History~ Semester One

Focus Point One:

Technological Changes:
Everyday life in Australia, as well as national identity and opinion towards
everyday life and womens roles were dramatically altered by changing
technology.
Focus Point Two:
Technology in the 50s:
After the end of the war, in which the role of women changed drastically,
they found it hard to return to pre-war life. This decade meant the sudden
raise of new technology obsolete a lot of time consuming activities,
allowing people to have more time for leisure and family. Increased
spending lead to inflation and a growing economy. After the war, there
was a massive rush to build due to baby boomers and soldiers returning.
The invention of fibro let people build houses easily and quickly. There was
a rise in car registration as there was a greater need for transport due to
urban sprawl. There were also more car manufacturers, petrol stations and
so on. Jo opportunities opened in the mechanical fields and goods
transport methods began to change. The price of oil began to rise and
Australians started to take more holidays. Radio in the 50s was still very
much the main form of entertainment for a family. TV was mainly for the
wealthy though cinemas were frequented less as radio began to have
specialized stations for sport, music and comedy. More STD calls meant
the price of calls went down. It became easier to call long distance. The
flying doctor service began and weather warnings on the radio and home
schooling became more common in rural areas. A greater use of fridges in
households meant more perishable foods could be stored. This allowed a
better diet as people ate more meat and vegetables leading to improved
health. People also went shopping less often as supermarkets grew.
Focus Point Three:
Technology in the 60s:
The 1960s is a decade that is primarily known for a change in Australian
attitudes and the rise of Flower Power. However another important
development in this decade was the creation of the Contraceptive Pill
which meant that the Baby Boom came to an end. It also enabled women
to control their lives and jobs. Housing styles changed and new
technology altered communications and travel options dramatically. There
was also a wider scope for entertainment as almost every house in
Australia had a TV and new types of radios and records made music a
larger part of life. Australia was eager to try out these new options and
leisure activities changed. They also attempted to develop their transport
system by using more trains and cars. Trams were used less as trains

allowed a better link across Australia. The dramatic technological

improvements made housework easier than a walk in the park, giving
women more free time. Better ovens, irons and washing machines
changed the role of the house wife forever. Improvements in
communications technology allowed a greater transmission of global ideas
into Australia. The Internet and fax was established allowing international
communications for large organizations. There was also an increase in
simultaneous phoning. New building materials were also developed
allowing Australia to begin the construction of a high rise skyline. The new
technologies also let the nation create bigger homes more effectively with
better sewage etc. The larger number of cars meant more garages were
built.
Focus Point Four:
Technology in the 70s:
The 70s involved opposition to the Vietnam War, the beginning of the
hippie culture and economic and political liberty. Technologically, however,
improvements such as colour TV, air travel and microwave ovens affected
Australia socially and economically by affecting how people spend their
time, holidays and money. Housing in the 70s relied heavily on the new
technology. There was more experimentation in glass, steel and geometric
designs. These new architectural ideas change Australians outlook on
houses. Microwave ovens and washing machines were widely used and
appreciated in Australia. In the 1970s the difficulty of housework was
further reduced. The 70s could also be regarded as a golden age in
entertainment as the first FM radio station opened as well along with the
birth of colour TV. Videos as well as cassette players were widely popular
and changed teenage culture enormously. Communications also changed
in the 70s with the birth of the modern computer. It was only used in
banks, universities and large institutions yet other leaps in communication
were also taking place. Almost 75% of houses had their own phone and
people could transmit ideas easily on the television. This affected
advertising, the popularity of radio broadcasting and politics. Vast
improvements in transport in the 70s meant air travel was fast and
powerful. Railways were vital as road congestion and petrol prices were
rising. Road and bridge construction was simplified by the new materials
and technology.
Focus Point Five:
Technology in the 80s:
While the 80s were home to a worldwide economic crisis, technologically,
the decade focused on improving and revitalizing older technologies such
as recording equipment, rail travel and gaming. While mobiles and the
internet began to emerge, they were still only available to the wealthy and
larger organizations. Entertainment in the 80s was aided extremely by
better technological products and methods such as advanced recording
equipment, gaming advances and VCR improvements. Leisure activities

changed especially for adolescents. The 80s also saw a revitalization of

Australian cities as many moved to older areas previously considered
slums. Growing technology and a rising skyline coincided with urban
sprawl. Communication during this decade was quite simple. Answering
machines were becoming popular and home phones were very common.
Mobiles were available to the very wealthy and almost all Australians had
access to basic technology. By the 80s a wide range of home appliances
was deemed necessary for daily life. Microwaves were widely spread in
the 80s, which made it possible to defrost food causing a rise in the
popularity of frozen meals. Food processors and blenders also sped up the
cooking process. Trains were very important in the 80s as road congestion
was increasing and environmental impacts of cars were realized. Faster
and cheaper interstate and overseas travel allowed Australians to go on
more holidays and cars were considered a vital part of everyday life. More
safety measures considering transport were introduced.
Focus Point Six:
Technology in the 90s:
The rehabilitation of the economy and productivity during this decade led
to technological improvements in Australia and the widespread adoption
of the internet, movies and other such software. The cost of personal
computers decreased altering business, recording processes as well as
teaching methods and entertainment. Home appliances in the 90s were
becoming more energy sufficient and cheap causing less time to be spent
on cooking and house work. Technology such as pay TV also granted
people a wider range of leisure options such as music, movies and news.
Cinemas became more popular due to VCRs. The opinion towards
transport changed in this decade due to concerns about pollution so more
energy efficient cars began to be developed and more money was
invested in railways. Housing had less land to work with as houses
became bigger. Though materials were still much the same, machines
made building easier and less time consuming. Almost 50% of the
population had a mobile phone, creating concerns of technological
isolation and a digital divide.
Focus Point Seven:
Technology in a New Century:
The 2000s were home to the biggest technological changes, especially in
the cases of communication and entertainment. New inventions such as
Wii, playstation, personal assistants and GPAs as well the prevalence of
texting were increasingly common. Communication was rapidly improved
by satellite technology and so on. Entertainment in the 21 st century was
very important, especially to adolescents. New technologies such as the
playstation, HD television and so on altered the teenage population.
Communications in the 20th century were extremely easy. Mobiles were
very common, as well as programs such as Skype, email and computers
meaning globalization increasing in Australia. Transport was fast,

convenient and cheap; however there were many concerns about

pollution due to cars as well as road congestion. Petrol Prices rose
dramatically causing greater use of public transport. Home appliances
were taken for granted in the 21st century. Almost everything was
available from dishwashers to ice cream makers. All appliances not only
gave life to the women but saved time. Housing at the beginning of the
new century was improved and there were sprawling country estates
along with high rise apartment complexes. This was a result of both Urban
Sprawl and Consolidation. Housing materials didnt change dramatically.
Focus Point Eight:
Changing Rights and Freedoms of Aboriginals:
History: Aboriginal Rights & Freedoms
1938 Day of Mourning
- Date of 150th anniversary of First Fleet landing
- Over 100 Aboriginal men & women gathered to mourn their loss of land & identity due
to white invasion
- It was a substantial achievement, due to restrictions on Aboriginals at the time
- A list of demands were sent to PM Joseph Lyons, including equality in all ways with
white people and return of their stolen lands
1965 Freedom Rides (Charles Perkins)
- Based on American example, where the civil rights movement was under way
- A group of university students, led by Charles Perkins, travelled around country NSW
protesting to highlight hardships & abuse endured by Aboriginal people
- Raised national awareness about treatment of Aboriginal people (some people were
blissfully oblivious to what went on)
1967 Referendum
- 91% of Australians voted yes for Aboriginals (most successful referendum ever)
- What it achieved: Aboriginal people were included in Census & were controlled by
federal government
- Previously, Aboriginal people had been under 6 different laws for each state
1963-1997 The Struggle For Land Rights
Native title: Recognition in law that Aboriginal Australians had ownership of the land.
This was not recognised until 1993.
Terra nullius: Land belonging to no one. White people classified Australia as such,
ignoring the indigenous people, for over 200 years.
a) Yirrkala Bark Petition
- The Yolungu people of Yirrkala took a petition to the NT Supreme Court in 1963 about
Land Rights
- They lost the case in 1971, but sparked a nation-wide debate about the issue
b) Gurindji People & Wave Hill Protest
- Led by stockman Vincent Lingiari
- 200 Aboriginal workers walked off Wave Hill Station & demanded their land
- Gained significant national attention & support
- In 1975, PM Gough Whitlam symbolically gave the land back to its original inhabitants
c) Tent Embassy
- Erected in 1972 to protest about Aboriginal land rights & treatment
- It was a tent set up on the lawn of Old Parliament House
- Has been used as a protest point several times from 1972 until the present day
d) Woodward Royal Commission

- An inquiry into appropriate ways to recognise Aboriginal Land Rights

- Led by Justice Woodward, who made several recommendations, including:
-return of reserve land & claims over traditional land
-sacred sites protected
-Aboriginal land councils
-Aboriginals able to control tourism/mining entries
-royalties paid to traditional owners of the land by these companies
e) Mabo Decision 1992
- Eddie Mabo took a lands rights case to Qld Court in 1982 for the Meriam people
- Then went to High Court of Australia.
- It challenged the concept of terra nullius.
- In 1992, the High Court decided that the Meriam people could return to their traditional
lands.
f) Native Title Act 1993
- Occurred in response to Mabo Decision
- To be able to claim land, Aboriginal people had to prove continuous connection to the
land.
- A huge step forward in the land rights campaign.
g) Wik decision 1996
- The Wik people claimed land rights on land that had been leased
- Case went to the High Court & proved that when the land was leased in 1848, the Wik
people were still allowed to walk & hunt on it. Hence they were allowed their claim
- Miners & pastoralists were annoyed as they now had to negotiate with the traditional
custodians
h) Amendments to Native Title Act 1997
- In response to the miners & pastoralists unrest following the Wik Decision, the Howard
Government amended the Native Title Act
- These amendments didnt allow negotiations when land had been leased.
- It was a step backwards for the land rights movement.

Focus Point Nine:

Changing Government Policies:
Government Policy: Protection
Definition: Aboriginal Australians needed to be separated from white Australians and
protected for their own good.
Time Period: 1800s 1930s
Aims of the policy: To separate Aboriginals from white people, and to put them in
missions or reserves to be protected.
Ideas guiding the policy: Aboriginal people were a dying race, expected to die out soon
as they had not evolved as much as white people and were inferior.
Legislation introduced under the policy: (i havent got anything here)
Why was it introduced? ie: What factors made the government change the policy from
the previous one?: This was the first of the four major policies towards Aboriginals;
before the policy of protection they were not regarded at all by white people. The
government partly brought in the policy as they didnt know what to do with the
indigenous peoples and they were generally getting in the way of European settlement
and development. The belief in Social Darwinism and that Aboriginals really were inferior
as they had not evolved the way Europeans had and were less civilised was also very
popular at the time, and this affected the governments policy.

What happened to the Aboriginal people under the policy?: Aboriginal people were
moved into missions or reserves, run either by the government or by churches. Many
were removed from traditional lands and separated from their families and communities.
This separated from the two fundamental parts of Aboriginal culture: a close tie to the
land and importance of kinship and closeness to families. Protectionism was a policy of
segregation, so the discrimination against Aboriginal people only heightened. Those who
werent deported to missions ended up living in small isolated communities where they
had no right to vote, receive a wage, a pension or any other privilege white people had.
In this era what is now known as the Stolen Generations, ie the removal of half-blood
Aboriginal children from their tribal areas, was also common. In many instances the
government thought they were doing the right thing by the children, and some halfblood children were seen as out of place in their indigenous groups.
What was the impact of the policy? The policy of protectionism impacted general society
as well as Aboriginal people: normal white people discriminated against indigenous
groups more than they had previously. They were also able to take advantage of these
people in many ways, including underpaying them and sexual abuse. These Aboriginals
were hard-working, dirt cheap to hire and knew how to look after the land and many lazy
land-owners took advantage of this.
Government Policy: Assimilation
Definition: The policy of trying to make people change their culture or way of life so
they will fit in and become part of a different culture or way of life.
Time Period: 1930s 1960s (however, due to WWII, didnt really begin until 1950s)
Aims of the policy: The main aim was to integrate indigenous Australians into white
culture, without letting them maintain any of their own culture as white way of life was
superior.
Ideas guiding the policy: Aboriginal Australians were not dying out as predicted, so the
government had to do something about them. They decided that, as white way of life
was superior, Aboriginal Australians should be integrated into white society with no
opportunity to continue their own indigenous culture.
Legislation introduced under the policy A ban was placed on speaking an indigenous
language. Missions were disbanded, as Aboriginal people were now integrating.
Why was it introduced? ie: What factors made the government change the policy from
the previous one?: The government had become aware that Aboriginals were not dying
out, as they had expected. In fact, the number of mixed blood people was greatly
increasing, and the government had nothing to do with them. The idea of letting them
retain their culture was absurd; they were convinced that white culture was superior.
Hence the idea of absorbing Aboriginal people into mainstream white culture came
about: in this way, the indigenous population would no longer be the responsibility of the
government, but they wouldnt be able to adopt their own cultures again.
What happened to the Aboriginal people under the policy?: Aboriginal people were
seriously discriminated against under this policy: most white Australians didnt accept
them into society, so even though they tried to get jobs and be accepted, no-one would
have them. Despite working hard, Aboriginal people were forced to live in fringe cities
with poor and few facilities. Many pubs and other entertainment venues wouldnt allow
Aboriginal people to be in t them. Children continued to be stolen from parents, and
speaking a native tongue was a highly punishable offence.
What was the impact of the policy?: This policy impacted general society as well as the

indigenous people, who were of course impacted severely by these changes. However for
white people, this policy caused a sudden influx of Aboriginal people in cities trying to
get jobs. Most people scorned them and made life very difficult for them. They wouldnt
give an Aborigine a job or make them feel welcome in their area. Physical and sexual
abuse were common, on top of discrimination. Alcohol was consumed in large amounts
by Aboriginal people, due to the stress and difficulty of their lives, which caused severe
problems as their bodies cant handle this very well.
Government Policy: Integration
Definition: The policy of bringing Aboriginal people into white society, allowing them
scope to maintain their own traditions.
Time Period: 1960s 1972
Aims of the policy: This policy, similarly to assimilation, attempted to integrate Aboriginal
people into white society. However, the aim of Integration was to allow indigenous people
to maintain their original cultures.
Ideas guiding the policy: Aboriginal peoples culture began to be respected and viewed
as a different culture to white culture, rather than being squashed.
Legislation introduced under the policy: The vote was given to Aborigines in 1962.The
1967 referendum allowed them to be included in the Census.
Why was it introduced? ie: What factors made the government change the policy from
the previous one?: Following continual protests about Aboriginal rights (starting with the
Day of Mourning in 1938, but also with other demonstrations such as the Freedom Rides
of 1965), the government began to view them as people, not just a nuisance. The rights
and culture of Aboriginal people began to be respected and taken seriously, however
they were still governed by a white government section, not themselves.
What happened to the Aboriginal people under the policy?: Indigenous Australians were
now allowed to attend secondary school and continue into tertiary education. They were
gradually being accepted into workplaces, however some places still didnt accept them.
Their life expectancies were considerably lower than white Australians, and they were
surrounded by health problems in general. In general, though there were some
improvements to their lives, Aboriginal people were still living in a considerably
disadvantaged society compared to European-descent citizens. (This gap between
Aboriginal people and the rest of Australian society still continues in the present day.)
What was the impact of the policy?: Integration had a large impact on Aboriginal people,
as they were gradually being accepted, for the first time in almost 200 years, as part of
society. They were also allowed to maintain their Dreamtime culture and return to their
original land. The impact on the rest of Australia was not so great this time: the process
of Aboriginal people become accepted into modern life was very gradual and occurred
from before this policy, throughout it and still had a long way to go when the next policy
was instated.
Government Policy: Self-Determination
Definition: The right of Aboriginal people to determine what is best for them and to
control their own lives.
Time Period: 1972 present day
Aims of the policy: Aboriginal people should be able to decide where they belong in

Australia, rather than being governed by a white government body.

Ideas guiding the policy: Aboriginal peoples were equal to other Australians, with the
same rights as the rest of society. They were also allowed to make their own decisions
for themselves.
Legislation introduced under the policy: The Department of Aboriginal Affairs was set up.
Racial Discrimination Act. Aboriginal Land Rights Act. Anti-Discrimination Act. Mabo
Decision. Native Title Act. Bringing Them Home report published.
Why was it introduced? ie: What factors made the government change the policy from
the previous one?: The 1960s and 1970s were decades of severe political change
globally, and Australia emulated many other countries with civil rights movements. The
Whitlam Government believed that Aboriginal people truly were equal to any other
people (it was under this government that the White Australia Policy was fully abolished)
and that therefore they deserved to decide their own place in society. The policy of
integration, though it attempted to equalise them with other people, didnt allow
indigenous peoples to make any decisions for themselves.
What happened to the Aboriginal people under the policy?: An attempt was made by
most Australians to accept indigenous peoples fully into society. A number of Aboriginal
people ended up in well-paid jobs and were able to have a decent education, however
many other Aboriginal people continued to live in far more poverty than other Australians
and have a higher infant mortality rate as well as a lower life expectancy only 24% of
Aboriginal males and 35% of Aboriginal females live past 65, compared to 87% of other
Australians.
What was the impact of the policy?: This policy has had a large impact on the country of
Australia: for the first time, Aboriginal people were really seen as equal to white
Australians. The country began to be aware of the incredibly poor conditions of the
indigenous populations and various organisations, as well as the government, attempted
to close the gap between Aboriginal conditions and other Australians, however there is
still a severe issue. The first Sorry Day took place in 1998, showing how concerned the
general population were with Aboriginal welfare. In 2008, PM Kevin Rudd officially
apologised to the Stolen Generations.
Protection:
Legislation introduced under the policy: As this policy was predominantly in place before
federation, most of the legislation introduced was different for the states. Even once we
became one nation, it took a while until Aboriginal laws were passed nationally.
NSW: 1881 Protector appointed, 1909 Aborigines Protection Act
Vic: 1869 Aborigines Protection Act, 1886 Aborigines Protection Act
SA: 1836 Protector appointed, 1856 Protector abolished, 1893 Fisheries Amendment Act,
1895 Opium Act, 1909 Licensing Act, 1911 Aborigines Act, 1915 Crown Lands Act
Qld: 1897 Aboriginal Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act, 1904 Torres
Strait Islanders under same legislation as Aborigines
WA: 1905 Aborigines Act
NT: 1910 Aborigines Act
Assimilation:
Legislation introduced under the policy: There were few separate state legislations,
however by 1951 all states said they were working by an assimilation policy of some
sort. A ban was also placed on speaking native Aboriginal tongues.
soz not so much on assimilation.
integration:

Legislation introduced under the policy:

1962 Commonwealth Electoral Change allowing Aboriginal people to vote.
1966 Commonwealth Cattle Station
1967 Famous referendum in which Australia decided that indigenous people would be
included in the Census.
Protection: In inquiries at the time it was deemed that ordinary life would be impossible
without the cheap domestic labour that Aborigines could provide. The only shows
peritted were those that would not lower their respect for whites.
Aborigines received no recognition apart from a few words of careless praise; they had
no appeal against any injusticesin rennummeration for their labour they recievedt he
minimum of food, clothing tobaccono educational facilities were providedwork was
soul destroying, emotionally and physically debilitating.
Christian missions were sometimes criticised on trying to instil Christianity under duress.
Traditional ceremonies were forbidden and church was obligatory both on pain of losing
weekly food ration. They sometimes lost independence and became institutionalised. It
was argued that protection was cheapest when dispensed by church people. It began to
be proposed that Aborigines in contact with White Society should be assimilated, while
others should be set apart in reserves.
Assimilation was adopted as an official policy at a 1937 conference of State and Federal
officials convened by the government. Those of mixed descent were to be absorbed
regardless of their wishes, detribalised people were to be educated and the rest were to
remain on reserves. They were to be trained for useful occupations and taught to respect
white law, authority and property, and religious training was essential. This plan was
impractical as it envisaged Aboriginal individual compliance, however their society was
group based and fought through non-compliance.
The war affected Aborigines not only by an improvement in physical conditions, but also
by new contacts made in factories, the army and in the cities with Black American
servicement who provided information on race relations overseas.
The first Aboriginal Strike occurred in 1945 in WA, and in the next few years they won
the right to carry arms, drive trucks and have better housing.
In 1951 the assimilation policy was formally declared. It stated that all shall attaint he
same manner of living as other Australians, enjoying the same rights and priveleges,
observing the same customs, and being influenced by the same beliefs and loyalties. It
was inherently impossible to put into practice however to the Ministers of the Crown it
was seen that there was nothing in Aboriginal culture worth preserving It required
many years of slow patient endavour for assimilationto be realised. (Hasluck, Minister
for Territories.)
Focus Point Ten:
Aboriginal Experiences:

Essay: Changing Rights and Freedoms of Aboriginal Peoples

Since 1945, Aboriginal rights and freedoms have undergone dramatic
changes not only in the community, but in the area of laws and liberties.
When Governor Arthur Phillip first arrived in Australia, he was instructed to
endeavor by every possible means to open an intercourse with the
natives, and to conciliate their affections to live in amity and kindness
with them.i While this method of approach did not succeed, Aboriginal

rights and freedoms have changed almost entirely due to the actions of
the community such as freedom rides and petitions. The changes in rights
of Indigenous peoples were strongly reflected in the government policies,
and evolving approaches to their treatment, such as those of assimilation
and integration.
The policies of assimilation that began primarily in the 1950s were
strongly opposed by Aboriginal peoples who were essentially almost
powerless in protesting. The basis of assimilation was to absorb the
Aboriginal race into the White population regardless of their wishes,
however it was formally declared in 1951 as a policy in which all shall
attain the same manner of living as other Australians, enjoying the same
rights and privilegesand being influenced by the same beliefs and
loyalties.ii After this policy was first determined, the idea of assimilation
was developed; the Welfare Ordinance and Wards Employment Ordinance
were enacted in 1953. In this act Aboriginal peoples could be made wards
of the government on the basis of their manner of living, their inability to
manage their own affairs adequately, their standards of social habit and
behaviors and their personal associations. By 1965 as it was clear that the
policy had in no way been realized the definition was amended to read
that it shall seek that all persons of Aboriginal descent will choose to
attain a similar manner of living to that of other Australians.
The 1960s were dominated by policies of integration which attempted to
assimilate Aboriginal Peoples into White Society while permitting them to
maintain their own beliefs and traditions. The mid-60s saw the Yirrakala
Bark Petition and Gurindji walk-off. In 1963, the Yirrkala people petitioned
the government with a request that an inquiry be made into the use of
their traditional land by a mining company.
The Freedom Rides in 1964 and 1965 were conducted by a group of
students led by Charles Perkins. The purpose of the tour was to view all
facets of Aboriginal assimilation and accumulate statistical data on the
same, and to stimulate both Aboriginal and European towns-people into
doing something practical themselves about the situation. iii They
travelled through the Australian countryside to find segregation and
Aboriginal Rights issues and protested raising awareness of Indigenous
Affairs, significantly influencing the Australian Government in proposing
the 1967 referendum.
1969, the definition of Aboriginal Person had changed, partly following
the 1967 referendum which changed two clauses that discriminated
against Aborigines. The original clauses excluded Aborigines from National
Census counts and prohibited the Federal government from passing laws
relating to Aborigines in the states. The effect of the Yes vote was
primarily a greater understanding of Aboriginal Rights issues in the
Australian community, an understanding which led to many more laws
regarding the rights of Indigenous people being passed in Australian
Parliament.
By

Another event that led to the eventual grant of Land Rights to the
Aboriginal Peoples was the Gurindji walk-off. The Gurindji people walked
off Wave Hill station in 1966 as a protest against intolerable living
conditions and inadequate wages. In the following year they addressed a
petition to the Governor General asking for title to 1300 square kilometers
of their traditional lands, and after their request was rejected on the
advice of Minister for Territories (C.E. Barnes) they continued to camp at
Daguragu in protest. They refused several offers of land from the
government, and in 1975 were finally returned their traditional land by
Gough Whitlam. Meanwhile the Gurindji people had drawn considerable
attention in the media and sympathy from the public leading to the
support and passing of the Aboriginal Land Rights Act in 1976. Another
factor that contributed to this act was the findings of the Woodward
Aboriginal Land Rights Commission that influenced the Fraser government
in allowing Aboriginal peoples the right to claim their land on the basis of
traditional occupation if it was not privately owned.
These changes in Indigenous Rights gradually led to the development of
the idea of self-determination by which Aboriginal Peoples had the
freedom to determine what is best for them and to control their own lives.
This change was aided by the establishment of the Department of
Aboriginal Affairs, and several policies were created reflecting it such as
the Racial Discrimination Act, The Aboriginal Land Rights Act, Native Title
Act as well as the publication of the Bringing them Home Report.
Aboriginal people were of the opinion that self-determination would only
be achieved with constitutional backing, at one point stating that a treaty
which is recognized by international convention must state that Aboriginal
people are the indigenous sovereign owners of Australia since before 1770
and as such have rights and treaty rights and the doctrine of terra
nullius cannot be supported. Recognition of land rights was seen as the
key to Aboriginal self-determination and the basis for the development of
a secure social, cultural and economic base.iv
It was after almost a decade of radical change in the attitudes of
Australians towards the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people that the
Mabo trial began in which the assumption of terra nullius was rejected in
court. The dispute between Aboriginal people and the government and its
resolution led to the recognition of Aboriginal Land Rights and was quickly
followed by the Native Title Act which gave Indigenous People legal
ownership of the land and allowed them to appeal for its return. However,
as there was concern voiced from some Australian people that Native Title
could invalidate pastoral leases, the Wik Decision determined that leases
that gave the owner exclusive possession negated Native Title. This
decision led to the Native Title Amendment Act in 1998 which provided
security to Private Land Owners but increased Indigenous Land Rights.
The idea of self-determination reached new heights in the last decades of
the century, as Aboriginal people pressured the government for rights and
freedoms. Other methods Aborigines used to gain increasing rights and
freedoms were petitions such as the Barunga Statement in which the

indigenous owners of Australia called on the Australian Government to

recognise their rights to self determination and self management
including the freedom to pursue [their] own economic, social, religious
and cultural development.v
Throughout Australias history, especially since 1945, the rights and
freedoms of Aboriginal people have been constantly changing, due to
shifting attitudes and new government policies. Their lives have also been
enormously affected by community action such as petitions and strikes.
Through the evolving idea of self-determination, Aboriginal Peoples have
been allowed more liberty to pursue their own dreams, a policy which
allows all Australians, Indigenous and non-Indigenous, to close the gap
that lies between us in life expectancy, educational achievement and
economic opportunity.

i G.B. Barton. History of New South Wales from the Records, vol. 1, Government
Printer, 1889: 485.
ii Native Welfare Meeting of Commonwealth and State Ministers held at
Canberra, 3-4 September 1951, Government Printer, Canberra.
iii Charles Perkins to Mr. A.G. Kinsmill, Chairman, New South Wales Aborigines
Welfare Board, 18 January 1965.
iv Galarrwuy Yunupingu, What the Aboriginal People Want, Age, 26 August
1987.
v Barunga Statement, presented by Galarrwuy Yunupingu, Chairperson of the Northern Land Council, and Wenten
Rubuntja, Chairperson of the Central Land Council, to R.J. Hawke, Primie Minister, at the Barunga festival, 12 June
1988.

Focus Point Eleven:

Australia as a Global Citizen:
UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation)
was founded and 1945 and aims to promote greater understanding of
international cultures and societies. If also encourages cooperation in
advancing educational, scientific and cultural knowledge.
Australia is one of the twenty original members of UNESCO and has made
considerable contributions to the UNESCO projects as well as assisting with the
budget. Recently Australia has supported projects such as the conference on
Education for Intercultural and Interfaith Understanding and the international
efforts for conservation of World Heritage sites in the Asia-Pacific Region.
Australia and UN international conventions:
Australia is also actively involved in national affairs and supports United
Nations Conventions. Each convention is a statement of principles or beliefs
and can be influenced on a great range of subjects. Examples of such
Conventions include:
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: sets out the
rights of all children including the right to life, an identity, opinions and
the right not to be exploited. It forbids capital punishment for children.
Nations which ratify (accept) this convention will seek to uphold its
principles in their own country.

The United Nations Convention Concerning the Protection of the World

Cultural and Natural Heritage: was adopted by the United Nations in 1972
and is an attempt to preserve places that are of cultural and natural
heritage internationally. Australia was one of the first countries to accept
this convention and there are now sixteen World Heritage Sites in
Australia, protected by Australian Law. These include The Great Barrier
Reef and Tasmanian Wilderness.

Other Conventions that were supported by Australia include the Convention on

the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination and the Convention on the
Law of the Sea.
Australia and International Peacekeeping:

Australia also upholds its responsibility as one of the members of the United
Nations by supporting UN actions to preserve world peace. The United Nations
occasionally raises an army to resist a particular threat. The United Nations
however, mainly engages in peacekeeping actions. In its peacekeeping role,
many nations contribute soldiers or people with special skills to work where an
outbreak of conflict is possible. Examples of multi-nation Peace-Keeping Forces
include the United Nations Assistance Mission to Rwanda (UNAMIR).
Since 1947 26000 Australian peace-keepers have travelled to different parts of
the world in one of Australias significant contributions as a global citizen.
These peace-keeping operations have also assisted Australia indeveloping
experience in humanitarian work. Recently, peacekeeprs have also begun to
assists local populations to construct their own political and legal systems and
conduct free elections. They also train local skilled workers and officials to
undertake humanitarian work. Australian peace-keeping work has been carried
out in several countries including the following:
Somalia: An Australian force of around a thousand worked in Somali to
provide humanitarian relief after a civil war broke out between different
clans.

Cyprus: Since 1964, Australians have served in Cyprus as part of a UN

force of peacekeepers after a conflict between the Greek and Turkish
people on the island.

Australia and East Timor:

Timor is a small island which is part of the Indonesian archipelago (cluster of
islands). After it was abandoned by the Portugese in 1972, Indonesia occupied
it and this occupation was accepted y the Australian government in order to
maintain a good relationship with the nation. A the East Timorese resisted the
occupation and violence became frequent the United Nations rejected the
Indonesian occupation and requested the withdrawal of Indonesian troops.
After a vote in 1998 in which 78.5 % of the population voted for independence
and pro-Indonesian militia forces became increasingly violent, the United
Nations set up the UN Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET). A
multi-national force was also set up (to protect the people working in EastTimor) called the International Force for East Timor (INTERFET). Australia, being
the largest power in the group of twenty nations that were part of INTERFET,
accepted leadership. This was the first time Australia lead a multi-national
force and over half the soldiers in the force were Australians. The force was
very successful in dealing with militia violence under the command of General
Peter Cosgrove.
The aim of the force was to restore peace in the independent East Timor and
provide aid with humanitarian issues. Australia went on to win the International
Peace Prize for its role in East Timor, and in 2002 the Democratic Republic of
East Timor formally came into existence and became part of the United
Nations.