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TABLE OF CONTENT
1.
Introduction
2.
3.
Cognitive radio
3.1
Spectrum Sensing
3.2
Spectrum Management
3.3
Spectrum Sharing
3.4
Spectrum Mobility
4.
Spectrum sensing
4.1
4.2
10
10
10
4.3
11
11
11
12
13
14
15
15
15
15
16
16
16
16
17
Page 1
17
18
18
18
18
5.
19
6.
21
7.
Conclusions
24
8.
References
25
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1.
INTRODUCTION
The need for higher data rates is increasing as a result of the transition from voice-only
communications to multimedia type applications. Given the limitations of the natural
frequency spectrum, it becomes obvious that the current static frequency allocation
schemes cannot accommodate the requirements of an increasing number of higher data
rate devices. As a result, innovative techniques that can offer new ways of exploiting
the available spectrum are needed.
Cognitive radio arises to be a tempting solution to the spectral congestion problem by
introducing opportunistic usage of the frequency bands that are not heavily occupied by
licensed users. While there is no agreement on the formal definition of cognitive radio
as of now, the concept has evolved recently to include various meanings in several
contexts.
The definition adopted by Federal Commission (FCC): Cognitive radio: A radio or
system that senses its operational electromagnetic environment and can dynamically
and autonomously adjust its radio operating parameters to modify system operation,
such as maximize throughput, mitigate interference, facilitate interoperability, access
secondary markets.. Hence, one main aspect of cognitive radio is related to
autonomously exploiting locally unused spectrum to provide new paths to spectrum
access.
One of the most important components of the cognitive radio concept is the ability to
measure, sense, learn, and be aware of the parameters related to the radio channel
characteristics, availability of spectrum and power, radios operating environment, user
requirements and applications, available networks (infrastructures) and nodes, local
policies and other operating restrictions. In cognitive radio terminology, primary users
can be defined as the users who have higher priority or legacy rights on the usage of a
specific part of the spectrum. On the other hand, secondary users, which have lower
priority, exploit this spectrum in such a way that they do not cause interference to
primary users. Therefore, secondary users need to have cognitive radio capabilities,
such as sensing the spectrum reliably to check whether it is being used by a primary
user and to change the radio parameters to exploit the unused part of the spectrum.
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Spectrum sensing by far is the most important component for the establishment of
cognitive radio. Spectrum sensing is the task of obtaining awareness about the spectrum
usage and existence of primary users in a geographical area. This awareness can be
obtained by using geolocation and database, by using beacons, or by local spectrum
sensing at cognitive radios. When beacons are used, the transmitted information can be
occupancy of a spectrum as well as other advanced features such as channel quality. In
this paper, we focus on spectrum sensing performed by cognitive radios because of its
broader application areas and lower infrastructure requirement. Other sensing methods
are referred when needed as well.
Although spectrum sensing is traditionally understood as measuring the spectral
content, or measuring the radio frequency energy over the spectrum; when cognitive
radio is considered, it is a more general term that involves obtaining the spectrum usage
characteristics across multiple dimensions such as time, space, frequency, and code. It
also involves determining what types of signals are occupying the spectrum including
the modulation, waveform, bandwidth, carrier frequency, etc. However, this requires
more powerful signal analysis techniques with additional computational complexity.
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2.
The definition of opportunity determines the ways of measuring and exploiting the
spectrum space. The conventional definition of the spectrum opportunity, which is often
defined as a band of frequencies that are not being used by the primary user of that
band at a particular time in a particular geographic area, only exploits three dimensions
of the spectrum space: frequency, time, and space. Conventional sensing methods
usually relate to sensing the spectrum in these three dimensions. However, there are
other dimensions that need to be explored further for spectrum opportunity. For
example, the code dimension of the spectrum space has not been explored well in the
literature. Therefore, the conventional spectrum sensing algorithms do not know how to
deal with signals that use spread spectrum, time or frequency hopping codes. As a
result, these types of signals constitute a major problem in sensing the spectrum.
If the code dimension is interpreted as part of the spectrum space, this problem can be
avoided and new opportunities for spectrum usage can be created. Naturally, this brings
about new challenges for detection and estimation of this new opportunity. Similarly,
the angle dimension has not been exploited well enough for spectrum opportunity. It is
assumed that the primary users and/or the secondary users transmit in all the directions.
However, with the recent advances in multi-antenna technologies, multiple users can be
multiplexed into the same channel at the same time in the same geographical area. In
other words, an additional dimension of spectral space can be created as opportunity.
This new dimension also creates new opportunities for spectral estimation where not
only the frequency spectrum but also the angle of arrivals needs to be estimated. Please
note that angle dimension is different than geographical space dimension. In angle
dimension, a primary and a secondary user can be in the same geographical area and
share the same channel. However, geographical space dimension refers to physical
separation of radios in distance.
With these new dimensions, sensing only the frequency spectrum usage falls short. The
radio space with the introduced dimensions can be defined as a theoretical hyperspace
occupied by radio signals, which has dimensions of location, angle of arrival,
frequency, time, and possibly others. This hyperspace is called electro space,
transmission hyperspace, radio spectrum space, or simply spectrum space by various
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authors, and it can be used to describe how the radio environment can be shared among
multiple systems.
Spectrum sensing should include the process of identifying occupancy in all
dimensions of the spectrum space and finding spectrum holes, or more precisely
spectrum space holes. For example a certain frequency can be occupied for a given
time, but it might be empty in another time. Hence, temporal dimension is as important
as frequency dimension. The idle periods between burst transmissions of wireless local
area network (WLAN) signals are, for example, exploited for opportunistic usage. As a
result of this requirement, advanced spectrum sensing algorithms that offer awareness
in multiple dimensions of the spectrum space should be developed.
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3.
COGNITIVE RADIOS
The radio spectrum is a natural resource, getting crowded gradually due to increase in
wireless devices and application. Conventional methods of spectrum allocation results
in improper usage of radio band i.e. some of the radio band are congested while other
are temperately or hardly engaged. Statistically, most of the registered radio band is
poorly used. As most of the radio spectrum is already assigned, it is impossible to
exploit the limitedness of spectrum. Cognitive radio has been anticipated as a potential
wireless communication example to increase radio spectrum consumption efficiency. In
cognitive radio transceiver can wisely spot which communication channels are already
occupied and which are not, and instantly move into unoccupied channels while
avoiding occupied ones. Cognitive radio can alteration its transmitter parameter based
on communication with the environment in which it operates.
The critical objective of a cognitive radio are to provide highly dependable
communication for all users of the network anywhere in the world. To facilitate
efficient consumption of spectrum in a reasonable and economical manner.
There are four main functional blocks of cognitive radio:
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
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4.
SPECTRUM SENSING
The main difficulty in cognitive radio is that the secondary users need to discover the
presence of primary users in a registered spectrum and leave the frequency band as soon
as possible if the corresponding primary radio emerges in order to avoid meddling to
primary users. This technique is called spectrum sensing. Spectrum sensing is
considered as the most crucial task.
Figure 1: - The tradeoff between spectrum sensing time and user throughput
Under severe fading, a single cognitive radio depend on local sensing may be unable
to achieve this increased sensitivity since the required sensing time may exceed the
sensing period. This issue may be handled by having a cooperative sensing, which
share their local measurements and collectively decide on the occupancy state of a
licensed band.
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( + )
Where N is the noise power, is transmitted power of the primary user, D is the
interference range of the secondary user, and R is maximum distance between primary
transmitter and its corresponding receiver.
A cognitive radio may not satisfy the sensitivity requirement due to an underestimate of
N, should be calculated with the worst case noise assumption, thereby necessitating
a more sensitive detector
An unlicensed user may not know exactly the location of the licensed receiver
which is required to compute interference caused due to its transmission.
II.
If a licensed receiver is a passive device, the transmitter may not be aware of the
receiver.
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b.
b.
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Energy Detection
It is a non-coherent detection method that detects the primary signal based on the
sensed energy. Due to its simplicity and no requirement on a priori knowledge of
primary user signal, energy detection is the most common sensing technique in
cooperative sensing.
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The ED is said to be the Blind signal detector because it ignores the structure of the
signal. It estimates the presence of the signal by comparing the energy received with a
known threshold derived from the statistics of the noise. Analytically, signal detection
can be reduced to a simple identification problem, formalized as a hypothesis test,
Y (k) =n (k)....
Y (k) =h*s (k) +n (k)..
Where y (k) is the sample to be analyzed at each instant k and n (k) is the noise of
variance 2 .
Let y (k) be a sequence of received samples k {1, 2.N} at the signal detector, then a
decision rule can be stated as,
If>v
If<v
Where = E|()| 2 the estimated energy of the received signal and v is chosen to be the
noise variance 2 .
Disadvantages:
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correlation in which the unknown signal is convolved with the filter whose impulse
response is the mirror and time shifted version of a reference signal. The operation of
matched filter detection is expressed as:
Y[n]=
= [ ][]
Where x is the unknown signal (vector) and is convolved with the h, the impulse
response of matched filter that is matched to the reference signal for maximizing the
SNR. Detection by using matched filter is useful only in cases where the information
from the primary users is known to the cognitive users.
Advantages:
Matched filter detection needs less detection time because it requires only
O(1/SNR) samples to meet a given probability of detection constraint.
When the information of the primary user signal is known to the cognitive radio
user, matched filter detection is optimal detection in stationary Gaussian noise.
Disadvantages:
Matched filter detection requires a prior knowledge of every primary signal. If the
information is not accurate, MF performs poorly.
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distinguishing the CR transmissions from various types of Primary User signals. This
eliminates the synchronization requirement of energy detection in cooperative sensing.
Moreover, CR users may not be required to keep silent during cooperative sensing and
thus improving the overall CR throughput. This method has its own shortcomings
owing to its high computational complexity and long sensing time.
Comparison of Non Cooperative sensing:The matched filter based detection is complex to implement in CRs, but has highest
accuracy. Similarly, the energy based detection is least complex to implement in CR
system and least accurate compared to other approaches. And other approaches are in
the middle of these two.
4.3.2Cooperative Techniques
High sensitivity requirements on the cognitive user can be alleviated if multiple CR
users cooperate in sensing the channel. Various topologies are currently used and are
broadly classifiable into three regimes according to their level of cooperation.
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4.3.2.1
The cognitive users in the network dont have any kind of cooperation which means
that each CR user will independently detect the channel, and if a CR user detects the
primary user it would vacate the channel without informing the other users.
Uncoordinated techniques are fallible in comparison with coordinated techniques.
Therefore, CR users that experience bad channel realizations detect the channel
incorrectly thereby causing interference at the primary receiver.
4.3.2.2
4.3.2.3
4.3.2.4
Advantages of Cooperation
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4.3.2.5
Disadvantages of Cooperation
Large sensory data: since the cognitive radio can potentially use any spectrum
hole, it will have to scan a wide range of spectrum, resulting in large amounts of
data, being inefficient in terms of data throughput, delay sensitivity requirements
and energy consumption.
4.3.3.1
In general, primary receiver emits the local oscillator (LO) leakage power from its RF
front end while receiving the data from primary transmitter. It has been suggested as a
method to detect primary user by mounting a low cost sensor node close to a primary
user's receiver in order to detect the local oscillator (LO) leakage power emitted by the
RF front end of the primary user's receiver which are within the communication range
of CR system users. The local sensor then reports the sensed information to the CR
users so that they can identify the spectrum occupancy status. We note that this method
can also be used to identify the spectrum opportunities to operateCR users in spectrum
overlay.
4.3.3.2
Unlike the primary receiver detection, the basic idea behind the interference
temperature management is to set up an upper interference limit for given frequency
band in specific geographic location such that the CR users are not allowed to cause
harmful interference while using the specific band in specific area. Typically, CR user
transmitters control their interference by regulating their transmission power (their out
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of band emissions) based on their locations with respect to primary users. This method
basically concentrates on measuring interference at the receiver.
The operating principle of this method is like an UWB technology where the CR users
are allowed to coexist and transmit simultaneously with primary users using low
transmit power that is restricted by the interference temperature level so as not to cause
harmful interference to primary users.
Multi Taper spectrum estimation (MTSE) has proposed by Thomson (1982) before the
CR concept was introduced. In this method, the last N received samples are collected in
a vector form and are represented as a set of slepian base vectors. The main idea of this
method is that the Fourier transforms of Slepian vectors have the maximal energy
concentration in the bandwidth fc-W to fc +W under finite sample size constraints. By
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exploiting this feature, CR user can easily identify the spectrum opportunities in given
band. As MTSE uses multiple prototype filters and is better for small sample spaces
since the computational complexity increases with large number of samples.
4.3.4.2
Filter bank based spectrum estimation (FBSE) is regarded as the simplified version of
MTSE which uses only one prototype filter for each band and has been proposed for
multi-carrier modulation based CR systems by using a pair of matched root Nyquist
filter. FBSE uses the same concept of maximal energy concentration in the bandwidth
fc -W to fc +W. By exploiting this information, CR user identifies the spectrum
occupancy and hence the spectrum opportunities. MTSE is better for small samples
whereas FBSE is better for large number of samples.
4.3.4.3
It is widely used technique in image processing for edge detection applications. It has
been proposed this approach in spectrum sensing where wavelets are used for detecting
edges in the power spectral density (PSD) of a wideband channel. The edges in power
spectral density are the boundary between spectrum holes and occupied bands and
hence it helps to find vacant bands. Based on this information CR can identify the
spectrum opportunities.
4.3.4.4
It is also widely used for pattern (such as lines, circles) detection in image processing
applications. It has been proposed to perform Random Hough transform of received
signal r (n) to identify the presence of radar pulses in the operating channels of IEEE
802.11 wireless systems.
4.3.4.5
These techniques are used in the context of European Transparent Ubiquitous Terminal
(TRUST) project which is based on several extracted features such as transmission
frequency, transmission range, modulation technique etc. Once the features are
extracted from the received signal, CR users exploit those features and can select
suitable transmission parameters for them.
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5.
A basic comparison of the sensing methods given in this section is presented in Fig.
below. Waveform-based sensing is more robust than energy detector and
cyclostationarity based methods because of the coherent processing that comes from
using deterministic signal component. However, there should be a priori information
about the primary users characteristics and primary users should transmit known
patterns or pilots.
The performance of energy detector based sensing is limited when two common
assumptions do not hold. The noise may not be stationary and its variance may not be
known. Other problems with the energy detector include baseband filter effects and
spurious tones. It is stated in literature that cyclostationary-based methods perform
worse than energy detector based sensing methods when the noise is stationary.
However, in the presence of co-channel or adjacent channel interferers, noise becomes
non-stationary. Hence, energy detector based schemes fail while cyclostationarity based
algorithms are not affected. On the other hand, cyclostationary features may be
completely lost due to channel fading. It is shown that model uncertainties cause an
SNR wall for cyclostationary based feature detectors similar to energy detectors.
Furthermore, cyclostationarity based sensing is known to be vulnerable to sampling
clock offsets.
While selecting a sensing method, some tradeoffs should be considered. The
characteristics of primary users are the main factor in selecting a method.
Cyclostationary features contained in the waveform, existence of regularly transmitted
pilots, and timing/frequency characteristics are all important. Other factors include
required accuracy, sensing duration requirements, computational complexity, and
network requirements.
Estimation of traffic in a specific geographic area can be done locally (by one cognitive
radio only) using one of the algorithms given in this section. However, information
from different cognitive radios can be combined to obtain a more accurate spectrum
awareness.
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6.
Recently developed wireless standards have started to include cognitive features. Even
though it is difficult to expect a wireless standard that is based on wideband spectrum
sensing and opportunistic exploitation of the spectrum, the trend is in this direction. In
this section, wireless technologies that require some sort of spectrum sensing for
adaptation or for dynamic frequency access (DFA) are discussed. However, the
spectrum knowledge can be used to initiate advanced receiver algorithms as well as
adaptive interference cancellation.
1.
IEEE 802.11k
Bluetooth
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avoids their frequencies. Hence, narrow-band interference can be avoided and better bit
error rate (BER) performance can be achieved as well as reducing the transmit power.
AFH requires a sensing algorithm for determining whether there are other devices
present in the ISM band and whether or not to avoid them. The sensing algorithm is
based on statistics gathered to determine which channels are occupied and which
channels are empty. Channel statistics can be packet-error rate, BER, received signal
strength indicator (RSSI), carrier to- interference-plus-noise ratio (CINR) or other
metrics. The statistics are used to classify channels as good, bad, or unknown.
3.
IEEE 802.22
IEEE 802.22 standard is known as cognitive radio standard because of the cognitive
features it contains. The standard is still in the development stage. One of the most
distinctive features of the IEEE 802.22 standard is its spectrum sensing requirement.
IEEE 802.22 based wireless regional area network (WRAN) devices sense TV channels
and identify transmission opportunities. The functional requirements of the standard
require at least 90% probability of detection and almost 10% probability of false alarm
for TV signals with -116 dBm power level or above. The sensing is envisioned to be
based on two stages: fast and fine sensing. In the fast sensing stage, a coarse sensing
algorithm is employed, e.g. energy detector. The fine sensing stage is initiated based on
the fast sensing results. Fine sensing involves a more detailed sensing where more
powerful methods are used. Several techniques that have been proposed and included in
the draft standard include energy detection, waveform-based sensing, cyclostationary
feature detection, and matched filtering. A base station can distribute the sensing load
among subscriber stations.
The results are returned to the BS which uses these results for managing the
transmissions. Hence, it is a practical example of centralized collaborative sensing
explained in Section V-Another approach for managing the spectrum in IEEE 802.22
devices is based on a centralized method for available spectrum discovery. The BSs
would be equipped with a global positioning system receiver which would allow its
position to be reported. The location information would then be used to obtain the
information about available TV channels through a central server. For low-power
devices operating in the TV bands, e.g. wireless microphone and wireless camera,
external sensing is proposed as an alternative technique. These devices periodically
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transmit beacons with a higher power level. These beacons are monitored by IEEE
802.22 devices to detect the presence of such low-power devices which are otherwise
difficult to detect due to the low-power transmission.
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7.
CONCLUSION
sensing,
interference
management,
cognitive
radio
reconfiguration
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8.
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