Fundamentals of IT

Operating System Functions:

The operating system's tasks, in the most general sense, fall into six categories:
1. Process management
2. Memory management
3. File Management
4. Device management
5. Security
6. Command Interpretation

While there are some who argue that an operating system should do more than these six tasks, and
some operating system vendors that build many more utility programs and auxiliary functions into their
operating systems, these six tasks define the core of essentially all operating systems.

1. Process Management
The heart of managing the processor comes down to two related issues: First, ensuring that each
process and application receives enough of the processor's time to function properly and, second,
using as many processor cycles for real work as is possible.
A process is a program in execution. The main objective of this module of an OS is to manage the
processes submitted in a manner so as to minimize the idle time of the various processors. It takes
care of creation and deletion of processes, scheduling of various system resources to the different
processes requesting them, and providing mechanisms for synchronization and communication
among processes.
Memory management: takes care of the allocation and deallocation of memory space to the various
programs in need of the resource. Main responsibilities are
* Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom
* decide which processes are to be loaded into memory when memory space becomes available
* allocate and deallocate memory space as needed

It's tempting to think of a process as an application, but that gives an incomplete picture of how
processes relate to the operating system and hardware. The application you see (word processor or
spreadsheet or game) is, indeed, a process, but that application may cause several other processes
to begin, for tasks like communications with other devices or other computers. There are also
numerous processes that run without giving you direct evidence that they ever exist. A process, then,
is software that performs some action and can be controlled -- by a user, by other applications or by
the operating system.
It is processes, rather than applications, that the operating system controls and schedules for
execution by the CPU. In a single-tasking system, the schedule is straightforward. The operating
system allows the application to begin running, suspending the execution only long enough to deal
with interrupts and user input. Interrupts are special signals sent by hardware or software to the CPU.
It's as if some part of the computer suddenly raised its hand to ask for the CPU's attention in a lively
meeting. While interrupts add some complication to the execution of processes in a single-tasking
system, the job of the operating system becomes much more complicated in a multi-tasking system.
Now, the operating system must arrange the execution of applications so that you believe that there
are several things happening at once. This is complicated because the CPU can only do one thing at
a time. In order to give the appearance of lots of things happening at the same time, the operating
system has to switch between different processes thousands of times a second.
This process swapping happens without direct user interference, and each process will get enough
CPU time to accomplish its task in a reasonable amount of time. Trouble can come, though, if the user
tries to have too many processes functioning at the same time.
In a system with two or more CPUs, the operating system must divide the workload among the CPUs,
trying to balance the demands of the required processes with the available cycles on the different
CPUs. Some operating systems (called asymmetric) use one CPU for their own needs, dividing
application processes among the remaining CPUs. Other operating systems (called symmetric) divide
themselves among the various CPUs, balancing demand versus CPU availability even when the
operating system itself is all that's running. Even if the operating system is the only software with
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execution needs, the CPU is not the only resource to be scheduled. Memory management is the next
crucial step in making sure that all processes run smoothly.

2. Memory and Storage Management

When an operating system manages the computer's memory, there are two broad tasks to be
accomplished. First, each process must have enough memory in which to execute, and it can neither
run into the memory space of another process, nor be run into by another process. Next, the different
types of memory in the system must be used properly, so that each process can run most effectively.
The first task requires the operating system to set up memory boundaries for types of software, and
for individual applications.
When applications begin to be loaded into memory, they are loaded in block sizes determined by the
operating system. If the block size is 2 kilobytes, then every process that is loaded will be given a
chunk of memory that is a multiple of 2 kilobytes in size. Applications will be loaded in these fixed
block sizes, with the blocks starting and ending on boundaries established by words of 4 or 8 bytes.
These blocks and boundaries help to ensure that applications won't be loaded on top of one another's
space by a poorly calculated bit or two.
With that ensured the larger question of what to do when the 500 kilobyte application space is filled.
In most computers it's possible to add memory beyond the original capacity. For example, you might
expand RAM from 1 to 2 megabytes. This works fine, but tends to be relatively expensive. It also
ignores a fundamental fact -- most of the information that an application stores in memory is not being
used at any given moment. A processor can only access memory one location at a time, so the vast
majority of RAM is unused at any moment. Since disk space is cheap compared to RAM, then moving
information in RAM to hard disk intelligently can greatly expand RAM space at no cost. This technique
is called Virtual Memory Management.
The operating system must balance the needs of the various processes with the availability of the
different types of memory, moving data in blocks called pages between available memories as the
schedule of processes dictates.

3. File Management
A file is a collection of related information. Every file has a name, its data and attributes. Name of a file
uniquely identifies it in a system. Attributes of a file contain other information about the file, such as
date and time of its creation, date and time of last access, date and time of last update, its current
size, its protection features, etc. List of attributes maintained for a file varies from one system to
another. File management module of an operating system takes care of file related activities, such as
structuring, accessing, naming, sharing, and protection of files.
The rules for naming files vary from one operating system to another.
E.g. MS-DOS allows only up to 8 characters for a file name, while Windows allows 255 characters.
Some operating systems (such as UNIX) distinguish between upper-case and lower-case letters,
whereas others (such as MS-DOS) do not.
Some operating systems allow letters and numbers to be used in file names, whereas others allow
special characters.
Many operating systems support file names having two or more parts, with different parts separated
by a period (dot). MS-DOS supports two part file name in which first part can have 1 to 8 characters,
and the optional second part can have 1 to 3 characters. In UNIX, a file name may have more than
two parts.
Files systems are very large. Files have to be organized. Usually a two-level organization is done:
1. The file system is divided into partitions. By default there is at least one partition. Partitions are
nothing but virtual disks with each partition considered as a separate storage device.
2. Each partition has information about the files in it. This information is nothing but a table of
contents. It is known as a directory / folder.
The directory maintains information about the name, location, size and type of all files in the partition.
A directory has a logical structure. This is dependent on many factors including operations that are to
be performed on the directory like search for file/s, create a file, delete a file, list a directory, rename a
file and traverse a file system.

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4. Device Management

The path between the operating system and virtually all hardware not on the computer's motherboard
goes through a special program called a driver. Drivers take data that the operating system has
defined as a file and translate them into streams of bits placed in specific locations on storage
devices, or a series of laser pulses in a printer.
One reason that drivers are separate from the operating system is so that new functions can be added
to the driver-and thus to the hardware subsystems - without requiring the operating system itself to be
modified, recompiled and redistributed.
Managing input and output is largely a matter of managing queues and buffers, special storage
facilities that take a stream of bits from a device, and release them to the CPU. This function is
especially important when a number of processes are running and taking up processor time. The
operating system will instruct a buffer to continue taking input from the device, but to stop sending
data to the CPU while the process using the input is suspended. Then, when the process needing
input is made active once again, the operating system will command the buffer to send data.

5. Security
Computer security deals with protecting various resources and information of a computer system
against destruction and unauthorized access. It involves: external and internal security. External
security deals with securing a computer system against external factors such as fires, floods,
earthquakes, leaking out of stored information by a person who has access to information, etc.
Commonly used methods for external security include maintaining backup copies of stored
information at places far away from the original information, allowing access to sensitive information to
trusted employees, etc.
Internal security deals with the following aspects:

1. User authentication:
Identification and Authentication is a technical measure that prevents unauthorized people (or
unauthorized processes) from entering an IT system. Authentication is the means of establishing the
validity of a user's claimed identity to the system. There are three means of authenticating a user's
identity which can be used alone or in combination:
something the individual knows (a secret -- e.g., a password, Personal Identification Number (PIN), or
cryptographic key); something the individual possesses (a token -- e.g., an ATM card or a smart card);
and something the individual is (a biometrics -- e.g., characteristics such as a voice pattern,
handwriting dynamics, or a fingerprint).

2. Access control:
Access control usually requires that the system be able to identify and differentiate among users.
Even when a user passes user authentication phase and is allowed to use a computer, some
mechanism is needed to restrict the user’s access to those resources / information that he / she is
authorized to access. Operating Systems normally maintain Access Control Lists that specify which
users can have what types of accesses on various system resources.

3. Cryptography:
Cryptography is used to protect data both inside and outside the boundaries of a computer system.
Outside the computer system, cryptography is sometimes the only way to protect data. While in a
computer system, data is normally protected with logical and physical access controls (perhaps
supplemented by cryptography). However, when in transit across communications lines or resident
on someone else's computer, data cannot be protected by the originator's logical or physical access
controls. Cryptography provides a solution by protecting data even when the data is no longer in the
control of the originator.
Cryptography can increase security in user authentication techniques. Instead of communicating
passwords over an open network, authentication can be performed by demonstrating knowledge of a
cryptographic key. Using these methods, a one-time password, which is not susceptible to
eavesdropping, can be used. User authentication can use either secret or public key cryptography.

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Interdependencies with Cryptography

Cryptography is a branch of mathematics based on the transformation of data. It provides an
important tool for protecting information and is used in many aspects of computer security. For
example, cryptography can help provide data confidentiality, integrity, electronic signatures, and
advanced user authentication.
One of the best ways to obtain cost-effective data confidentiality is through the use of encryption.
Encryption transforms intelligible data, called plaintext, into an unintelligible form, called cipher text.
This process is reversed through the process of decryption. In this way Cryptography can be used for
data encryption.

6. Command Interpretation
Command Interpretation module of an operating system provides a set of commands using which
users give instructions to a computer for getting their jobs processed. It provides a user interface to
hide hardware details of a system from its users.
The two broad categories of user interfaces supported by various operating systems are:
1. Command-line Interface (CUI):
Users give instructions to computers by typing commands in this character user interface. For
example in UNIX and MS-DOS, a user has to type a command to get work done from the system. If a
user types a command incorrectly, command interpreter responds with a message indicating that it did
not understand the command.
2. Graphical User Interface (GUI):
It is much easier to learn and use than command-line interface, GUI commands are graphical
(pictorial). GUI provides a screen full of graphic icons, or menus to users, and allows rapid selection
from displayed icons or menus to give instructions to computers. A point-and-draw device (e.g. a
mouse) is used normally to rapidly point to and select a particular icon.

Terminology explained:

Multiprogramming:
When there are a number of jobs on the disk which are ready to be executed / processed, the
operating system has to choose a job from the job pool that is to be executed. Job scheduling brings
in the ability of multiprogramming. A single user cannot keep both CPU and I/O devices busy.
Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs in a manner such that CPU always
has a job to execute.
The operating system picks and executes one of the jobs in memory. When the job in execution
needs an I/O operation to complete, it moves to the I/O device and the CPU becomes idle. Instead of
waiting for the job to complete the I/O, the CPU switches to another job in memory. When the
previous job has completed the I/O, it joins the subset of jobs waiting for the CPU time. As long as
there are jobs in memory waiting for the CPU, the CPU is never idle. Choosing one out of several
ready jobs in memory for execution by the CPU is called CPU scheduling.
Multiprogramming is interleaved execution of two or more different and independent programs of
multiple users in a multi-user system

Multitasking:
Technically speaking multitasking is same as multiprogramming. But the term multiprogramming is
used for multi-user systems (systems that are used simultaneously by many users), and multitasking
for single user systems (systems that are used by only one user at a time such as personal computer
or a notebook computer).
In a single user system also there may be multiple tasks being processed simultaneously. While the
user is working on one application, another application can be running in the background. An
Operating System achieves this effect by rapidly switching tasks, by scheduling the Microprocessor to
work on more than one task at the same time. The Microprocessor alternates so quickly from task to
task that the user might think the machine is processing several jobs at the same time.

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Time -sharing systems:

Interactive jobs need on-line communication between the user and the system. Time-sharing / multi-
tasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. It provides interactive use of the system. It allows
many users to share the system simultaneously.
CPU scheduling and multiprogramming provide each user one time slice (slot) in a timeshared
system. A program in execution is referred to as a process. The short period during which a user
process gets to use the CPU is known as time-slice / time-slot. A process executes for one time slice
at a time. A process may need more than one time slice to complete. The CPU is taken away from a
running process when the allotted time slice expires. During a time slice a process may finish
execution or go for I/O. The I/O in this case is usually interactive like a user response from the
keyboard or a display on the monitor. The CPU switches between processes at the end of a time
slice. The switching between processes is so fast that the user gets the illusion that the CPU is
executing only one user’s process.

Multiprocessor systems:
Multiprocessor systems are also known as parallel systems or tightly coupled systems.
These systems have more than one processor in close communication sharing the bus, clock,
memory and peripheral devices. The main advantages of multiprocessor systems are:
1. Increased throughput: increase in the number of processors means more work in less time.
2. Economical: multiprocessor systems are economical as they save money. This reduced cost is due
to resource sharing.
3. Increased reliability: as the name implies, availability of more than one processor increases
reliability. Failure of one processor will not bring activity to a standstill, although there may be a
slowdown. This is referred to as graceful degradation and systems which are designed to provide
graceful degradation are also called fault tolerant systems.
Multiprocessor systems use either synchronous multiprocessing or asynchronous multiprocessing. In
synchronous multiprocessing, each processor runs the same copy of the operating system. All
processors are peers. The advantage here is that n processes can be executed simultaneously if
there are n CPUs.
In asynchronous multiprocessing, each processor is assigned a specific task. A master process
controls the system. The other processes look up to the master for instructions or tasks to execute. A
master-slave relationship is thus defined and job scheduling is the work of the master.
Based on the relationships between processes and memory, multiprocessor systems can be classified
as:
1. Tightly-coupled: individual processors within the multiprocessor system share Global shared
memory.
2. Loosely-coupled: individual processors within the multiprocessor system access their own private /
local memory.
This classification may not be very rigid and multiprocessor systems have both shared memory as
well as local memory.

Virtual memory:
Processes whose memory requirement is larger than the maximum size of the memory available may
never be able to execute, but virtual memory is a technique that allows execution of processes that
may not be entirely in memory. It also raises the degree of multiprogramming and increases CPU
utilization. Because of the above features, users are freed from worrying about memory requirements
and availability.

Need for virtual memory technique:

Every process needs to be loaded into physical memory for execution. A process cannot be loaded
until sufficient free memory for loading the entire process becomes available or a process cannot be
loaded in a system whose main memory size is less than the total memory required by the process.
When a process is to be executed then only that page of the process, which needs to be currently
executed, is swapped into memory.

Three basic concepts for realization of virtual memory are:

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1. On-line secondary storage:

2. Swapping: Swapping is the process of transferring a block of data from on-line secondary storage
to main memory or vice-versa. When data is transferred from on-line secondary storage to main
memory, it is called swapping in of data, and when data is transferred from main memory to on-line
secondary storage, it is called swapping out of data.
3. Demand Paging: All processes are partitioned into pages and reside on the on-line secondary
storage. The physical memory is also partitioned into page frames of the same size. Instead of loading
an entire process before execution, a swapping algorithm (called demand paging) is used that swaps
in those pages of the process that are currently needed in memory for its execution to continue. When
there is no free page in memory, a page residing in memory but not being used currently is swapped
out to free the page frame it is occupying.
The concept of Virtual Memory is just a practice of using a hard drive to fool the operating system
and application into behaving as if there was more Random Access Memory than actually exists.

Real Time Operating System

A Real Time Operating System or RTOS is an operating system that has been developed for real time
applications, typically used for embedded applications. Real-time and embedded systems operate in
constrained environments in which computer memory and processing power are limited. They often
need to provide their services within strict time deadlines to their users and to the surrounding world. It
is these memory, speed and timing constraints that dictate the use of real-time operating systems in
embedded software.
Real-time and embedded systems are used in many applications such as airborne computers,
medical instruments and communication systems. Real-time requirements impose stringent time
deadlines for delivering the results of embedded processing.
RTOS kernels hide from application software the low-level details of system hardware, and at the
same time provide several categories of services to application software. The issue of timing
determinism is important in differentiating general-computing operating systems from real-time
operating systems.
A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system that guarantees a certain capability
within a specified time constraint. For example, an operating system might be designed to ensure that
a certain object was available for a robot on an assembly line. In what is usually called a "hard" real-
time operating system, if the calculation could not be performed for making the object available at the
designated time, the operating system would terminate with a failure. In a "soft" real-time operating
system, the assembly line would continue to function but the production output might be lower as
objects failed to appear at their designated time, causing the robot to be temporarily unproductive.
Some real-time operating systems are created for a special application and others are more general
purpose. Real-time operating systems are often required in small embedded operating systems that
are packaged as part of micro devices.

Embedded system
An Embedded system is a special-purpose computer system usually built into a small device. An
embedded system is required to meet different requirements compared to general-purpose personal
computers. It has a processor and specific supporting devices and a compact operating system.
These components are just adequate to meet the specific application for which it is designed. In
general, an embedded system is a device meant for a specific application. It is a small compact micro
computer which performs a specific job.
Embedded systems are being used in almost all fields such as:
• Consumer Electronics
• Office Automation
• Industrial Automation
• Medical Electronics
• Computer Networking
• Telecommunications
• Wireless technologies
• Instrumentation

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• Security
• Finance
Specific examples of embedded systems
• Automatic teller machines (ATMs)
• Cellular telephones and Telephone switches
• Computer network equipment, including Routers, Switches and Firewalls
• Computer printers
• Disk drives (floppy disk drives and hard disk drives)
• Engine controllers and antilock brake controllers for automobiles
• Home automation products, like thermostats, air conditioners, sprinklers, and security
monitoring systems
• Handheld calculators
• Household appliances, including microwave ovens, washing machines, television sets,
DVD players/recorders
• Inertial guidance systems, flight control hardware/software and other integrated systems in
aircraft and missiles
• Medical equipments, BP monitor, Sugar level monitor etc
• Measurement equipment such as digital storage oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, and
spectrum analyzers
• Multifunction wrist watches
• Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), i.e. small handheld computers
• Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) for industrial automation and monitoring
• Stationary videogame consoles and handheld game consoles

Two major areas of differences are cost and power consumption. Since many embedded systems are
produced in the tens of thousands to millions of units, reducing cost is a major concern. Embedded
systems often use a (relatively) slow processor and small memory size to minimize costs. The
slowness is not just clock speed. The whole architecture of the computer is often intentionally
simplified to lower costs.
Firmware is the name for software that is embedded in hardware devices, e.g. in one or more ROM /
Flash memory IC chips. Embedded systems are routinely expected to maintain 100% reliability while
running continuously for long periods. Firmware is usually developed and tested to much stricter
requirements than is general purpose software which can usually be easily restarted if a problem
occurs.

Differences between desktop/laptop computer and embedded system:

A desktop or a laptop computer is a general purpose computing device. We can use this for variety of
applications such as computing, playing games, word processing, software development and so on.
The general purpose computer permits addition of new compatible software tools for application
development.
However the embedded system differs from the laptop/desktop computers in the following ways
• Embedded systems do a particular job. They cannot be programmed to do different jobs.
• Embedded Systems have very limited resources, especially memory. They have only
semiconductor memory. Secondary memories such as hard disk or compact disk are not
available.
• Most of the embedded systems work in real time, i.e., the tasks are usually time synchronized.
• Embedded systems normally operate on the battery. So power consumption is highly
optimized and hence their hardware has high impact on the power consumption.
• Embedded systems are to be highly reliable. There is no compromise on this.

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Excel -- Worksheet Functions

IF function: Use IF to conduct conditional tests on values and formulas.

IF(logical_test,value_if_true,value_if_false)

Logical_test is any value or expression that can be evaluated to TRUE or FALSE. For example,
A10=100 is a logical expression; if the value in cell A10 is equal to 100, the expression evaluates to
TRUE. Otherwise, the expression evaluates to FALSE.
Value_if_true is the value that is returned if logical_test is TRUE. For example, if this argument is
the text string "Within budget" and the logical_test argument evaluates to TRUE, then the IF function
displays the text "Within budget". If logical_test is TRUE and value_if_true is blank, this argument
returns 0 (zero). To display the word TRUE, use the logical value TRUE for this argument.
Value_if_true can be another formula.
Value_if_false is the value that is returned if logical_test is FALSE. For example, if this argument is
the text string "Over budget" and the logical_test argument evaluates to FALSE, then the IF function
displays the text "Over budget". If logical_test is FALSE and value_if_false is omitted, (that is, after
value_if_true, there is no comma), then the logical value FALSE is returned. If logical_test is FALSE
and value_if_false is blank (that is, after value_if_true, there is a comma followed by the closing
parenthesis), then the value 0 (zero) is returned. Value_if_false can be another formula.

1. Up to seven IF functions can be nested as value_if_true and value_if_false arguments to

construct more elaborate tests. See the following last example.
2. When the value_if_true and value_if_false arguments are evaluated, IF returns the value
returned by those statements.
3. If any of the arguments to IF are arrays, every element of the array is evaluated when the IF
statement is carried out.

Example

On a budget sheet, cell A10 contains a formula to calculate the current budget. If the result of the
formula in A10 is less than or equal to 100, then the following function displays "Within budget".
Otherwise, the function displays "Over budget".

IF(A10<=100,"Within budget","Over budget")

AVERAGE

Returns the average (arithmetic mean) of the arguments.

Syntax

AVERAGE(number1,number2, ...)

Number1, number2, ... are 1 to 30 numeric arguments for which you want the average.

1. The arguments must be either numbers or names, arrays, or references that contain numbers.

2. If an array or reference argument contains text, logical values, or empty cells, those values are
ignored; however, cells with the value zero are included.

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Tip When averaging cells, keep in mind the difference between empty cells and those containing the
value zero, especially if you have cleared the Zero values check box on the View tab (Options
command, Tools menu). Empty cells are not counted, but zero values are.

Examples

If A1:A5 is named Scores and contains the numbers 10, 7, 9, 27, and 2, then:

AVERAGE(A1:A5) equals 11
AVERAGE(Scores) equals 11
AVERAGE(A1:A5, 5) equals 10
AVERAGE(A1:A5) equals SUM(A1:A5)/COUNT(A1:A5) equals 11

If C1:C3 is named OtherScores and contains the numbers 4, 18, and 7, then:

AVERAGE(Scores, OtherScores) equals 10.5

MAX

Returns the largest value in a set of values.

Syntax

MAX(number1,number2,...)

Number1,number2,... are 1 to 30 numbers for which you want to find the maximum value.

• You can specify arguments that are numbers, empty cells, logical values, or text
representations of numbers. Arguments that are error values or text that cannot be translated
into numbers cause errors.

• If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or reference are used.
Empty cells, logical values, or text in the array or reference are ignored. If logical values and
text must not be ignored, use MAXA instead.

• If the arguments contain no numbers, MAX returns 0 (zero).

Examples

If A1:A5 contains the numbers 10, 7, 9, 27, and 2, then:

MAX(A1:A5) equals 27

MAX(A1:A5,30) equals 30

MIN

Returns the smallest number in a set of values.

Syntax

MIN(number1,number2, ...)

Number1, number2,... are 1 to 30 numbers for which you want to find the minimum value.

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• You can specify arguments that are numbers, empty cells, logical values, or text
representations of numbers. Arguments that are error values or text that cannot be translated
into numbers cause errors.

• If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or reference are used.
Empty cells, logical values, or text in the array or reference are ignored. If logical values and
text should not be ignored, use MINA instead.

• If the arguments contain no numbers, MIN returns 0.

Examples

If A1:A5 contains the numbers 10, 7, 9, 27, and 2, then:

MIN(A1:A5) equals 2

MIN(A1:A5, 0) equals 0

SUM

Adds all the numbers in a range of cells.

Syntax

SUM(number1,number2, ...)

Number1, number2, ... are 1 to 30 arguments for which you want the total value or sum.

• Numbers, logical values, and text representations of numbers that you type directly into the list
of arguments are counted. See the first and second examples following.

• If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or reference are counted.
Empty cells, logical values, text, or error values in the array or reference are ignored. See the
third example following.

• Arguments that are error values or text that cannot be translated into numbers cause errors.

Examples

SUM(3, 2) equals 5

SUM("3", 2, TRUE) equals 6 because the text values are translated into numbers, and the logical
value TRUE is translated into the number 1.

Unlike the previous example, if A1 contains "3" and B1 contains TRUE, then:
SUM(A1, B1, 2) equals 2 because references to nonnumeric values in references are not translated.

If cells A2:E2 contain 5, 15, 30, 40, and 50:

SUM(A2:C2) equals 50
SUM(B2:E2, 15) equals 150

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Sum cells that match criteria -- SUMIF

You can calculate a total for rows that meet a specific criterion.

SUMPRODUCT

Count Cells with Numbers -- COUNT

The COUNT function will count cells that contain numbers. Its syntax is:
=COUNT(value1, value2,...value30).
The arguments (e.g. value1) can be cell references, or values typed into the formula.

Count Cells with Data -- COUNTA

The COUNTA function will count cells that are not empty. Its syntax is:
=COUNTA(value1, value2,...value30).
The arguments (e.g. value1) can be cell references, or values typed into the formula.

Count Blank Cells -- COUNTBLANK

The COUNTBLANK function will count cells that are empty. Its syntax is:
=COUNTBLANK(range)

COUNTIF

COUNTIF has two arguments: the range to be checked and the value to check for within the range
(the criteria).

=COUNTIF(range,criteria)

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Views
Power Point gives you four screen layouts for constructing your presentation in addition to the Slide
Show. You can select the page view by clicking the buttons just above the formatting toolbar and the
bottom of the page.

Normal View Slide View

This screen is split into three sections showing The slide view displays each slide on the
the presentation outline on the left, the slide in screen and is helpful for adding images,
the main window, and notes at the bottom. formatting text, and adding background styles.

Outline View Slide Sorter View

The presentation outline is displayed on the A small image of each slide is displayed in
majority of the screen with small windows for Slide Sorter view. Slides can easily be ordered
the slide and notes. This view is recommended and sorted from this screen.
for editing text.

Click the Slide Show button to view the full-screen slide show.

Insert a New Slide

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Follow these steps to insert a new slide into the presentation:

 In the Outline window, select the slide you want the new slide to appear after by clicking
the slide's number.
 Select Insert|New Slide from the menu bar or click the new slide button on the standard
toolbar.
 Choose the page layout from the window and press OK.

Applying a Design Template

To add a design template or changing the existing one, selection Format|Design Template from the
menu bar. Select the template and click Apply.

Changing Slide Layouts

To change the layout template of the slide select Format|Slide Layout from the menu bar. Select one
of the layout thumbnail images and click Apply.

Reordering Slides

To reorder a slide in Slide Sorter View, simply click on the slide you wish to move and drag it to the
new location. In Normal or Outline View, click the slide icon beside the number of the slide you
want to move and drag the icon to a new location.

Hide Slides

If you do not want a slide to appear during the slide show, but do not want to delete the slide as it may
be used later, the slide can be hidden by selecting Slide Show|Hide Slide from the menu bar. To add
the slide back to the slide show, select Slide Show|Hide Slide again.

Create a Custom Slide Show

The Custom Slide Show feature allows you to select the slides you want to display in the slide show if
not all the slides should be used.

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 Select Slide Show|Custom Slide Show from the menu bar.

 Click the New... button in the Custom Shows window.

 In the Define Custom Show window, type a name for the slide in the Slide show name
field.

 Add slides to the custom show by highlighting them in the Slides in presentation window
and clicking the Add >> button. Those slides will then appear in the Slides in custom
show window.
 To remove slides from the custom show, highlight their names in the Slides in custom
show window and click the Remove button.
 To reorder slides in the custom show, highlight the slide that should be moved and click
the up and down arrows to change its order in the show.
 Click OK when finished.
 Click the Show button on the Custom Shows window to preview the custom slide show
and click Close to exit.

Edit a Custom Slide Show

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 Select Slide Show|Custom Slide Show from the menu bar.

 Edit the show by highlighting the name in the Custom shows box and clicking the Edit...
button.
 To delete a show, highlight the name and click Remove.
 Create a copy of a show by clicking the Copy button. The copy can then be renamed by
clicking the Edit... button.
 Click the Show button to preview the custom slide show and click Close to exit.

The Drawing Toolbar provides many commands for creating and editing graphics. The toolbar is
located at the bottom of the Power Point screen or it can be activated by selecting View|Toolbars|
Drawing from the menu bar.

 Menu -

 Grouping - Images can be grouped together so they become one image and can
be moved together or the same formatting changes can be applied to both at once.
Select all the images that will be grouped by holding down the SHIFT key and
clicking once on each image. Then select Group from the Draw menu. The images
can be ungrouped by selecting Ungroup from the same menu. The rectangles in
the image to the left are separate images with their own sets of handles and they
are grouped together in the image to the right:

 Order - The order of overlapping images can be changed using this feature. In the
example of two rectangles below, the green rectangle is selected and the Send
Backward command was used to move the image below the blue rectangle. Send
Backward and Bring Forward will move elements by one layer. Send to Back and
Bring to Front move the elements to the back or top of a series of several
overlapping graphics.

 Nudge - Use the nudge actions to move an object slightly in one direction.
 Align or Distribute - Select a group of objects and choose one of the the
commands from the Align or Distribute menu to change the position of the objects
in relation to one another.
 Rotate or Flip - Rotate an object 90 degrees or flip the object over its x- or y-axis.
 Select objects - Deactivate all drawing functions.

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 Free rotate - This button will place green handles on certain objects so they can be
arbitrarily rotated. Click and drag the handles to rotate the objects.

 AutoShapes menu - Click the small down arrow to the right of the "AutoShapes" text to
select a shape. [more...]
 Line and Arrow - Click and drag the mouse on the slide to add lines. Hold down the
SHIFT key to draw a straight line. Use the end points of the completed line to stretch and
reposition the line.
 Rectangle and Oval - Click and drag the mouse on the slide to add rectangles and ovals.
Hold down the SHIFT key to add squares and circles.
 Text box - Click to draw a text box on the slide.
 Word art - Click to add WordArt. [More]
 Picture - Click to add a clip art image to the slide.
 Fill color - Choose a fill color for rectangles, ovals, and clip art.
 Line color - Select a border color for shapes and pictures.
 Font color - Highlight text on the slide and click the small down arrow next to the Font
color icon to select a color.
 Line style - Highlight a line or arrow that has been drawn and click this button to select a
thickness or style for the line.
 Dash style - Highlight a line or arrow and select a dash style.
 Arrow style - Change the arrow head style for an existing arrow or change a line to an
arrow.
 Shadow - Select a text box to add shadow to text or choose any other object on the slide
to add a drop shadow.
 3D - Add a three-dimensional effect to text and other objects.

(Adding pictures : Already covered in the MS Excel)

Action Buttons

Use the action button toolbar to add functioning buttons to slides in a presentation.

 Select Slide Show|Action Buttons from the menu bar. Click the bar across the top of
the button menu and drag it off the menu so it becomes a floating toolbar.

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 Click one of the button faces and draw the button on the slide using the mouse. The
Action Settings menu will then appear.

 Set the actions under either the Mouse Click or Mouse Over tabs. Actions specified for
Mouse Click will execute when the button is clicked on the slide while actions for Mouse
Over will occur when the mouse pointer hovers over the button.
 Select an action for the button by choosing a Hyperlink to destination.
 If you want a sound to be played when the button is clicked, check the Play sound box
and choose a sound from the drop-down menu.
 Click OK when finished.

 The button on the slide can be resized using the white box handles and the depth of the
button can be changed by dragging the yellow diamond.

Slide Animation

Several animations for slide objects are available through the drop-down menus on the menu bar. First,
select the text box or graphic that will be animated. Select Slide Show|Preset Animation and choose
from one of the options. To select a different animation or turn the animation off, select the appropriate
choice from the same menu. For more options, follow the procedure below:

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 Select Slide Show|Custom Animation from the menu bar.

 Select the object on the slide that will be animated from the Check to animate slide
objects list.
 Under the Effects tab, select the animation type (or select "No Effect" to turn an
animation off) and direction from the drop-down menus and select a sound if you wish.
 Select an After animation effect if the text should change colors after the animation
executes.

 Color palette - Select one of the color swatches or click More Colors for a larger
selection. The text will change to the selected color when the mouse is clicked
during the slide show.
 Don't Dim - This option erases all After Animation effects.
 Hide After Animation - Text will be immediately erased after the animation is
completed.
 Hide on Next Mouse click - The text will be erased when the mouse is clicked.
 Choose the style of displaying the text under the Introduce text section. The drop-down
menu provides options for displaying the characters for each bulleted item. Select "All at
once" for the text to appear immediately, "by Word" for the text to appear one word at a
time, or "by Letter" for a typewriter effect that displays one letter at a time.
 Click the Order & Timing tab to alter the order that the objects appear on the slide.
Highlight the object in the Animation order box and click the Move arrows to move the
object's position within the animation sequence. Under Start animation, choose "On
mouse click" to activate the animation by clicking the mouse or "Automatically" for the

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animation to execute after a set number of seconds.

 Click the Preview button at any time to preview the animation on the slide and click OK
when finished.

Animation Preview

Select Slide Show|Animation Preview from the menu bar to view the Animation Preview window.
Click anywhere within this window with the mouse to preview the animations that have been set. To
hide the window, click the x close button in the top, right corner.

Slide Transitions

Add transition effects when changing slides by following these steps:

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 Select Slide Show|Slide Transition from the menu bar.

 From the Effect section, choose a transition from the drop-down menu and notice the
preview after the transition is selected. Select a speed for the transition as well.
 Under Advance, check "On mouse click" for the slide transition to occur by clicking the
mouse or using keystrokes or check "Automatically after" and a number of seconds if the
transition should occur automatically.
 Select a Sound if necessary and check the Loop until next sound if it should keep
repeating until the next sound is played.
 Click Apply to All if the transition effects should be added to every slide or Apply if the
effects should be added only to the current slide.

Slide Show Options

Select Tools|Options and click the View tab to choose from several more slide show options.

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 Popup menu on right mouse click - Check this box if you want to be able to access the
shortcut menu during a presentation.
 Show popup menu button - Check this box to activate the menu button that appears in
the bottom, left corner of the screen during a presentation.

 End with black slide - Insert a blank, black slide to the end of the presentation.

Slide Master

Change the style of all slides in the presentation by changing the properties on the Slide Master. Each
Design Template has its own Slide Master that can be altered. If you create slides from scratch, a
consistent style can be added to the presentation by formatting the Slide Master.

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 Select View|Master|Slide Master from the menu bar.

 Format the master slide just as you would format a regular slide by formatting text,
formatting lists, adding background patterns and effects, and setting footers.
 Click the Close button on the Master toolbar to quit editing the master slide and return
to the presentation.

Headers and Footers

Add the date and time, slide numbers, and other footer text to the master slide from the Header and
Footer window.

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 Select View|Header and Footer... from the menu bar.

 Check the Date and time box to add this feature to the slide. Select Update
automatically to always display the current date and time or click Fixed and enter a date
that will not change in the text field provided.
 Check the Slide number box to add this feature to the slides.
 Click the Footer box and add other text to the footer area of the slide.
 Check the Don't show on title slide box to hide these features on the title slide of the
presentation.
 Click the Notes and Handouts tab to make the same changes to notes and handouts
pages.
 Click Apply to All to add the changes to every slide or Apply to add only to the current
slide.

Slide Numbers

To add the slide numbers in a fixed position on the slide, use the Header and Footer window detailed
above. The slide number can otherwise be added anywhere on the slide by placing the cursor where the
slide number should appear and selecting Insert|Slide Number from the menu bar. The text of the
slide number can the formatting just as regular text style is changed.

Date and Time

A date and/or time can also be added using the Header and Footer window or anywhere else on the
slide. Place the cursor where the date and time should appear on the slide and select Insert|Date and
Time from the menu bar. Select a format from the Available formats box and click Update
automatically if this feature should always be updated to reflect the current date and time. Click OK
to finish.

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Save as Web Page

Presentations can be saved by selecting File|Save from the menu bar. However, if you want to post
Power Point presentations on the Internet, you may want to save them as web pages so students and
other visitors to your web site can view the presentation even if they do not have Power Point installed
on their computers. Select File|Save As Web Page from the menu bar. Choose your web page
directory on the network from the Look in: drop-down menu and name the file in the File name: box.
Click Save to save the presentation in web format.

Page Setup

Select File|Page Setup from the menu bar to access options for printing the presentation slides. Select
the format the printed slides will be used for from the Slides sized for drop-down menu or enter a
specific print size using the Width and Height boxes. Select the page orientation for the slides and for
other print material from the presentation in the Orientation section.

Print

Select File|Print from the menu bar to print the presentation.

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Print range - Select All to print all the slides in the presentation, Current slide to print
only the current slide, or enter slide numbers in the Slides field to print only certain
slides.
Copies - Enter the number of copies of each slide specified in Print range and check the
Collate box if necessary.
Print What -

 Slides prints a full-page slide on each page.

 Handouts prints as many slides as you designate on each page.
 Notes Page prints one slide with that slide's notes on each page
 Outline view prints the outline of the presentation
Click OK to print.

Note: A plus sign indicates that the keys need to be pressed at the same time.

Action Keystroke Action Keystroke

Document actions Formatting

Open a presentation CTRL+O Select all CTRL+A
New presentation CTRL+N Copy CTRL+C
Save As F12 Cut CTRL+X
Save CTRL+S Paste CTRL+V
Print CTRL+P Undo CTRL+Z
Help F1 Redo CTRL+Y
Bold CTRL+B
Presentation actions Italics CTRL+I
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Begin slide show F5 Underline CTRL+U

ENTER or Left justified CTRL+L
Next slide
Down arrow key Center justified CTRL+E
BACKSPACE or Right justified CTRL+R
Previous slide
Up arrow key
ALT+SHIFT+Left
Activate pen tool CTRL+P Promote list item
arrow
Erase pen strokes E ALT+SHIFT+Right
Demote list item
Deactivate pen tool CTRL+A arrow or TAB
Show/Hide black screen B
Show/Hide white screen W Editing
Show/Hide pointer & button A Find CTRL+F
End slide show ESC Replace CTRL+H
Insert hyperlink CTRL+K
New slide CTRL+M
Spell checker F7
Macros ALT+F8

Run the slide show and press the F1 key to view all keyboard shortcuts applicable when running a slide
show.

Design Tips

• Use contrasting colors for the text and the background so the text will be easy to read.
• Use font size large enough to be seen from the back of the room where the presentation will be
held. A font size of 24-point or larger is recommended.
• Use short phrases and sentences to convey your message.
• Use simple slide transitions. Too many different transitions will distract your audience from the
subject of the presentation.
• Avoid cluttering the slides with too much text or graphics. Your audience should hear what you
have to say and not be distracted by a busy screen.
• Keep text simple and easy to read by not using many different text effects such as bold, italics,
underlining, larger font size for emphasis within a sentence, or a different font all on
the same slide.

Presentation Basics

• Begin the slide show by clicking the Slide Show button on the bottom of the screen.
• Move to the next slide by pressing the SPACE BAR, ENTER, PAGE DOWN, or right arrow
keys or by clicking the left mouse button.
• Go back to the previous slide by pressing BACKSPACE, PAGE UP, or the left arrow key.
• To end the slideshow before it is complete press ESC on the keyboard.
• A pen tool is available for drawing on the screen with the mouse. Press CTRL+P or click the
right mouse button at any time and a popup window will appear. Choose Pen and the pointer
will change to a pen that allows you to draw freehand on the screen using the mouse. Press the
E key to erase all pen strokes. Press CTRL+A to disable the pen feature and revert the pen
back to a pointer arrow.
• If you would like to use the pen to draw on a blank screen during a presentation, press the B or
W keys, or select Screen/Black Screen from the popup menu and the screen will turn black.
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Press B or W again or choose Next from the popup menu to return to the presentation when
you are finished drawing.
• To hide the pointer and button from the screen press the A key.
• Be sure to preview the slide show using a projector if one will be used during the presentation.
Words or graphics that are close to the edge of the screen may be cut off by the projector.

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Screen Layout

Menus

When you begin to explore Word 2000, you will notice a significant change in the menu structure if
you are familiar with previous versions of Word. The menus in Word 2000 display only the commands
you have recently used. To view all options in each menu, you must click the double arrows at the
bottom of the menu. The images below show the Format menu collapsed (left) and expanded (right)
after the double arrows at the bottom of the menu were clicked:

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Follow the steps below to display menus similar to previous versions of Word with all the choices
listed initially:

1. Select View|Toolbars|Customize from the menu bar.

2. Click on the Options tab.
3. Uncheck the Menus show recently used commands first check box.

Shortcut Menus

These features allow you to access various Word commands faster than using the options on the
menu bar. View shortcut menus by right-clicking with the mouse. The options on this menu will vary
depending on the element that was right-clicked. For example, the shortcut menu below is produced
by right-clicking on a bulleted list.

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Actions such as "Decrease Indent" and "Increase Indent" are only applicable to lists and therefore
only appear on the list shortcut menu. The shortcut menus are helpful because they only display the
options that can be applied to the item that was right-clicked and, therefore, prevent searching through
the many menu options.

Toolbars

Many toolbars displaying shortcut buttons are also available to make editing and formatting quicker
and easier. Select View|Toolbars from the menu bar to select the toolbars. The toolbars that are
already displayed on the screen are checked. Add a toolbar simply by clicking on the name.

Customizing Toolbars

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There may be certain actions on a toolbar that you do not use and there may also be commands that
you execute often but that are not located on any toolbar. Word toolbars can be customized so these
commands can be added and deleted.

1. Select View|Toolbars|Customize and click the Commands tab.

2. By highlighting the command categories in the Categories box, the choices will change in the
Commands box to the right.
3. Select the command you would like to add to the toolbar by selecting it in the Commands box.
4. Drag the command with the mouse to the desired location on the toolbar and release the
mouse button.
5. Remove a button from the toolbar by clicking and dragging the button off the toolbar.

Create a New Document

 Click the New Document button on the menu bar.

 Choose File|New from the menu bar.
 Press CTRL+N (depress the CTRL key while pressing "N") on the keyboard.

Open an Existing Document

 Click the Open File button on the menu bar.

 Choose File|Open from the menu bar.
 Press CTRL+O on the keyboard.

Working on Multiple Documents

Several documents can be opened simultaneously if you are typing or editing multiple documents at
once. All open documents are listed under the Window menu as shown below. The current
document has a checkmark beside the file name. Select another name to view another open
document or click the button on the Windows taskbar at the bottom of the screen.

Close a Document

Close the current document by selecting File|Close or click the Close icon if it's visible on the
Standard Toolbar.

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Typing and Inserting Text

To enter text, just start typing! The text will appear where the blinking cursor is located. Move the
cursor by using the arrow buttons on the keyboard or positioning the mouse and clicking the left
button. The keyboard shortcuts listed below are also helpful when moving through the text of a
document:

Move Action Keystroke

Beginning of the line HOME
End of the line END
Top of the document CTRL+HOME
End of the document CTRL+END

Selecting Text

To change any attributes of text it must be highlighted first. Select the text by dragging the mouse over
the desired text while keeping the left mouse button depressed, or hold down the SHIFT key on the
keyboard while using the arrow buttons to highlight the text. The following table contains shortcuts for
selecting a portion of the text:

Selection Technique
Whole word double-click within the word
Whole paragraph triple-click within the paragraph
Several words or lines drag the mouse over the words, or hold
down SHIFT while using the arrow keys
Entire document choose Edit|Select All from the menu
bar, or press CTRL+A

Deselect the text by clicking anywhere outside of the selection on the page or press an arrow key on
the keyboard.

Deleting Text

Use the BACKSPACE and DELETE keys on the keyboard to delete text. Backspace will delete text to
the left of the cursor and Delete will erase text to the right. To delete a large selection of text, highlight
it using any of the methods outlined above and press the DELETE key.

Formatting Text

The formatting toolbar is the easiest way to change many attributes of text. If the toolbar as shown
below isn't displayed on the screen, select View|Toolbars and choose Formatting.

 Style Menu - Styles are explained in detail later in this tutorial.

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 Font Face - Click the arrowhead to the right of the font name box to view the list of fonts
available. Scroll down to the font you want and select it by clicking on the name once with the
mouse. A serif font (one with "feet" circled in the illustration below) is recommended for
paragraphs of text that will be printed on paper as they are most readable. The following
graphic demonstrates the difference between serif (Times New Roman on the left) and sans-
serif ("no feet", Arial on the right) fonts.

 Font Size - Click on the white part of the font size box to enter a value for the font size or click
the arrowhead to the right of the box to view a list of font sizes available. Select a size by
clicking on it once. A font size of 10 or 12 is best for paragraphs of text.
 Font Style - Use these buttons to bold, italicize, and underline text.
 Alignment - Text can be aligned to the left, center, or right side of the page or it can be
justified across the page.
 Numbered and Bulleted Lists - Lists are explained in detail later in this tutorial.
 Increase/Decrease Indent - Change the indentation of a paragraph in relation to the side of
the page.
 Outside Border - Add a border around a text selection.
 Highlight Color - Use this option to change the color behind a text selection. The color shown
on the button is the last color used. To select a different color, click the arrowhead next to the
image on the button.
 Text Color - This option changes the color of the text. The color shown on the button is the
last color chosen. Click the arrowhead next to the button image to select another color.

The Font dialog box allows you to choose from a larger selection of formatting options. Select
Format|Font from the menu bar to access the box.

Format Painter

A handy feature for formatting text is the Format Painter located on the standard toolbar. For
example, if you have formatting a paragraph heading with a certain font face, size, and style and you

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want to format another heading the same way, you do not need to manually add each attribute to the
new headline. Instead, use the Format Painter by following these steps:

 Place the cursor within the text that contains the formatting you want to copy.
 Click the Format Painter button in the standard toolbar. Notice that your pointer now has a
paintbrush beside it.
 Highlight the text you want to add the same format to with the mouse and release the mouse
button.

To add the formatting to multiple selections of text, double-click the Format Painter button instead of
clicking once. The format painter then stays active until you press the ESC key to turn it off.

Bulleted and Numbered Lists

 Click the Bulleted List button or Numbered List button on the formatting toolbar.
 Type the first entry and press ENTER. This will create a new bullet or number on the next line.
If you want to start a new line without adding another bullet or number, hold down the SHIFT
key while pressing ENTER.
 Continue to typing entries and press ENTER twice when you are finished typing to end the list.

Use the Increase Indent and Decrease Indent buttons on the formatting toolbar to create lists
of multiple levels.

NOTE: You can also type the text first, highlight the section, and press the Bulleted List or
Numbered List buttons to add the bullets or numbers.

Nested Lists

To create a nested list, such as a numbered list inside of a bulleted list, follow these steps:

 Type the list and increase the indentation of the items that will make up the nested list by
clicking the Increase Indent button for each item.

 Highlight the items and click the Numbered List button on the formatting toolbar.

Formatting Lists

The bullet image and numbering format can be changed by using the Bullets and Numbering dialog
box.

 Highlight the entire list to change all the bullets or numbers, or

Place the cursor on one line within the list to change a single bullet.

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 Access the dialog box by selecting Format|Bullets and Numbering from the menu bar or by
right-clicking within the list and selecting Bullets and Numbering from the shortcut menu.

 Select the list style from one of the seven choices given, or click the Picture... button to
choose a different icon. Click the Numbered tab to choose a numbered list style.
 Click OK when finished.

Page formatting

Page Margins

The page margins of the document can be changed using the rulers on the page and the Page Setup
window. The ruler method is discussed first:

 Move the mouse over the area where the white ruler changes to gray.

 When the cursor becomes a double-ended arrow, click with the mouse and drag the margin
indicator to the desired location.
 Release the mouse when the margin is set.

The margins can also be changed using the Page Setup dialog box:

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 Select File|Page Setup and choose the Margins tab in the dialog box.

 Enter margin values in the Top, Bottom, Left, and Right boxes. The Preview window will
reflect the changes.
 If the document has Headers and/or Footers, the distance this text appears from the edge of
the page can be changed.
 Click OK when finished.

Page Size and Orientation

Change the orientation page within the Page Setup dialog box.

 Select File|Page Setup and choose the Paper Size tab.

 Select the proper paper size from the drop-down menu.

 Change the orientation from Portrait or Landscape by checking the corresponding radio
button.

Headers and Footers

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A header is text that is added to the top margin of every page such as a document title or page
number and a footer is text added to the bottom margin. Follow these steps to add or edit headers
and footers in the document:

 Select View|Header and Footer from the menu bar. The Header and Footer toolbar will
appear and the top of the page will be highlighted as shown below.

 Type the heading in the Header box. You may use many of the standard text formatting
options such as font face, size, bold, italics, etc.
 Click the Insert AutoText button to view a list of quick options available.
 Use the other options on the toolbar to add page numbers, the current date and time.
 To edit the footer, click the Switch Between Header and Footer button on the toolbar.
 When you are finished adding headers and footers, click the Close button on the toolbar.

Page Numbers

Follow these instructions for another way to add page numbers to a document.

 Select Insert|Page Numbers from the menu bar and the following dialog box will appear.

 Select the position of the page numbers by choosing "Top of page" or "Bottom of page" from
the Position drop-down menu.
 Select the alignment of the page numbers in the Alignment drop-down menu.
 If you do not want the page number to show on the first page (if it is a title page, for example),
uncheck the Show number of first page box.
 Click OK when finished.

Print Preview and Printing

Preview your document by clicking the Print Preview button on the standard toolbar or by selecting
File|Print Preview. When the document is ready to print, click the Print button from the Print Preview
screen or select File|Print.

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Tables are used to display data and there are several ways to build them in Word. Begin by placing
the cursor where you want the table to appear in the document and choose one of the following
methods.

Working with Tables

Insert a Table

There are two ways to add a table to the document using the Insert feature:

 Click the Insert Table button on the standard toolbar. Drag the mouse along the grid,
highlighting the number of rows and columns for the table.

 Or, select Table|Insert|Table from the menu bar. Select the number of rows and columns for
the table and click OK.

Draw the Table

A table can also be drawn onto the document:

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 Draw the table by selecting Table|Draw Table from the menu bar. The cursor is now the
image of a pencil and the Tables and Borders toolbar has appeared.

 Draw the cells of the table with the mouse. If you make a mistake, click the Eraser button
and drag the mouse over the area to be deleted.
 To draw more cells, click on the Draw Table button .

Inserting Rows and Columns

Once the table is drawn, insert additional rows by placing the cursor in the row you want to be
adjacent to. Select Table|Insert|Rows Above or Rows Below. Or, select an entire row and right-click
with the mouse. Choose Insert Rows from the shortcut menu.

Much like inserting a row, add a new column by placing the cursor in a cell adjacent to where the new
column will be added. Select Table|Insert|Columns to the Left or Columns to the Right. Or, select
the column, right-click with the mouse, and select Insert Columns.

Moving and Resizing a Table

A four-sided moving arrow and open box resizing handle will appear on the corners of the table if the
mouse is placed over the table. Click and drag the four-ended arrow to move the table and release the
mouse button when the table is positioned where you want it. Click and drag the open box handle to
resize the table. Change the column widths and row heights by clicking the cell dividers and dragging
them with the mouse.

Tables and Borders Toolbar

The Tables and Borders toolbar allows you to add border styles, shading, text effects, alignment, and
more options to your table. Access the toolbar by clicking Table|Draw Table or View|Toolbars|
Tables and Borders.

You will need to highlight the cells of the table you want to format. Click and drag the mouse over the
cells, or use the following shortcuts:

Selection Menu Method Mouse Method

One cell Table|Select|Cell Click the bottom, left corner of
the cell when a black arrow
appears
One row Table|Select|Row Click outside the table to the left
of the row
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One column Table|Select|Column Click outside the table above the

column when a black arrow
appears
Several rows (none) Click outside the table to the left
of the row and drag the mouse
down
Several (none) Click outside the table above the
columns column
Entire table Table|Select|Table Triple-click to the left of the table

Table Properties

Use the Table Properties dialog box to modify the alignment of the table with the body text and the
text within the table. Access the box by selecting Tables|Table Properties.

 Size - Check the Preferred width box and enter a value if the table should be an exact width.
 Alignment - Highlight the illustration that represents the alignment of the table in relation to
the text of the document.
 Text wrapping - Highlight "None" if the table should appear on a separate line from the text or
choose "Around" if the text should wrap around the table.

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 Borders and Shading - Select from a number of border styles, colors, and widths. Click the
Shading tab to change the background color and pattern.

 Options - Click the Options button on the Table Properties window. To change the spacing
between the document text and the table borders under Default cell margins. Check the
Allow spacing between cells box and enter a value to add space between the table cells.

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