and runs
Cut-off
steam
150 Ibs. absolute;back pressure, 2 Ibs. absolute.
pressure,
in high-pressure cylinder at \ stroke.
If the steam
expands along an
isothermal of a perfectgas and the card factor is 70 per cent.,what I.H.P.
will the engine develop?
2. A single-acting
compound engine is 9" X 15" X 9"; initial pressure,
125 Ib. gage; back pressure,
atmospheric; cut-off in high-pressurecylinder,
would
What
be
card factor of 80 per cent.
Assume
i stroke;r.p.m., 250.
the horse-power rating of the engine?
Initial
3. A compound
80 r.p.m.
engine is 27" X 35" X 48" and runs
2 Ibs. absolute;cut-off in the high-pressure
back pressure,
pressure, 125 Ibs.;
compound
COMPOUND
" stroke;
cylinder,
if each
4.
card
factor,
develops
cylinder
pressure
cylinder,
pressure
cylinder,
\ stroke.
of
6.
is
Engine
factor
A
80
absoluta;
50
35"
of
85
Cut-off
low
Ibs.
card
engine?
cut-off
48";
Ibs.;
high-
in
pressure,
the
back
in
high-
What
Ibs.
pressure,
cent.
per
in
and
Assuming
of
130
factor
horse-power
\ stroke;
r.p.m.
55"
pressure,
card
its
Ibs.; back
135
runs
be
36".
horse-power
27"
Steam
Assume
40.
r.p.m.,
40"
cylinder,
and
rated
is
stroke.
27"
will
horse-power?
pressure,
acting
engine
cylinder,
pressure
of
intermediate
is the
what
pumping
number
Steam
double
cent.,
per
city
in
235
What
cent.
per
is 20"
engine
\ stroke;
absolute.
80
equal
an
triple-expansion
ENGINES
is its
rated
horse-power?
6.
high-pressure
9.
from
of
is
Ibs.
120
51
in.
7.
rod
piston
4
Indicator
in.
Ibs;
as
H.P.
for
L.P.
is
is
cylinder,
cylinder,
20
in.;
H.P.
for
Ibs.
An
20
Ibs.
indicator
for
area
36"
cylinder,
Ibs.;
160
and
lengths
for
of
H.E.,
C.E.
H.E.,
C.E.
the
total
I. H.P.
H.P.
"
Cyl.,
area
"
"
"
"
"
"
If
L.P.
"
"
"
"
"
M.P.
"
inch,
square
length
in.
L.P.
M.P.
in.
1\
"
"
"
"
"
2^
"
"
2J
"
"
"
"
3i
"
"
3"
"
arm
180
of
cylinder,
cylinder,
indicator
runs
Diameter
for
"
"
brake
and
"
"
weight
gross
follows:
C.E.
indicator
efficiency.
in.;
cylinder,
the
24"
28
vacuum,
M.P.
of
sure,
pres-
low-pressure
a
length
the
indicator
in
on
mechanical
X
the
is used
carrying
the
28"
cylinder,
The
in
and
of
in
back
low-pressure
spring
and
Ibs.;
area
83-lb.
F.H.P.;
18"
the
brake
cut-off
125
the
from
Pony
absolute;
Ibs.
2
and
spring
a
B.H.P.;
200
spring
H.E.,
Find
brake
the
in.;
sq.
the
r.p.m.,
pressure,
acting
in.
with
engine
pressure,
for
.9
40-lb.
fitted
I.H.P.;
triple-expansion
Steam
r.p.m.
of
tare
the
single
is
320
runs
Steam
is 2.35
and
is
engine
The
Find
each
cylinder
The
cylinder.
is
cylinder
of
length
and
\ stroke.
being
high-pressure
The
9"
Engine
high-pressure
on
15"
absolute.
in.
sq.
9"
cylinder
Ibs.
3
card
is
engine
An
cards
60
are
CHAPTER
XIV
CONDENSERS
159.
There
are
two
jet condenser
and
the
FIG.
jet type,
contact
the
with
AND
general forms
of
PUMPS
condensers
surface condenser.
133."
condensing
each
AIR
Jet
water
other, while
In
in
condensers
use,
of
the
the
condenser.
and
in the
236
the
steam
surface
are
brought
condensers
the
into
con-
ENGINES
HEAT
238
chamber
the water
sible to draw
by
the
in the
vacuum
F.
In the barometric
through this
forms
of the steam
be
pumped
narrow
into the
vacuum,
but the
combining chamber,
tion
condensa-
The
condensing water
as
this chamber
must
is ele-
Relief Valve
FIG.
vated
135.
"
Complete
atmosphere
upon
installation of barometric
the hot
condenser.
velocityof the
insufficient to
barometric
The
passingis reduced
maintain
condenser
jet condenser
water
is not
the
is the form
most
to variable
used
in
of the
force
passing through
much, as,
very
to any
For
vacuum.
adapted
pressure
extent, it will
this
reason
the
loads.
stationaryplants,
CONDENSERS
AND
AIR
PUMPS
239
240
HEAT
it is less
as
clean
ENGINES
expensiveto install,
and, where
requiresless repairs,
is available,gives as good results as the surface
water
condenser.
161.
Surface
'the steam
Condensers.
to be condensed
direct contact
on
with
side of
one
coming in
The
is the
other
off
forced
or
of the tubes
brass.
the
The
with
the
which
The
the steam
thin
are
as
The
by
densed
con-
The
condensing
circulating
pump.
with
the steam
eter,
always of small diampossibleand usually of
is used where
A surface condenser
is condensed
in contact
tubes
in
come
is circulated
come
as
do not
coolingwater
is made
metal
coolingwater
tubes, and
condensing surface.
and
the
other.
is drawn
surface
surface
series of
is drawn
water
and
each
contact
steam
In
"
the
coolingwater
is not
over
again
over
steam
is excellent
and
matter
however,
is allowed
to
see
that
of the
the
The
"
independent condenser
The
and
pipe into
air
tank,
from
the surface
is immaterial
as
is sometimes
air pump
is done to avoid the use
which
pump,
water
With
steam
condenser,
of it will be
none
engine. This
using from
must
always used in
practice.
scale-forming
be taken,
no
Care
water.
to the boiler.
coolingwater
feed water.
as
for feed
none
to go back
the nature
used
it is necessary
to use the same
water
for making steam
in the boilers.
The condensed
is
operated directly
of steam
by the
always uneconomical,
per I.H.P.
per
hour.
are
or
runs
river.
or
The
feed water
from
the hot
well.
In
plants,when
many
added
it,the
in addition to
the
are
as
degree of vacuum
condenser is too high,low
water
and
the
is
vacuum
to the
desired,there is
the devices already described.
high
This is attached
from
very
"
maintained
The
the
upon
desired.
vacuum
water.
in these
of
amount
the air
plants.
coolingwater
temperature
of the
If the temperature
cannot
be
in
obtained,as the
AND
CONDENSERS
in the condenser
AIR
If the
be less than
cannot
of the
temperature
correspondingpressure as givenin
which is the lowest possiblepressure
lower
is
vacuum
the condenser
the steam
must
be lowered.
can
This
can
Ibs.,
be obtained.
If
leaving
water
be done
in two
ways,
decreasingthe temperature, of
or
t2
jet condenser,
120",
that
let ti
in
well is
tables is 1 7
the amount,
by increasing
coolingwater.
we
in the hot
water
the
If
241
the pressure
responding
corto the temperature of the boiling
ser.
point in the conden-
pressure
PUMPS
the
of the
of
coolingwater;
coolingwater (and,
the
condensed
steam
also);
"3
the temperature
a
weight
steam
ing
leav-
condenser;
heat
the
surface
of the condensed
of the
steam
cooling
enteringthe
water
denser;
con-
entering per
minute ;
w
the
weight of
the steam
given up by
win
and
by
these two
W(t2
expressionsmust
in
(t2
per
minute;
jetcondenser
32)!,
(i)
the water
=
But
condensed
steam
t,).
be
(2)
ing,
equal, and equatingand solv-
(3)
face
coolingwater per pound of steam enteringa surcondenser
is largerthan that used in a jetcondenser, as the
is higher than the temperasteam
temperature of the condensed
ture
the
condenser.
of the cooling water
leaving
Substituting
/3 for /2 in equation (1),equation (3)becomes,
The
amount
of
yiH^JS)"
[2
which
16
is the
condense
"
to
242
HEAT
In
ENGINES
ft. of
sq.
face
coolingsur-
is allowed
for every
10 Ibs. of steam
condensed per hour,
where
1 sq. ft.
except in the case of turbines using high vacuum,
is allowed for every 4 to 8 Ibs. of steam.
In navy
practice,from
1 to 1 J sq. ft.of surface
indicated
horse-power.
Increase of Power
by Use of Condenser.
Condensing the
steam
diminishes the back pressure by creatinga partial
164.
are
"
exhaust
in
vacuum
measured
the
exhaust
in inches
maintained
of mercury.
in the
In the
common.
condenser
exceeds
is
vacuum
It is seldom
expressionfor
M.E.P.
This
system.
that
in.,and
26
generally
the
vacuum
in. is
24
more
effective pressure,
mean
Pl
the
is the term
In a nonquantity affected by the vacuum
p2.
condensing engine this is usually about 15 Ibs. and the M.E.P.
about 40 Ibs.,but in the condensing engine the effect of adding
is to lower pz to about 2 Ibs.,and increase the M.E.P.
a condenser
for
of
singlecylinderengine to 53 Ibs.,adding to
the engine about 20 per cent.
the
165.
Condensers
for Steam
plants,surface condensers
the exhaust
condensed
from
is an
the steam
In most
"
turbine
possible in
as
the
of circulating
largequantities
water,
and
turbine
steam
used,principallyfor
It is also
matter.
are
Turbines.
horse-power
that
reason
oil,and when
scale-producing
no
condenser
to
thus reduce
use
very
the temperature
of the condenser.
In turbine
plantsan
of the turbine
increase in the
materially,and
increases the
vacuum
means
every
is used
to
omy
econ-
get the
highestpossiblevacuum.
PROBLEMS
1. A
150
H.P.
of 20 Ibs. per
The
21.6 Ibs.
consumption
that it took
per
year,
and
$4500
cost
'
produce. How
per
much
should be deducted from the cost price to compensate the purchaser
for the increased cost of operation above that requiredunder the guarantee?
Allow 6 per cent, interest and 5 per cent, depreciation. (Suggestion: Find
the present worth
of an annuity equal to the loss per year due to the excess
steam
consumption.)
2. Given a plant equipped with two
20 Ibs.
5000 H.P. engines that use
of steam
Feed temperature, 70";steam
pressure,
per horse-power per hour.
to
install.
The
steam
costs
25
cents
1000
Ibs. to
Ibs.
150
$2.25
Boilers
these
engines
using
only
the
on
3.
and
The
and
cent,
biiy?
paid
in
days
hour
how
the
new
be
saved
engines
if
depreciation
of
the
If
new
ones
installed;
will
cost
year.
and
are
much
the
Coal
coal.
horse-power
per
for
the
investment,
(6)
10
per
How
much
(a)
and
steam
how
(a)
per
they
year
to
are
engines
per
being
be
engine
the
Allowing
the
per
and
engine,
economical
over
save
Ibs.
1000
per
high-speed
most
I.H.P.
per
cents
hour
per
steam
year.
the
on
of
20
costs
days
I.H.P.
per
Ibs.
26
plant
will
one
of
uses
300
which
the
will
the
depreciation
cent,
Corliss,
the
on
in
day
per
Ibs.
engine
Steam
hours
32
uses
Corliss
H.P.
$2200.
10
runs
engine
100
costs
interest,
per
(6)
be
of
300
per
saved;
can
automatic
H.P.
plant
cent,
much
the
$5
horse-power
be
will
day,
for
243
pound
per
hours
sold
per
how
on
$1500.
hour
steam
water
PUMPS
100
costs
per
cent,
per
cent.
per
(c)
bill;
and
out
of
horse-power
coal
return
Ibs.
of
10
run
taken
are
boiler
many
Engines
12
Ibs.
evaporate
ton.
per
AIR
AND
CONDENSERS
engine
other
to
in
year
per
operation?
4.
engine
I.H.P.
can
per
Engine
per
150".
Cost
units.
by
can
be
one
92
of
Steam
the
hour
give
give
145
pressure,
more
over
in
steam
economical
the
an
other?
each
95
150"
case,
installation
20
Ibs.
per
and
how
steam.
cent.
of
per
per
dry
20
steam
Ibs.
Feed
superheat.
cents
steam
steam
150";
water,
consumption
steam
Ibs.;
14^
of
feed
efficiency,
a
board.
switch
economy
Ibs.;
generator
will
the
at
145
pressure,
cent.;
K.W.
1000
will
which
generating
is
per
per
installed
hour.
deliver
which
Steam
hour.
Which
this
to
installed
be
efficiency,
turbine
K.W.
is
plant
power
water,
heat
1,000,000
much
per
is
saved
CHAPTER
TURBINES
STEAM
166. Historical.
From
"
XV
the
earliest time
to
failure.
The
modern
of steam
to
Hero's
first contrivance
The
motor.
before
the birth
of this kind
in
turbine, shown
centuries
turbine
steam
was
Hero's
of Christ.
dates
back
designed two
turbine
consisted
137.
FIG.
of
hollow
"
Hero's
turbine.
sphericalvessel pivoted on
suppliedwith
steam
from
boiler
central
through
axis.
It
the support M
was
and
from
the sphericalvessel
pivots. The steam escaped
through bent pipes or nozzles,N, N, facingtangentiallyin opposite
Rotation was
directions.
produced by the reaction due to the
one
of the
steam
called
dischargedfrom
the
reaction turbine.
244
HEAT
246
be used
described may
to
ENGINES
in
steam
turbine.
168.
Classification.
"
paragraph
166
are
The
two
types of turbines
described
in
classification of turbines,
viz:
takes
Impulse turbines,in which the expansion of the steam
the
place only in the stationary nozzles or guide vane
passages,
both sides of the moving blades or wheel being the
on
pressure
and
same,
FIG.
139.
"
forces
Diagram illustrating
of
impulse
and
reaction.
Reaction
Fig.
In
140
is shown
actual
the blades.
The
blades and
Fig. 141.
Here
nozzle of
the
in
the
The
passageways
are
conver-
STEAM
TURBINES
247
usually made
are
Action
169.
in
steam
the
in Turbine.
of Steam
turbine
steam
manner
uses
that in which
of both
reciprocatingengine uses it. The purpose
of the
the potentialor pressure
is to convert
energy
mechanical
work.
The
into
complishes
reciprocating engine ac-
steam
machines
steam
this
FIG.
140.
allowing the
by
nozzle
directlyupon
its
steps in
transformation.
the
steam
piston. In the
is converted
kinetic
energy
work.
The
of the
into
steam
FIG.
Impulse type.
"
Turbine
the
The
"
sages
pas-
to exert
141.
"
Reaction
pressure
type.
blades.
and
steam
turbine, there
First, the
kinetic
jet is changed
potentialenergy
energy;
into
are
and
two
of
second, the
mechanical
or
useful
moving
The
second
elements
of velocity from
the
whose
functions
steam, and
it is to abstract
convert
it into
the energy
useful form.
HEAT
248
ENGINES
Sometimes, the
is allowed
steam
partialreaction,or Parsons
170.
its
Turbine
Nozzles.
is
pressure
velocity of
proceeds
the
At
the
time
same
also grows
steam
nozzle
the
creased.
correspondingly in-
is
steam
of the
through
flows
steam
the
as
steam
of
The
area
continuallydiminishing pressure.
particularcross-section is dependent upon
any
nozzle
As
particlesof
volume
at
type.
"
gradually reduced.
the
The
to
at
the
well as
of the steam
as
velocity and volume
upon
for
Since the weight is the same
total weight passingper second.
volume
increased at
all cross
if the velocityand specific
sections,
the
the
rate,then the
same
be the
and
same
of
area
nothing
be
than
more
tube
of
Throat
Entrance
Mouth
Mouth
Entrance
Throat
FIG.
142.
Turbine
"
nozzle-
FIG.
143.
"
uniform
diameter.
volume
specific
do
As
matter
not
of
form
Ordinary
nozzle.
longitudinalcross-section.
of fact,however, the
increase at the
rate.
same
velocityand
During the
more
rapidly
the ratio of
minimum
velocityto volume,
should diminish
and
maximum
at first to
at the end.
The
steam's
increase
progress
through
the
nozzle
at
which
the
rate
of
volume
overtakes the rate of increase in velocity.
specific
dinal
Fig. 142 shows the generalshape of a nozzle on a longituin
shown
is
ordinarily constructed
in Fig. 143,and differsfrom the nozzle of Fig. 142 in that the
throat
cross-section.
The
The
nozzle, as
moved
very
near
the entrance
end.
rounding
or
fillet. The
STEAM
the back
cent,
more
convergent
it should
or
to the
discharge end.
58 per
cent,
be uniform
in cross-section from
when
But
the back
of the initialpressure
The
249
againstwhich
pressure
or
TURBINES
mouth
the nozzle
to the
should
have
at the mouth
area
the back
is less than
pressure
at the
area
then
the throat
at the
pressure
the
or
throat
and
is
the intial
pressure.
The
followingtable
increase
as
how
shows
the
the pressure
CHANGES
STEAM
171.
SPECIFIC
VELOCITY,
IN
FLOWING
Speed of Turbine.
specificvolume
expansion:
XXI
TABLE
RELATIVE
velocityand
THROUGH
VOLUME
A
AND
PRESSURE
OF
NOZZLE
Suppose
the
jet as
velocityof
it leaves
this
form
is the turbine
The
"
wheel
jetto
same
the nozzle.
be
as
the
emerge
ft. per
second.
the
same
An
jet is
ft. per
turned
second
second
any
and
let
direction
as
it enters, or
it
steam
left
will
velocity with
with
ft. per
absolute
graduallydeflected
be 2000
that the
in direction without
which
loss of
the
velocityand will
2000
upon
250
the
HEAT
blade, but
because
there
another
case
second.
no
been
in which
Then
will have
energy
has
been
motion
no
the blade
taken
of the
the steam
blade.
with
moves
from
Now
jet
assume
the
that
velocity,
is the
ft. per
the blade
and
before
which
velocityat
nozzle,is still2000
as
ENGINES
second.
The
will emerge
from
the steam
leaves
jet will
continue
it with
the
the
along
speed
same
2000
Steam
Jet
2000
^
_GOO
1000
2000
FIG.
with
144.
which
relative
rea
Diagram showingg
"
it
velocities of steam
ft. per
jetand
second.
since
But
the blade
is traveling
at 500 ft. per second in a direction opposite
to that of the leadingjet,the actual absolute velocityof the jet
at exhaust
from
the energy
has left an
is not
per
as
us
assume
second.
enters
[it
blade
and
relative
itself is
abstracted
the
All
still
the
then
jetit will
that
be necessary
in order
1000
to abstract
all
to leave
velocity.
no
another
case
in which
the blade
in this
will be
case
1000
the
the blade
speed is
1000
ft.
as
1000
Then, reasoning
velocityof
now
from
of energy
It is evident
amount
steam
ft. per
second.
But
since
steam
the
blade
will be dis-
STEAM
charged having
TURBINES
absolute
no
251
velocity. In this
case,
kinetic energy
of the steam
has been abstracted by the blade and
it is,therefore,operating under
the most
efficient speed. It
therefore
avoid
be said in
friction.
Both
these
toward
tend
causes
reducing the
speed of the blade below one-half the speed of the jetfor maximum
this speed reduction being from 10 to 15 per cent.
efficiency,
In
nozzle
absolute to
expanding
issuingjet may
would
give
which
is almost
be
high as
as
blade
construction.
speed of from
prohibitive even
of
1000
the
under
velocity
This
led to
ment
thexdevelopmultiplevelocitystage
whose
primary purpose
that
has
later and
high efficiencywith
Ibs.
160
second.
ft. per
to
stage and
described
are
of
pressure
4000
1700
It is this condition
turbines,which
pressure
of the
under
steam
much
lower
blade
speed.
172. De
Laval
consists of
wheel
to
The
"
of nozzles
group
which
of this form
Turbines.
the
blades
of turbine
single-stageturbine
Laval
De
located
around
attached.
are
peripheryof a
blades and jets
the
The
its center
of
gravity instead of
and
steam
function
and
the
its
Teeth
wear.
pinions on
each
are
geometricalcenter,
cut into the metal
side of K
B.
shown
are
the
divergingnozzles
of these
by expanding
nozzles
it.
At
of the De
is to reduce
the
same
time
the
the
Laval
pressure
turbine.
of the
velocityof
the
of pressure
words, the energy
which the steam
contains before entering the nozzles is changed
issues
in the nozzles into the energy
steam
of velocity. The
that
from the nozzles at a very high velocity. It has been shown
steam
is increased.
In
other
HEAT
FIG.
145.
"
ENGINES
De
Laval
turbine
wheel.
L-89
Driven
Coupling
Driving
Coupling
146.
"
Cross-section of De
Laval
turbine.
HEAT
254
In
blade.
or
in Curve
shown
FIG. 148.
and
De
similar
The
I.
Casing
"
the steam
the pressure
change of the
figure shows
of De
issues from
zero
Laval
the
and
that
the
velocityat
the pressure
is
pressure
the
maximum.
impulse turbine.
velocity-stage
minimum.
Laval turbines
type in which
the
manner,
entrance
When
ENGINES
are
the steam
FIG.
149.
"
of the velocity-stage
impulse
is expanded from the initial to the final
also made
Nozzles
of Curtis
turbine.
in
one
set of
"
STEAM
spending
TURBINES
255
pressure
This is
expended upon a corresponding row of moving buckets."
wheels each enclosed in a separate
reallya series of single-stage
"
cell
These
types of De
two
similar
are
Curtis
and
turbine
stage turbine
removed.
of
row
and
buckets
of
row
is redirected
moving buckets
173. The
Curtis
Curtis turbine
the
are
second
in
place.
In
Turbine."
De
first
which
by
seen
by
mediate
inter-
the
upon
in the
as
been
the
upon
stationaryguide vanes
the steam
velocity-
nozzles
individual
moving
on.
has
rotor
is directed
steam
later
casing of
after the
The
which
single-stage
Rateau
turbine,
the
shaft."
common
will be described
upon
turbines
Laval
to
respectively
of which
both
all mounted
and
compartment
or
the
Laval, the
is
series of stages,
through
separated from
passes
In
Curtis
one
The
succession
very
are
each
small
nozzles
two
steam
of chambers
other
phragms.
dia-
by
sizes of
the
is
usually only
in larger sizes
stage, but
from
the
steps, as
turbines, there
pressure
there
or
to five.
of the Curtis
SECTION
FIG.
turbine
are
150.
velocityand
Variation
of
in
a
pressure
Curtis turbine.
single-stage
"
Curtis
turbines
are
made
with
horizontal
cally.
shafts,though the largersizes often have the shafts placed vertiIn these vertical turbines the weight of the turbine is
supported on a specialfoot-stepbearing which carries the shaft
on
It is
more
typicalof these
rows
of
blades,or
turbines
"
bearingunder
that
there
are
pressure.
always three
buckets," followingeach
group
of
or
noz-
HEAT
256
zles,and
of these
ENGINES
is stationary. This
arrangement in the
turbine is illustrated in Fig. 150.
No
single-stage
expansion
takes place in the stationary
eral
blades,and the objectin using sevof
reduce
the
be
to
absorbed
blades is on.ly
rows
velocityto
one
and
row,
per
consequentlyto
wheels necessary
buckets
and
in
elevation of
FIG.
The
151.
"
reduce
rows
Path
the
peripheralspeed of
efficiency.
the
two-stage Curtis
of steam
in
turbine.
through moving
a
and
stationarybuckets
Curtis turbine.
of
governor
that "cuts
nozzles
dischargingsteam
by the governor.
through the turbine blades being determined
in a largerange of sizes,
The Curtis turbine is made
being sold in
The most
sizes from
15 to 30,000 kw.
common
applicationof
out"
the
nozzles, the
STEAM
TURBINES
sure
174. The
"
termed
cells,or
Turbine.
Rateau
"
The
that is,it
Multicellular,"
the
Rateau
consists of
stages,of which
pressure
at
bottom,
the
step-
turbine
has
been
the end
bearingat
257
each
stage is like
of
separate
ELEVATION
FIG.
large number
in
two
-stage Curtis
turbine.
De
single-stage
Laval
turbine.
stage contains
Each
one
row
of
by
blades,so that the velocitythat can be absorbed efficiently
and
the
turbine
must
contain
than
in
the
each stage is less
Curtis,
a
largernumber
Fig. 154
of
groups
17
shows
of stages between
the
diagrammaticallya
limits of pressure.
Rateau turbine with two
same
two
pressure
stages. Steam
HEAT
258
FIG.
153.
"
Section
of
ENGINES
9,000 kilowatt
Curtis turbine-generator.
STEAM
at the initialpressure
enters
TURBINES
259
the firstgroup
of nozzles and
expands
In this
expansion it delivers a
portion of its energy to the blades. It then expands to the
of nozzles,shown in the diaexhaust pressure in the second group
gram
to the pressure
between
stages.
turbines of this
In the commercial
second
the nozzles
are
HV
SECTION
FIG.
154.
"
cross-section
"
Variation
along
of
velocityand pressure
turbine.
their
length; or
non-expanding."
Fig. 155 shows four typicalstages of
156 shows
cross-section of
in
Southwark-
in
two-stage Rateau
other
Rateau
Rateau
words, they
are
turbine,and Fig.
turbine.
Turbine.
"
HEAT
260
of the Rateau
practically
ENGINES
type.
turbine.
176. The
which
the
the bucket
Sturtevant
steam
wheel
jetsare
the
as
turbine,showing
155.
"
Another
on
Four
steam
turbine
in
"reversing"buckets
FIG.
"
dischargedin
is known
respect it resembles
illustrationof this
Turbine.
turbine.
Fig. 159 is
the buckets
stages of Rateau
on
good
casing.
These
re-
turbine.
ence,
versing buckets are not cut all the way around the circumfereach nozzle,depending
but three,four,or five are cut following
The buckets are cut out of the
of the steam.
the velocity
on
solid metal of the rim of the wheel, which is a single forging of
open-hearthsteel. By this construction a wheel of great strength
This
eliminated.
is secured and blade breakage is practically
262
HEAT
turbine
was
amount
of attention and
designed in
ENGINES
all its parts to
requirethe minimum
be erated
oplittle more
once
week.
177. The
Parsons
Turbine.
"
The
Parsons
turbines
are
the
157.
FIG.
steam
upon
Parsons
admission
the
"
Bucket
moving
turbine is shown
blades.
in
of
The
Fig. 160.
in the
Kerr
turbine.
figure,and
enters
from
the
through the
stationaryblades where it expands with an increased velocity.
these blades it is passed to the first set of moving blades,
From
in which it againexpands. The variation of velocity
and pressure
in passing through one
in
of these turbines is clearlyshown
Fig. 160.
A section of one
in
of the simplestParsons turbines is shown
tions
Fig.161. The rotatingpart is a long drum of three different secRows
two
at each end.
supported on
bearings one
of moving blades are mounted
the circumference of this drum
on
and
corresponding stationary blades are fitted to the inside
of the turbine casing. An annular space A is a steam
chest which
this
mains.
From
receives high-pressure
steam
from the steam
space
as
shown
wheel
"
passes
annular
and
space,
the steam
other
annular
spaces
passes
to the
stationaryblades
where
or
FIG.
of the
steam
pressure,
casing
"
in the
158.
in
"
through alternate
exhaust
There
at B.
of moving
rows
are
drum,
or
also two
rotor, is
unbalanced
places is an
sure,
pres-
the
toward
of the steam.
pressure
263
TURBINES
STEAM
Cross-section of
unsymmetrical
new
type Kerr
blades.
To
turbine.
balance
this axial
three balance
one
casing to make
each
communicate
balance-piston
that in the
with
pressure
its
on
correspond-
HEAT
264
ENGINES
differences in the
decreases
as
The
type.
in
the
The
turbine
is
well the
ting
governed by admit-
interval of time
the
between
puffs
creases,
in-
load
the
capacity of the
is reached, the
turbine
in
is admitted
steam
Parsons
puffs.
until,when
overload
in
cal
design of mechani-
practicallycontinuous
stream.
178.
"Impulseand
Double-flow
"
action"
Rebines.
Tur-
Recently a design
Drum
Rotor
"Hi
SECTION
SECTION
FIG. 159.
"
Sturtevant
turbine.
FIG.
160.
of velocity and
Variation
in a Parsons turbine.
"
pressure
turbine.
jFig.162 illustratessuch
double-flow
turbine with
element.
nozzles, an
moving
and
three
two
rows
of
intermediate
an
a
impulse
group
blades
"
of
two
STEAM
TURBINES
265
266
HEAT
sections of
pressure
Steam
ENGINES
is admitted
chamber
typical Parsons, or
to the turbine through
at the bottom
of the
figure,and
"
reaction"
the
blading.
nozzle
block
or
is
dischargedfrom the
nozzles at a very high velocityto impinge on the impulse blades.
After passingthrough these blades,it divides,one
half expanding
through the intermediate and low pressure Parsons blading
at the right of the impulse wheel, and the other half expanding
through the blading to the left. After leavingthe low-pressure
bladingit exhausts through the passages E, E into the condenser.
FIG.
179.
162.
"
Double-flow
Low-pressure Turbines.
Westinghouse turbine.
"
The
condenser
have
of the
turbine in which
low-pressure
below
atmospheric pressure.
pound of steam, expanded in
"A
ordinaryboiler
one
pressures
from
the
led to the
the pressure
in the range
other half
be
development
is
range
perfectheat
28-in. vacuum,
can
entirely
motor
from
will
develop about
of expansion above atmospheric
in the
range
of
expansion
The
cating
atmospheric pressure to vacuum.
ordinary reciproin the range
above
engine operates with fair efficiency
atmospheric
third
and
to
that
high vacuums
of
the
pressure,
work
but fails to
develop
more
than
about
one-
available
below
theoretically
atmospheric
This is partlybecause of the narrowness
of the exhaust
pressure.
ports and the alternate coolingand heatingof the cylinderwalls,
but principally
of the lowbecause of the restricted volume
cylinder,or rather,the limitations which are placed
pressure
the ratio of expansion. The
steam
on
turbine, on the other
to
hand, is not hampered in this way, as it is a simple matter
provide all the area requiredby the steam at the lowest condenser
and the alternate heating and coolingof metal surfaces
pressure,
STEAM
avoided.
are
below
With
type of
other
It thus
is better than
conjunction with
through
motor
steam
about
comes
267
types of turbines
most
atmospheric pressure
any
that
the
obtainable
that
any
efficiencyratio
of pressure.
range
turbines
low-pressure steam
with
used
in
efficient
high-pressurereciprocatingengines
ratio
publishedrecord for highest efficiency
at
TURBINES
in
largesizes."
"In practiceit is found that a low-pressureturbine of,say, 300
horse-power capacity,will develop a horse-power hour on about
at atmospheric pressure,
28 Ibs. of steam
exhausting into a
of 28 in. In other words, the output of reciprocating
vacuum
creased
engine plants,at present running non-condensing, can be in100 per cent, through the use of exhaust turbines,without
steam
the burning of more
or
requiringthe generation of more
fuel. Where
simpleenginesare at present running condensing,
be increased by
the output of power
can
per pound of steam
60 per cent, and the output of compound
condensingengines by
somewhat
less amount
about 25 per cent.
a
By lengthening
the period of admission
of the engines, the power-producing
capacity can be increased in a stillgreater ratio."
"
180. Mixed
in which
Flow
low
or
pressure
stage from
some
engine, are
known
Turbines.
Mixed
Pressure
steam
is admitted
to
as
the
mixed
or
mixed
as
flow
intermediate
an
exhaust
exterior source,
"Turbines
"
of
pressure
steam
turbines.
are
from
standard
high pressure
condensing turbines principally
in the different proportioning
of the areas
through the two parts
of the turbines and in the provisionof a specialgoverning gear
for automaticallycontrolling
the admission
of the live steam.
In case
of complete failure of the low pressure
steam
supply,
the
turbine
alone.
steam
Other
good
arrangements
high
also supplied
economy
are
on
pressure
to
meet
specialconditions."
181. Bleeder
from
an
Turbines."
intermediate
Turbines
stage for
use
from
in
which
steam
is drawn
heating, raisingthe
perature
tem-
The
Turbine.
steam
turbine
Application of the Steam
is adapted primarily to the drivingof machines
which requirea
high rotative speed. They are not applicablewhere a large
182.
"
HEAT
268
are
which
Its
make
it
is
torque
highly
the
forces
is
therefore
of
vehicles,
of
also
into
coming
and
suitable
freedom
to
this
to
the
power
is
turbine
the
The
or
capable
extensive
from
field.
in
electric
as
vibration
require
of
is
of
more
producing.
in
are
driving
generators,
turbine
driving
use
turbine
the
principally
wheels.
propeller
in
acting
such
load,
applications
than
turbine
uniform
and
Such
effort
use
without
start
propelling
drive.
starting
steam
the
to
as
Their
fans,
centrifugal
suited
required,
small.
relatively
machines
belt
is
effort
starting
ENGINES
marine
points
not
mills
by
initial
The
work.
which
270
HEAT
ENGINES
duction
coke
of power
from the waste
There are stillmany
ovens.
combustion
engineswhich will,in
extensive use as a prime mover.
184. Classification
of
Gas
of blast furnaces
gases
and
other
the
of internal
applications
future,increase its already
Gas
Engines.
"
engines
be
may
general types;
at constant
at constant
of
volume;
pressure.
engine working so
ignitionwould occur at constant temperature, but practically
an
engine working in such a cycle has not been constructed.
Engines of the first type may be sub-divided into two classes;
(a) those in which the charge is ignited without previous
an
that
compression,and
(6) those
in which
pression.
charge is ignitedwith previous com-
the
"
about
60,000 B.T.U.
per
at the maximum
economy.
This
horse-power
per
hour.
very
THE
but
them
the
INTERNAL
ENGINE
COMBUSTION
engine was
adaptation of
271
engine originally
in Italy
proposed (but never
built)by Barsanti and Matteucci
in 1854.
In this particular
cally
type of engine the cylinderis set vertiand the piston is shot up by the explosionof the gases,
without
stroke it engages,
resistance. On its return
through
suitable mechanism, with the fly-wheelwhich
is rotated by the
forces of gravity and atmospheric pressure
acting against the
piston on this downward
or
working stroke.
FIG.
186. Type
at
was
constant
first
(1),Class
volume
an
163."
de
proposed by Beau
engine
stroke
of the
charge
compressed.
FIG.
in
1862, and
Otto
in
1876.
In
in with
the
the
164."
air is drawn
and
engine, and
Near
Rochas
operation by
of gas
an
the
on
end
of
return
the
stroke
this
was
the
first
Otto
first out
charge
compression stroke,
is
the
AB
the
charge is drawn
on
it is
compressed;
HEAT
272
ENGINES
compressed the
his
gases
did
previous to ignitionbut
in itself the
was
along EA
reason
not
economy
engineshowed
over
all other
is
in the smaller
two
strokes
1.
FIG.
165.
"
2.
Cross-section
of
two-cycle engine.
passing out
covers
of
the
ports Iz and
clearance
space.
center, shown
in
exhaust
port.
As
the
piston moves
compresses
the gas
up
it
into the
dead
piston approaches the upper
Fig. 165-2, the gases are ignited. This ignition
As
the
INTERNAL
THE
when
occurs
be said to
COMBUSTION
pistonis practically
stationaryso
the
at constant
occur
ENGINE
the
for
volume.
due
The
pressure
273
that it may
produced by
to
engine.
four-cycle
the downward
stroke and
compressedon
to
pressure
inch.
per square
The
then
compres-
highpres-
increases itstemperature to
1000" F.
of the next
At the
down
FlG'
Card "f
m-
beginning
stroke
of the
pressed
engine fuel oil previouslycomto a pressure
of about 800 Ibs. is injected
into the cylinder
and owing to the high temperature of the air in the cylinder,
the
oil on enteringis ignited. The heat produced by this ignition
of
the oil maintains the pressure in the cylinderup to the point at
which the oil supply is cut off by the governor.
For the remainder
this
stroke
the
of
are
expanded. On the
gases in the cylinder
fourth stroke of the enginethe gases are exhausted from the cylinder.
The cycleof operationis shown
in Fig. 166 in which the
line AB
representsadmission,BC compression,CD the periodof
fuel admission controlled by the governor,
DE
expansion,and EA
The cyclejustdescribed is for a four-cycle
representsexhaust.
same
two-cyclemotor
on
18
the
next
cycle may
duringthe
stroke
be used
in
two-cycle motor.
(for about
expansion]
75
per
pressed,
com-
cent.
274
HEAT
ENGINES
INTERNAL
THE
stroke),exhaust
the
of
COMBUSTION
and
burned
the
out
cylinder.
Until recentlythe
horizontal enginesare
and
shaft
air
also
For
the
pressed
com-
to about
or,
will
275
8 Ibs. and
it is
as
occur.
called,scavenging the
but
vertical,
air in two
compresses
now
of this type.
being made
shows
Fig. 167*
A
admission
gases
Diesel
ENGINE
stages from
750
poses.
pur-
crank
100Q Ibs.
to
is provided that
pressure.
brake
engine converted
about
per
cent.,
available
so
heat
that
34 per
Its theoretical
energy.
about
60
per
In
must
exhaust
Theoretical
pressure
exhaust
and
pressure
of the fuel
was
Cycles.
from
expressionfor efficiency
188.
This
was
efficiency
theoretically
of the
cent,
The
"
and
one
begins
at
the
gas
theoretical
in each
is
in which
a
the
determining
case
distinguishtwo
expanded completely
the gas
pressure
mathematical
is
to the
partiallyexpanded
higher than
the
exhaust
line.
CD
heat
received
along line CD
temperature
*
Figure taken
will be
from
at C
by Tc
rejectedalong
be
and
represented by H
at D
by Td;
and
Let
the
the absolute
rejected
HEAT
276
along EB
at E
Then
Hl
and
Hz
work
The
ENGINES
done
HI
Hi
Efficiency
=
wcv(Td
wcp(Te
Hz
wcv(Td
wcv(Td
H2
Tc)
Tb)
Tc)
"
ff~~
wcp(Te
wcv(Td
wcp(Te
Tb)
Tb)
Tc)
Te-Tb
1-7
From
(1)
Tc
Td-
FIG.
168.
temperature Te
pressure
"
at
line AB.
We
at
line touches
therefore,establish
can,
complete expansion.
adiabatic
the
which
with
If
we
allow
the pressure
back
tween
relation beand
each
the
volume
V
that
tively,
respec-
point,
then
PdVJ
PcVcy
and
PeVy
(2)
PbVb.y
(3)
Vd
But
Vc and Pe
Pb,
V7
Pd
therefore
Pd
and
then
and
since
Tc
=
Ve
Te
Fi
Te
T"
_
~Tc~~Tt
Te
Tl
(4)
HEAT
278
ENGINES
Therefore
fTf
FT!
and
YcJ
Yd
by subtraction,
FT?
rrj
fji
rrj
1 b
"
J^b
x"v
J-d
J-d
J-c
J-c
"
(7)
~-
J- c
is the most
of volume
Since
the
or
pressure.
is
compression curve
Tb_
adiabatic,
an
=:
\Fi
Tc
rri
Substitutingthis value of
equation (7),we
in
"
"L
have
Efficiency
=
where
Equation (8)shows
with
is
(8)
compression.
depends upon
efficiency
that the
Finallysince BC
the ratio of
TT
(j^)
and
varies
volume.
an
adiabatic,
zv
~
Tc
Substitutingthis
value
in
equation (7),we
have
/Ph\ y^l
Efficiency
=
(-"")
y
(10)
increases as the
equation (10)it is seen that the efficiency
Pc will
compression pressure, P", increases,since the pressure
From
remain
nearly constant.
INTERNAL
THE
In
COMBUSTION
ENGINE
the
279
of
efficiency
engine
an
Fig. 170
when
the theoretical
shows
there
assumed
is
to be
complete expansion.
adiabatics.
under
diagram
The
this
lines BC
and
then
must
assumption,
DE
are
be absorbed
Let the
along the line CD and all rejectedalong the line EB.
heat received along CD
be represented by H\t and the absolute
temperature at C by Tc, and at D by Td; let the heat rejected
along EB be represented by Hz, and the absolute temperature
at E by Te, and at B byTb; and let the weight of the charge
w.
=
FIG.
170.
"
Then
Hl
and
#2
The
work
done
with
Type (2)
"
HI
wcp(Td
wcp(Te
H2
Tc)
Tb)
wcp(Td-
#2
1-
Efficiency
complete expansion.
wcp
(Td
Hl
(Td
Tc)
Tc)
wcp
Tc)
(Te
wcp(Te
--
(Td
wcp
-
(Te
-"
Tb)
Tb)
Tc)
Tb)
Td-Tc
Tc-
Tb
(ID
TdBoth
curves
are
adiabatic,hence
/
/Pe\^
Te
=
Td
(Pb\
(pj
IP;)
Tb
Therefore
and
by subtraction,
Te
Te-
Td
Td
Tb
-
Te
(12)
HEAT
280
ENGINES
Efficiency
"
Since the
compressioncurve
adiabatic
/FeV-1
Tc
\vj
Tb
/Pb\r=i
=:
for
values
(13)
is an
Tb
Substitutingthese
(seeequation 7)
--,--.
_J_
=
r^-1
in
/PA i^-1
equation (13),we
have
fVc\y~1
Efficiency
constant
The
BC
Diesel
pressure
DE
(15)
(seeequation 10)
p-j
171."
(16)
engine
and
the
as
heat
(14)
T-1
/PA
FIG.
the
(seeequation9)
^" [
"
(seeequation 8)
In
(y~)
"
are
assumed
to
built
now
ignition occurs
at
is
be adiabatics.
All the
heat
must
be absorbed
of the
Then
and
charge is small.
Hi
H2
wcp(Td -Tc)
wcv(Te
Tb).
-
The
work
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
THE
done
Hl
Efficiency
Hz
wcp(Td
#2
(Td
wcp
^Te)
cp
Te
WCp
(T.
cv
(Td
ENGINE
Tc)
Tc)
wcv(Te
wcv(Te
(Td
281
Tb).
Tb)_
r;}
Tb)
Tc)
Tb
y(Td-Tc)'
Since
CD
is
constant
volume
line
Td
TcVydc
Pe
Te
and
But
(19)
YbP.
(20)
and Pb in
(18)
equation
have
'I"' (ay
"
r.
\VJ
Tb~
"-**\T.l
Substitutingequations(18) and
(17)we
Te in equation
have
Efficiency
=
"
(m
V*
\lcve~
T
Tb
=
i (Vd\y
( (vj
(23)
1-
(compare
1-
with
,
equations(24)
9 and
since
15)
282
HEAT
ENGINES
From
upon
clearance
189.
card
lines.
at
cut-off to the
difference between
the
to
differs from
losses.
actual
the combustion
in actual
of the gas
theoretical
card is
compression line BF
because
assumes
The
to take
theoretical
line CD
while
place instantly,
operation,as shown
takes
gas
or
in the Gas
gas
The
largely due
the
ratio of
of the Diesel
efficiency
compression,r, but also
volume.
Losses
of
that the
an
':
FIG.
172.
stroke.
Due
pressure
at
there is also
actual and
theoretical indicator
is not
card
an
is assumed
to be
an
after-burningalways
as
adiabatic,
from
(a) The
The
adiabatic.
this
There
cards.
to this
the theoretical
line GH
between
Difference
"
the indicator
enginewhich
are
occurs
actual
along
to the water-
not
so
ent
appar-
card.
INTERNAL
THE
which
gases,
leave the
COMBUSTION
engine at
ENGINE
283
500".
(b) The next largestloss is the heat carried away by the waterjacket. This water-jacketis necessary in all stationaryengines
to prevent overheating of the cylinder. A similar loss occurs
in
all air-cooled cylinders.
(c) The loss due to the charge of gas and air entering the
cylinderbeing heated by coming into contact with the hot parts of
the
horse-power.
(d) There
due
is
to the resistance
in inlet and
The
followingis a statement
engine taken from actual tests
Heat
Heat
lost in exhaust
Heat
lost in
Heat
The
relative
in the
exhaust
valves.
of the distribution
and
expressed in
per
gas
cent.
33 per cent.
5 per cent.
conduction
the
of heat in
25 per cent.
37 per cent.
jacket water
loss from
working medium
exhaust
in the
and
jacket varies
classified under
1. Solid fuels.
2.
Liquid fuels.
3. Gaseous
fuels.
The
fuel,no matter
changed to a gaseous
what
form
its
originalstate
before
it
can
be
be,
may
used
in
an
must
be
engine.
be
means
fuel,it is necessary that some
provided for vaporizing them before they are used in the engine.
With
In the solid
forms
of
fuels,they
are
vaporized in
some
of gas ducer.
proproducer gas. In
form
form
reter,
of carbu-
284
HEAT
191.
Gas
Producers."
ENGINES
In the gas
producer,the
bed
bituminous
been
is
changed
to
in successful
use
producers
are
CC"2.
for
coming
now
in usingbituminous
difficulty
coal
as
into
Producers
number
use.
fuel for
using
of years,
The principal
producers is
in
of the tar.
are
two
producers. In the
FIG. 173.
Cross-section of suction
"
to the
producer by
of the
engine'sdemand
fan.
The
rate
of
gas
steam
are
furnished
producer.
productionis independent
and
equivalentto
pressure
pressure
of
2-
or
3-in. column
of water.
In the suction
of the
producer depends upon the demand
furnishes the necessary
engine. The producer then automatically
amount
of gas for the operation of the engine,so that no storage
tank
is
The
gas
required.
suction
HEAT
286
ENGINES
192.
With
the
heavier
oils,such
as
distillates and
crude
oil,it is
other means
of vaporizing the oils.
provide some
There
two
In
are
generalmethods to accomplish this purpose.
engines such as the Hornsby-Akroyd, the oil is injectedinto a
cylinderagainsthot plates,or a hot ball,and is almost instantly
In other
vaporized by the contact with the red-hot surface.
external to the
engines the oil is vaporized in a heated chamber
engine. Initial vaporization is often produced by artificially
heating the chamber, and after the engineis in operation,the oil is
of the exhaust passingthrough pipes located in
heated by means
this chamber.
Engines have been placed on the market which
from the wells,and have given fair
used crude oil justas it comes
in using crude oils is in taking care
The
satisfaction.
difficulty
such as paraffine and asphalt, that
of the heavier ingredients,
necessary
The
in them.
occur
into
be at
sufficient temperature
Asphalts cannot
Alcohol.
193.
except
that in
so
up
to
"
must
is similar
Alcohol
and
up
much
very
contain
in
be removed.
its nature
to
kerosene,
highercompression,so that,
the heat
value
of the petroleum
contains not
less than
higher.
For
more
be
much
5 per
than
cent,
THE
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
194.
ENGINE
287
TABLE
CALORIFIC
VALUE
CALORIFIC
195. Fuel
Mixtures.
"
GASEOUS
OF
VALUE
The
XXII.
OF
LIQUID
mixture
FUELS
FUELS
of air and
gas
in internal
the
gas
obtained
used.
when
Experiments
the air in the
show
that
the
best
in
cylinderis slightly
results
excess
are
of the
theoretical mixture.
gine
Propagation. A very important point in gas enis
the
flame
rate of
propagation through the mass
operation
196. Flame
of the gas.
"
HEAT
288
ENGINES
197. Rated
Horse
"
enginefrom
steam
engine. The theoretical diagram,althoughquitedefinitely
value in determining the horse-power.
defined is not of much
conditions such as
The actual diagram is influenced by so many
tions
the qualityand purityof gas, temperature of the mixture,condiof combustion, heat losses,location and kind of ignition,
and other items,that it is possible
chamber
form of combustion
to obtain almost any result. The card factor as appliedto the
steam
engineis of littlevalue as it shows variations under different
It is not surprising
therefore
conditions as high as 100 per cent.
exist for determiningthe.principal
methods
sions
dimenthat numerous
all of these based on assumpof internal combustion engines,
tions
results.
givingonly approximate
a
gas
for combustion
when
This
years
on
is based
the
on
and
thermal
of air necessary
volumetric efficiencies
the amount
used with
Nn
types of
enginesand
Let
success
normal
or
rated
horse-power.
r.p.m.
"
Ch
"
"
yw
*"
Nn X 33000
rhen'
"
G"
2545
~
2545
whence
X 60
"
X N,
^rw~
rjw A /i
X Nn
,".
INTERNAL
THE
Let
Cst
fuel
Lst
ENGINE
suction stroke.
amount
289
suction stroke.
consumption per
comsumption per
proper
air
COMBUSTION
requiredper cubic
fuel.
foot of gas or per pound of liquid
diameter of the cylinder.
stroke of the
engine.
volumetric efficiency.
t]v
Then, for a singleactingfour-cycleengine
S
Ch
^.SXN^
ChXL
84.8XJVnXL
30
Xn~
nXHXrjw
For
in is
drawn
D2
_
r
C." +
T
Lst
?r
actual
pistondisplacement
volumetric efficiency
^-
4 x
84.8XATnX(l+L)
....
Cublc feet
Solvingfor D,
S, and n,
=
we
fuels:
Vsx SfS^-A
"
(")
X^X^
(1+L)
Xr,v
liquidfuel enginesthe
For
as
the volume
term
of fuel is very
(1-fL)
small
(32)
^'m'
may
compared
be put
equal toL,
of
air.
In view
of the amount
of
experimentaldata
rjv
Tables
XXIII
TABLE
XXIII."
.88
.93
"
sizes of
and
XXIV
are
tion
selec-
the air
and
engines can
VOLUMETRIC
For slow
t]v,
available
be
consumption for
For this
easilymade.
inserted.
EFFICIENCY"
rjv,OF
GAS
ENGINE
valve.
?7v
.80
"
.87
For slow
valves.
rjv
.78
?7v
.65
r)v
.50
"
-85
For
valve.
19
"
"
.75
.65
290
HEAT
ENGINES
"
"^
"
O
1
s
"
73
S3^
o.
"_,
203
|
0
to
15
o
"S3
0
5
i
a
o
Diameter
291
ENGINE
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
THE
and with
pistonspeeds up
and
for smaller
1200
Example.
per
Present-dayenginescan
other.
minute
gas
ones.
Determine
"
and
minute
2.5,
for largeengines
minute
1 to
ratio
stroke-diameter
1.35
-w
.90
table XXIII
use
rjv
From
table XXIV
use
17. =.26
140
Solution." From
and
B.T.U.
since
^=
Z.IL)
Zo
solvingfor
W8XNn(l+L)
=
\S
XnXHXirvX
=
.35 X
V1-3
77,
1.877' feet
170
800
140 X
2.7
2.5 X
.26 X
.9
22.5 inches
22.5
1.35 X
108 X
30 inches
800
77
2~X30
r'P'm"
and
stroke of a two-cycle,
the diameter
Example. Determine
4-cylinderDiesel Oil Engine of 150 H.P., having 350
single-acting,
of 700 ft. per minute.
r.p.m. and a pistonspeed
"
Solution.
"
From
table XXIII
rjv
From
table XXIV
i,w
-80
.32
develop 2
cylindermust
Each
18'""
700 X
*
=
.
H.P.
18.75
12
=
108
350
18.75
312
--
American
The
determines
the formula
350
18,000 X
of
.32 X
_
=
7/ .o
"
0.80
Automobile
Manufacturers
automobile
output of four-cycle
enginesby
"
B.H.P.
where
of
Association
the normal
cycle.
2 X
per
the diameter
(33)
ber
cylinderin inches,and N the numis based on a piston speed of 1000 ft.
of the
^|y^
HEAT
292
per minute
and
ENGINES
has,of course,
an
only.
rated
The
electric
to drive the
machine.
same
This
gas
littleoverload
capacity,while a steam
25 per cent, overload
continuouslyand a
In order to
50 per cent, overload for a short period of time.
allow for the overload capacityof the generator,the gas engine
be sufficiently
must
large to drive the generator under that
very
condition.
As
gas
example, to drive
engine is used, while
an
be
It should
their output,
on
noted
that,
generator with
same
brake
or
drive the
to
H.P.
4500
engine is used.
H.P.
engine, a 3000
steam
k.w. generator,
2000
at
their indicated
rated
on
198.
Horse
H.P.) of
(I.
-power.
gas
in
determined
may
be
done
in the
that in the
case
of the
actual
The
"
indicated
power
horse-
formula,
plan
i.tt.r.
33000'
In both
cases,
I
a
the
length of
the
cross-sectional
square
The
the
in
feet,and
area
of the
The
from
effective pressure
is found
by taking indicator
the
cross-sectional
is
area
usually one-fourth
of the
of
piston in
inches.
cards
the
mean
stroke
piston in the
square
gas
inch,while
scale of
area
of
cator
engine indithat
of the
CHAPTER
DETAILS
199.
In
OF
general,the
frame
and
than
This
engine.
steam
CONSTRUCTION
GAS-ENGINE
heavier in construction
are
XVII
of
is less than
impulses given the gas engine for the same
power
those given the steam
engine, and hence each impulse in the gas
force.
engine must exert more
FRAME.
medium
The
main
size.
The
barrel of the
bearingsupports are
FIG.
CYLINDER
inserted
the frame
"
AND
174.
PISTON.
in the frame
as
"
"
of
modern
cylinderis cast
cast in the
Gas
same
gas
with
engine of
the frame.
frame.
engine frame.
inner
engines.
Fig. 175 shows the piston and pistonrings. Three rings,at
least,and often six or seven, are used in a gas engine. It is very
important that the piston fit the cylinderas closelyas possibleso
to hold the compression. The
as
piston shown is for a single294
DETAILS
GAS-ENGINE
OF
RODS.
similar to
The
"
types of
valves
used have
engines,and
gas
are
most
monly
com-
size
The
"
MECHANISM.
for all
medium
CONNECTING
same
as
used
VALVE
at the
295
The
piston and cross-head.
and is placed in
top of the figure,
are
both
CONSTRUCTION
engines.
in gas engines
been
almost
the
The
exhaust
and
shows
valves
of roller
inlet and
both
operated from
are
valves.
These
cam
In
cams.
exhaust
engines these
some
cams
valves
engine by
are
are
means
replacedby
eccentrics.
FIG.
WATER-JACKET.
175.
"
"
Piston
and
ringsfor
gas
engine.
engines, the
cooled by being surrounded
by
cylinder and
air-cooled
cylinderhead are
and in the best enginesthe valves are also watera water-jacket,
in Fig. 176, surrounding
shown
are
jacketed. The water-jackets
reaching between the valves.
of the most
200. Ignition. One
important details of gashas been
the development of a suitable
engine construction
of ignition. The first successful form of ignitionwas
by
means
the valves
and
"
means
the
of
an
proper
open
time.
flame
Flame
which
was
drawn
into the
cylinderat
ignition,however, is uncertain
and so
and is not economical
application,
abandoned
in recent engines.
the hot tube, in which
The next form of ignition
was
tube connected
kept at
with the engine cylinderwas
difficult of
been
has
and
closed
red
heat
HEAT
296
by
means
of
an
external
ENGINES
flame.
ignitesthem
time of ignitionis more
of the tube.
is
was
In
some
controlled
The
compression of
at the proper
or
less
the admission
cases
by
time
the gases
in the stroke.
valve.
This
DETAILS
GAS-ENGINE
OF
CONSTRUCTION
297
Hornsby-Akroyd
bulb,used
igniter.
the
for
vaporizing
also as an
enteringoil,serves
used and the most
At the present time, the most
form of ignitionis by electric spark. This has proven
FIG. 177.
successful
to be the
Magneto.
"
the most
reliable and
flexible method
in
There
use.
are
various
of
form
of
between
it cuts
the
magnetic lines of
flowingthrough the wire.
When
the
lines flow
the armature
armature
through
the
force and
is in
core,
this
is then turned
so
an
electric current
positionsuch
core
becomes
is set
magnetic
magnetized. If
longerflow through
that
the
298
HEAT
ENGINES
winding.
magneto
thus
FIG. 179.
The
current
intense the
the current
FIG.
180.
"
current
may
Section
and
at the time
suddenly the
more
"
points in
the
Top of make-and-break
ignitorblock.
points.
give this
at certain
only
gives a current
not
of
it must
be
so
the
will be.
If the
armature
cylinder
head
showing
is turned
a
more
slowly,
spark.
make-and-break
ignition
system.
A
the
shown
DETAILS
GAS-ENGINE
OF
CONSTRUCTION
299
FIG.
points
are
181.
"
Diagram
of
jump-spark ignition.
sufficient spark to
ignitethe charge.
The
advantages
of the make-and-break
system
with
are:
(a) hot
insulation.
The
300
HEAT
This
spark plug
contains
ENGINES
by
of them
two
all.
In
some
cases
the current
is furnished
With an alternating
alternating-current
magneto.
current,
This system is almost universally
interrupteris necessary.
an
no
used
on
automobiles.
The
FIG.
182.
"
Section
of
cylinderhead
maximum
gas
Governing.
"
thermal
is to obtain the
of all governors
The
at all loads.
governing of a
efficiency
The
aim
engine
under
constant
that of
engine.
cycle of the
steam
load, each
In
steam
engine is
HEAT
302
the
ENGINES
load
for when
the
load is very
be so weak
light the mixture may
that the charge will not ignite.
Method
No. 4.
Controllingthe speed by changing the time of
ignitionis used on automobile engines. As the load diminishes,
the time of sparking is brought nearer
to the working stroke,
"
that
it may
even
occur
after the
dead
Method
above
No.
5.
"
systems have
great many
different combinations
been
Often
used.
of the
engineshaving "quantity"
and "quality" governors
for the heavy and medium
loads
change the governingsystem to hit and miss for lightloads. A
combination largelyused in electric lighting
work, on account of
the close regulationobtained,is qualitygoverning at high loads
and quantitygoverning at low loads.
The governing of an automobile is a combination
of quality
and governingby spark advance with
by the throttle,
governor
the ignition
device.
and fuel oil enginesare commonly governed by byKerosene
passing
the fuel so that a greater or less amount
of it is injected
into the cylinder.
Gas-enginegoverningis at present almost as perfectas governing
in obtainingsuffiin the steam
ciently
engine. There is no difficulty
accurate
governing so that alternators driven by gas
enginesmay be operated in parallel.
A carburetor is a device used for vaporizing
202. Carburetors.
oil,particularly
gasoline. It is largelyused in connection with
small launch engines. In a carburetor
the air
automobile
or
be passed over
or through the gasoline,
or the gasolinemay
may
be mechanically sprayed into the current of incoming air.
retor.
Fig. 183 shows a cross-section of one type of Stromberg carbuA float M operates a pairof levers and through them the
the supply of gasoline to the
needle valve K, thus controlling
"
"
"
spray
nozzle
source
of
C.
The
gasoline enters
supply through
0 and
the carburetor
from
by
the
the
DETAILS
strainer N.
and
GAS-ENGINE
OF
The
hot water
CONSTRUCTION
in the
303
assists in
\
EXPLANATION
Low
A-
B-High
C
.speed adjusting
speed adjusting
Spray nozzle
D-
Venturi
E-
Auxiliary
F-
Low
speed spring
Mixing
J- Water
FIG.
183.
"
chamber
jacket
valve
K- Needle
L- Glass
O
P
Gasoline
strainer
line coupling
cock
Drain
air horn
for
A.ir shut-off
R-
T-
float
Gasoline
Q- Hot
S
chamber
float
Metal
Nvalve
G-High
speed spring
valve
H- Throttle
I
nut
M-
tube
air
nut
Fixed
Season
air
starting
inlet
adjustment
"
each
of smaller
size,may
same
power
than
would
304
HEAT
be the
and
with
case
ENGINES
means
shorter stroke
hence
An increase
higher rotative speed for the same
power.
in the number
of cylindersmeans
better balancing and less vibration.
The
to
the
cause
are
The
reciprocatingmasses
on
engineto move
necessary
than
in
of the
its foundation
FIG.
184.
The
in
"
heavier foundations
of vertical
causingtrouble.
engine assists
and
engine tend
engines.
increased
vertical engine are:
case
disadvantages of the
horizontal
open
end
cooling the
oil may
first
der,
get in the cylin-
of the
zontal
cylinderon the horipiston. In the larger size
engines,the cylindersare
mobile
generallyhorizontal,while most autoand small launch engineshave vertical cylinders.
204. Large Gas Engines. In the largesizes,the single-acting
engine has been replaced by the double-acting engine,similar
in its arrangement to the steam
engine. Fig. 184 shows a block
plan of a modern two-cyclegas engine of the double-actingtype.
In this figure,
the device for coolingthe pistonand pistonrod is
In most
not shown.
large engines,however, of the doubleacting type, the piston and piston rod are cooled by allowing
"
circulation of water
through a
by
pipe connected to
tail rod projecting
through the cylinderhead.
flexible
a
through them.
enters
is
moved
re-
DETAILS
205.
Oil
conditions
CONSTRUCTION
in marine
use
305
work
certain
requiredfor successful
are
1. It should
without
GAS-ENGINE
OF
having
to be barred
2. It should
be
3. It should
be able to
round.
run
stop.
4. It should
work
5. It should
start under
6. It should
admit
7. It should
work
load.
of easy
inspectionand adjustment.
smoothly in a rough sea when the propeller
is sometimes
as
are
follows:
as
Advantages
efficiency;
and
occupy
about
easier
two-thirds
"coaling;"
is
of steam
absence
an
for
working
the
auxiliary
devices.
206.
in 1910 there
as
the
Gas
Humphrey
was
Humphrey
gained
exhibited
Gas
world-wide
Pump"
a
new
Pump. Since
reputation. It
has been
has
that time this gas pump
introduced
has been successfully
greatlyimproved by
can
Ameri-
pump
by reference
consists
outlet valves
other.
20
On
the water
of
and
to
a
C.
water
best
Fig. 185.
vertical gas cylinderA with
valves interlock with
These
there is a suction
inlet
each
pipe D,
HEAT
306
suction
valve
S, and
piston.
The
will
We
with
ENGINES
pressure
tank F.
The
operation of the
at the
assume
of gas
mixture
pump
as
beginningthat
and
air.
This
follows:
the gas
charge
cylinderis filled
of gas
and
air is
is suddenly increased.
While
this
ignited and the pressure
will scarcelychange so that combustion
takes place the volume
takes place at- constant
volume.
The water
column
practically
FIG.
185.
"
Diagram
of
Humphrey
gas
pump.
ated
owing to the increased pressure on its surface is rapidlyaccelerby the pressure in the gas cylinderand the gases undergo
the gas has reached a predetermined
adiabatic expansion. When
and the sucthe exhaust valves on the top of the cylinder
tion
pressure
valves on the water inlet begin to open automatically. The
inflowingwater follows the moving water column and fillsthe gae
The hydrostaticpressurs
replacing the burned gases.
cylinder,
from
tank
the water
valve
burned
When
reverses
the water
column
closingthe
water
forcingout
the water
closes and
the water
column
V*.
Now
compresses
the water
the
column
remaining
reverses
DETAILS
GAS-ENGINE
OF
CONSTRUCTION
307
takes
gases
place and
the pressure
falls below the
inlet valve opens and the new
Vi is filled. The
water
The mixing
atmospheric pressure.
chargeis taken in until the volume
column
and compresses
again reverses
the
air vessel
open
water.
of
into
an
tower.
open
it is
dischargedinto
The
of
having
pump
or
tank
advantage
tons
the elevated
into
delivering
ifinstead of
has
pump
the
quantitiesof
of London, 15
the pump,
the
PROBLEMS
1. A
Ib. of
1
gasolineengine uses
gasolinecontains 19,500 B.T.U.
of the engine?
2. A gas engine uses
20 cu.
per
ft. of gas
per
cubic
What
heat
If the
emciency
hour.
in the
Each
engine
theoretical
3. What
is the
mechanical
of 50 Ibs.
of an
8\" X 14" single-acting
efficiency
gas
explosionsper minute, has a net weight
The length of the brake
is 76.8 Ibs.?
106
225 r.p.m., makes
the brake, and the M.E.P.
engine if it runs
on
is 62.75
arm
horse-power per
Initial temperature
hour.
in. and
the tare
is 19 Ibs.
of the brake
card
from
having
an
Steam
is 3 in.
of 35 Ibs.
M.E.P.
average
pressure,
contains
8j"X
an
its
in. and
13,500 B.T.U.
Ib.
per
considered
engine is
A gas
being
singleacting,running 223
r.p.m.
uses
1 Ibs. coal per I.H.P. per hour.
is 1.04 sq. in. and the length 3.33 in.
uses
and
to
run
the
how
the steam
ten
same
hours
coal
a
as
day,
plant.
year? If a Prony
enginehaving a lengthof 4
much
per
per hour.
a
ton
and
indicator card
of the average
Scale of spring,240 Ibs. The engines
The
area
days in the
three hundred
the boiler
per I.H.P.
are
20 Ibs. of steam
uses
feed temperature,
100 Ibs.;
brake
ft. and
Gas
producer
cheaper to run
is placed on each engine,that on
carryinga net weight of 50 Ibs.,
Which
would
year.
be the
HEAT
308
that
and
of
weight
the
on
and
output
the
Ibs.,
58
engine
gas
how
ENGINES
having
being
tare
much?
has
of
which
Ibs.,
19
Which
length
the
in.
.63
engine
and
carrying
will
mechanical
greater
gross
develop
the
larger
and
efficiency
much?
how
6.
engine
steam
H.P.
200
for
considered
making
100
$3
costs
in
the
boiler
If
the
interest
cent.,
per
a
day
single
It
place.
of
and
plant
is
charges
which
for
three
plant
are
would
hundred
5
be
B.T.U.
13,000
and
Ibs.,
the
per
the
days
cheaper
a
year?
the
plant,
same
and
and
how
when
of
much,
gas
plants.
steam
the
ducer,
pro-
and
both
feed
of
gas
engine
The
the
being
M.E.P.
for
perlb.
repairs
hour
per
Gas
of
is
r.p.m.
efficiency
the
temperature
and
cent.,
is
labor
develops
average
$20,000.
costs
of
an
cent.;
per
and
220
I.H.P.
per
developing
70
hour
per
running
B.T.U.
plant,
contains
100
gas
Cost
I.H.P.
per
engine
and
engine
$30,000.
ton
steam
10,000
uses
boiler
the
Steam
costs
of
acting
minute
per
cent.
per
plant
producer
hours
the
Efficiency
Ibs.
80
10
Ibs.
20
uses
24"
explosions
105
Coal
20"
pressure
180".
water,
depreciation,
to
run
ten
ENGINES
HEAT
310
time.
This cost of
In
unit of time
convenient
is
one
year.
considerations.
great many
the followingitems should be considered
production involves
:
determiningthis cost
(1) Interest on the capitalinvested;
(2) Depreciationof machinery and buildingstructures;
(3) Insurance and taxes;
(4) Fuel cost;
(5) Labor of attendance;
and repairs;
(6) Maintenance
(7) Oil,waste, water, and other supplies.
first three of these items are
called the "fixed charges,"
The
remain
and
be.
The
with
the
and
the
same
of
operatingexpense
In
plants the
most
the load
the
on
plant
may
conditions
what
matter
no
the
are
cost
of coal is from
25 to 30
per
cent, of
the total
exists in localities
having
cheap coal.
for a condensing
very
the
comparison of plant-operatingcosts
that the cost of operating
a non-condensingplant often shows
non-condensing is less than that of the condensing plant,
due
to
careful
and
adds
on
the
fact that
the increased
more
the cost
of coal
used, which
cost
depreciationcharges than
is less than
in
is saved
non-condensing
plant.
costs
following table gives the comparative itemized
of operating for a compound condensing engine, a gas engine
The
with
be
gas
producer, and
operatingan
steam
turbine.
electric generatingunit.
These
are
assumed
to
ECONOMY
Comparison
a
and
TABLE
The
and
steam
HEAT
B.H.P.
gas
ENGINES
311
compound
condensing engine,
producer and gas engine plant,
turbine.
Bituminous
coal assumed
cost $3 per
day
B.H.P.
1000
1000
bituminous
B.H.P.
1000
of
OF
above
300
table
days
COSTS
COMPARATIVE
XXVI.
assumes
per
load.
year,
the
and
RATED
PER
plant
to
the average
HORSE
operate
24
per
to
pound
POWER
hours
per
load to be one-half
HEAT
312
As
will
for
the
cost
make
the
24
of
more
hours,
engine.
for
small
large
the
gas
engine,
coal
With
reciprocating
gas
engines
will
units
smaller
small
gas
first
cost
is
high
full
the
cost
are
or
and
more
steam
the
of
producer
gas
be
could
load
favorable
more
engines
engines,
steam
the
If
be
and
engine
gas
showing.
showing
as
the
increases,
favorable
the
ENGINES
the
to
operation
economical
turbines.
upkeep
carried
rocating
recipis
less
than
With
expensive.
INDEX
Adiabatic
definition
expansion,
change
Advance
angle, 188,
the
Advancing
of,24
during,
of temperature
Boiler, Rust
Scotch
28
240
Alcohol,
use
Ampere,
of
Angle
engines,
advance, 188,
190
of
M.
for
of
horse-power rating
of steam,
quality
Automobile
tube,
water-
rule
E.
finding,
when
boilers,98
89
rated
91
fire-tube
use
water-tube,
Wickes
53
engines,
82
tubular,
vertical,95
coal, 78
S.
85
82
tubulous,
286
use
Anthracite
A.
tubular,
of in gas
95
87
Stirlingwater-tube, 92
tubes, diameter
of, 99
300
marine,
setting, 83,
190
spark,
water-tube,
power
horse-
Brake
89
water-tube,
Boyle's law,
of, 291
when
and
95
11
brake).
Babcock
and
Barker's
mill, 244
Barrus,
162
Bituminous
coal, 77
cock,
Unit
Thermal
Brunton,
105
grate surface, 99
of to
British
(B.T.U.),
109
Buckeye
riding
cut-off
power
of
valve,
205
accessories,105
Boiler,
A.
245
163
Bearing,
Boiler
boiler,91
52
Barsanti,
Blow-off
Wilcox
S.
Calorific
M.
E.
rule
for
horsepower
78,
rating of, 98
Babcock
and
Calorimeter,
Wilcox
tube, 91
water-
Barrus
classification of, 82
dry-pipe,
85
economy,
99
nipple,
pump)
surface
of return
fire-tube,
48
"normal
reading" of, 48
Peabody
throttling,50
problems,
55
separating,
99
Heine
water-tube,
Capacity
98
Carnot
89
most
50
181
302
cycle, 34
reversibilityof, 33
losses,101
problems,
of pump,
Carburetor,
97
internally fired,87
locomotive,
48
throttling,48,
94
horse-power, actual,
rated,
49
coal, 68
fire-tube,82
heating
throttling,52
throttling, 50
(see Feed
pump
48
Carpenter separating,
efficiency,100
feed
79
Carpenter,
133
313
49
314
INDEX
Charles'
law, 11
Chimneys, boiler horse-power of,130
brick,131
capacity of, 129
dpaftof, 128
efficiency
of, 130
height of, 131
materials used in, 131
132
steel,self-sustaining,
unlined, 132
Clausius, 10
Clearance, 149
per cent, of, 149
Clerk, Dougal, 269, 278
Coal analysis,64
proximate, 64
ultimate,64
Coal, anthracite,78
bituminous, 77
calorimeter,68
dry, 64
semi-bituminous, 78
Cock, blow-off,105
"
gage,
106
three-way, reversingby
means
of,
212
227
cross,
cut-off
in
low-pressure cylinder
of,229
losses due
to. 225
principalobject of,225
Initial
condensation).
turbine
increase in power
use,
242
due
to, 242
jet,237
location
of hot-well
for
use
with,
238
surface,240
types of,236
Conduction, 7
Connecting rod, effect of
diagram, 196
solid-ended,161
strap-ended,161
Convection, 8
Cover plate,201
Corliss engine card, 174
trip gear, 206
valve, 205
effect of using,208
Counter-balance, 162
on
Zeuner
162
Crosby indicator,169
Cross-compound engine, 227
Cross-head, 160, 161
pin, 161
Curtis turbine,255
"Cushion
steam," 150
Cut-off valve (seeValve, cut-off).
Cycle, Beau de Rochas, 271
Carnot, 29
four-,272
Otto, 271
and
aft,"228
horse-power of,229
number
of cylindersin,225
problems, 234
ratio of cylindersin,228
tandem, 226
Compound
expansion, effect upon
initial condensation, 148
Compounding, gains due to, 225
(see
Condensers,barometric, 238
Crank-shaft,
tri-,107
Combustion, air required for,70
heat of,66
problems, 79
rate of,98
theoretical temperature of, 74
gram
diaCompound
engines, combined
232
from,
"fore
Compression, 149
Condensation, initial
two-, 272
center, method
212
engine on,
turbine,251
Diagram factor, 143
De
Laval
Diesel, 269
motor, 273, 296
of
placing
INDEX
rod,
sheave, 163
112
Feed
throw
of, 190
Eccentricity,188, 190
Economizers, cost of, 126
descriptionof, 125
size of, 127
Economy, engine, commercial, 310
309
relative,
2
16
relative,
governor,
Efficiency,
boiler,100
boiler and grates combined, 100
chimney, 130
fuel,79
gas engine, 275
producer, 285
heat engine, 10, 29, 32
actual,180
mechanical, 179
turbine,best,249
Energy, 8
change in internal,due to change
in temperature, 15
(seeAutomobile
of,310
Corliss (seeCorliss engine).
gas (see Gas engine).
heat (seeHeat engine).
steam
(seeSteam
engine).
Equivalent evaporation, 100
Evaporation, equivalent,100
factor of, 100
per pound of coal,100
Exhaust, heat lost in, 145
lap, 189
'effect of on Zeuner
diagram, 195
24
Expansion, adiabatic,
change of temperature during, 27
economy
location
pump,
of, 122
of, 119
use
Engine, automobile
engine).
upon
163
strap, 163
commercial
315
Worthington boiler,120
Feed-water
heaters,advantages of,
123
closed,123
cost of, 125
location of, 125
open,
123
of, 123
charges," 310
Flame
propagation, 287
Flue gas, analysisof, 71
Fly-wheel, 223
Forces of impulse and reaction,245
use
"Fixed
Frame, 164
"Free-piston"
"Fore
and
gas
aft"
engine, 270
compound engine,
228
of,
70
classification of,75
composition of,64
efficiency
of,79
gas engine, 283
heating value of gas and oil,287
68
value of,theoretical,
mixtures, proper, 287
Fusible plug, 108
Gage cocks, 106
glass,105
Gas engine,
and
Matteucci's,271
270
classification,
construction,details of,294
273, 280, 296
Diesel's,
efficiencyof,275
Barsanti
316
INDEX
Gas
272
engine,four-cycle,
"free-piston,"270
fuels,283
types of,300
governors,
historyof the, 269
horizontal
303
vs.
vertical,
horse-power,actual,292
rated,288
kinds of,295
ignition,
Langen's, Otto and, 270
Lenoir's,270
losses in a, 282
Otto (and Langen's), 270
problems, 307
two-cycle,272
of alcohol
in,286
vertical vs. horizontal,303
Gas producers, 283
efficiency
of,285
use
pressure,
284
suction,284
Gas
Humphrey,
Gear, Corliss trip.206
Joy, 212
pump,
305
radial,211
reversing,209, 210
Walschaert,211
Giffard,M.,
121
Governor, automatic,
216
220
centrifugal,
design,relation of items in, 219
218
fly-ball,
"hit and miss," 301
221
inertia,
222
isochronous,
mechanism, 217
quality,301
quantity,301
shaft,218, 220
216
throttling,
used
with
double-ported valve,
203
variable cut-off,
216
Grate
surface
in
ratio
Gutermuth,
Giildner,269
stokers,118
of,to breeching,99
to heating surface,98
148
at
constant
pressure,
volume,
general case,
boiler plant, 101
at constant
balance
in
22
22
20
capacity,6
lost in exhaust, 145
up stack, 101
of fusion of ice,latent,57
of liquid,38, 40
of steam, latent,38, 41
total,41
of superheat, 38
relation between, and work, 10
of constant
between specific,
sure
presand of constant
volume, 15
specific(seeSpecificheat),
theory of, 1
unit of, 5
Heat
of (seeEfficiency,
engines,efficiency
heat engine),
ideal,29
relative economy
of, 309
Heater, feed-water
(see Feed-water
heaters).
Heating surface,definition of,98
rule for finding,
of fire-tube boilers,
99
ratio
and
miss"
301
governor,
Hollis,128
Horse-power, boiler,
actual,98
heating surface per,
rated,97
99
318
INDEX
Nozzle, turbine,248
"Normal
reading" of calorimeter,53
Oil,vaporizationof,286
engine, Hornsby-Ackroyd,
286,
of steam,
48, 53
297
for ships,205
Radial
apparatus, 72
Otto, 269
Parr
coal
calorimeter,68
Parsons
262
turbine,single-flow,
50
Peabody, 40, 42,
Peat, 76
Peclet,7, 8
Perfect gases, definition of, 12
equation of, 12
laws of, 11
problems in, 34
Piston, 160, 161
positionof relative to valve, 190
rod, 160, 161
valve, 198
Planimeter, 173
Port opening, 193
Power, 9
Pressure,absolute,12
gage,
gas
heat
added
curve,
Semi-bituminous
at
constant,
22
175
coal,78
71
Southwark-Rateau
producer, 284
211
Radiation, 7
Rankine, 10
Rateau
turbine,257
Ratio of expansion, 147, 228
Re-action,245
Reducing motion, indicator,171
Re-evaporation, 145
Regnault, 39
Reversing gear, 209, 210
of three-way cock, 212
by means
Rochas, 271
Rotation, changing direction of,209
Rowland, 10
"Run
over," 209
"Run
under," 209
Rust boiler,95
Smoke,
12
gears,
turbine,259
of constant
effective,
143, 173
pressure, 7
tion
and
of constant
relation between
perature,
volume, relavolume, tembetween, 15
and, 12, 27
of superheated steam, 40
specificheat of constant, 7
of
constant
133
volume, 7
Problems, boiler,
theory of, 5
calorimeter,55
Stanley, 109
combustion, 79
Steam, action of, in turbine,247
economic, 242
A. S. M. E. rules for findingquality
engine, gas, 307
53
184
of,
steam, actual,
boilingpoint of, 38
compound, 234
150
of,
consumption, determination
theoretical,
177
mixture, 61
of at different loads,
variation
perfectgas, 34
181
Producers, gas (see Gas producers).
cushion, 150
Pumps, capacity of, 181
240
dry saturated, 39
circulating,
mean