Optical Communications:Lasers

Light Sources.

1) The laser monochromatic,

coherent source
2) The Light emitting diode, LED, monochromatic, incoherent source
3) Wideband (Continuous Spectra)
source incandescent lamp

Requirements for an optical source for

optical communications
1.Suitable size and configuration compatible with
launching light into an optical fiber (highly
directional output)
LASER
2.Should emit light at wavelengths where the
fibre has low losses and where detectors are
efficient
LASER, LED
3.Must couple efficient optical power to
overcome fiber losses (attenuation) and have
adequate power to reach the detector
Laser

More requirements
4. narrow spectral bandwidth to minimize
distortion; LASER (0.1nm) LED(10nm)
5. Capable of maintaining a stable output,
largely unaffected by temperature changes,
LASER or LED
6. Capable of simple signal modulation over a
wide bandwidth. LASER
7. Comparatively inexpensive and reliable.
LASER or LED

Ch. 6: Senior
Requirements for an optical source:
For Optical Communications :
1. Suitable size and configuration compatible with
launching light into an optical fibre. (Highly
directional output)
2. Should emit light at wavelengths where the fibre
has low losses & where detectors are efficient.
3. Must couple sufficient optical power to overcome
fibre losses (attenuation) and have adequate power to
reach the detector.

4. Narrow spectral bandwidth

to minimise dispersion
5. Capable of maintaining a
stable output largely
unaffected by temperature
changes.
6. Capable of simple signal
modulation.
7. Comparatively inexpensive
and reliable.

Reminder: Why use light?

Fast modulation
Loss
Interference
Dispersion
Scale

Why semiconductor lasers?

Small size (e.g. 1 m x 1 m x 250 m)
High-efficiency (more than 50% electrical to
optical power conversion)
Mass production
Longevity
Ability to integrate
Direct current modulation
High gain

LASERS
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation
E2

E2-E1=hf=hc/l

E1

Two level system

Absorption
Initial state

Final state

E2

E2

E1

E1

Two level system

Spotaneous emission
Initial state

Final state

E2

E2

E1

E1

Two level system

Stimulated emission
Initial state

Final state

E2

E2

E1

E1

Threshold condition for Laser

Oscillation
Need a minimum or threshold gain before
laser oscillations are reached and sustainable
Losses lump all losses except those through
transmission through the mirrors into a
single loss coefficient, a cm-1

Fabry Perot resonator

Coherent emission
Mirrors: positive feedback, one mirror partially
transmitting
Amplifying medium: semiconductor, gas, Crystal
Stable output: when optical gain matches the
losses
Losses: scattering and absorption in the medium:
non- -useful transmission through the mirrors

Threshold
Mirror 1

Mirror 2
Amplifying
Medium

Reflectivity, r1
L
Reflectivity, r2
Light amplication: Avalanche multiplication
One round trip two passes through the medium
Fractional loss=r1 r2 exp(-2aL)
Let g=gain coefficient per unit length
Fractional gain=exp(2gL)

At threshold for gain to exactly equal

loss:

Optical feedback and laser oscilation:

Chapter 6 (Senior)
Resonance condition for a cavity of length,L, is
met when L= integral number of half
wavelengths
L=q(l\n)\2
where n:refractive index of the amplifying
medium, q an integer, l the emission wavelength

Discrete emission frequencies f=qc/2nL

The frequency separation is df=c/2nL

Single longitudinal mode operation

Mode separation in terms of free space
wavelength.using f=c\l or l=c/f is:
dl=(c/f2) df = (l2/c) (c/2nL)
dl=l2/2nL
For single longitudinal mode operation reduce
the length of the semiconductor cavity, until
the frequency separation of adjacent modes
df=c/2nL is larger than the laser transition
linewidth or gain curve

Semiconductor injection laser

Advantages of Injection laser over light emitting
diode LED
1.High radiance (due to amplification in laser)
2.Narrow linewidth (1 nm or less minimizing
dispersion)
3.Modulation capabilities
4.Relative temporal coherence
5.good spatial coherence permits focusing by a
lens to a spot

Semiconductor laser applications

Optical communications
Optical memory
Optical pumping of semiconductor lasers
Spectroscopy
Sensors
Optoelectronic integration

Efficiency of an Injection Laser

(Senior Chapter 6)
hD=differential external quantum efficiency

=Increase in photon output rate/Increase in

injected electrons
Popt : optical power emitted from the device
I: current, Eg : bandgap in eV
hD= d[Popt/hf] /D[I/e] = d[Popt]/d[IEg]
Approx. 40%-60% for a CW semiconductor
laser

Internal Quantum Efficiency, hi

hi = number of photons produced in the laser
cavity/number of injected electrons
Approx. 50%-100%

Total Quantum Efficiency, hT

hT =total number of output photons/total
number of injected electrons
hT = [Popt/hf]/[I/e] = Popt/(I Eg)
Popt changes linearly when I larger than Ith
hT = hD(1 Ith/I) for I larger than Ith

External Power Efficiency, hEP

hEP= Efficiency in converting electrical to
optical energy
hEP= Popt/Pelec x100%
hT = [Popt/hf]/[I/e] = Popt/(I Eg)
hEP = hT (Eg/V) x 100%

Primitive laser structure is not

practical because..
Lateral optical confinement is poor
The whole PN junction will have to reach
threshold. Need large currents, lots of heat
sinking
Lateral confinement is poor

To rectify these issues.

1.Confine carriers in the vertical direction to a
narrow region
2.Confine carriers in the horizontal direction
1. and 2. reduce threshold currents
3. Need to guide light once it is producedto
prevent light loss
4.a solution a double heterostructure laser
material1/material2/material1

Dielectric waveguide
For the successful operation of the laser we
want the optical field confined in the gain
region
A double heterostructure has a fortunate
coincidence
1

2active

The active layer (with the smaller bandgap

which is good for carrier confinement) has a
higher refractive index

Active layer acts as a dielectric

waveguide

Laser
AlGaAs (p) GaAs AlGaAs (n)

GaAs has a smaller bandgap than

AlGaAs: under forward bias carriers
are trapped in the active region. Light
is guided due to be refractive index
profile

Requirements for Materials systems

for Heterostructure lasers
1. High quality substrate material mechanical support,
good electrical contacts
2.High quality epitaxial growth thin film growth
3.p and n doping capabilities
4. Lattice matching
5. Direct bandgap materials light emission
GaAs substrate: useful for integration with electronics.
Processing well characterised.
InP: lattice matched for 1.55 micron, 1.4 micron emission
Gasb: useful for longer wavelengths, brittle, more difficult
to process, smaller bandgap so that noise is more of a
problem (eg. Due to small thermal changes)

Choice of a material system

Normally choose a direct bandgap material eg.
GaAs, InP
Select wavelength of operation
Say we want 1.55mm operation: might choose an
active region with GaInAsP. Could choose an InP
substrate for lattice matching
Say we want 0.6-0.9mm operation. Could choose
AlGaAs lattice matched to GaAs.
Say we want longer wavelengths (eg. For fluoride
fibres) of 2-4mm range. Could use GaInAsSb
lattice matched to GaSb.

Welcome to

Fluoride Fibres
Fluoride glasses predicted theoretically to have
losses orders of magnitude below silica fibres.
Minimum losses predicted to be around 2.2mm,
hence require lasers around this wavelength if
these very low losses are to be realised in
communication systems
Outstanding issues include: purification to reduce
losses, appropriate casing of fibres (hydroscopic)

Reducing Threshold Currents

To reduce threshold currents further: to obtain CW operation at
room temp. and increase operating lifetime of devices:
(a) gain-guided
(1) Oxide stripe
(2) Proton bombardment
(3) Zn diffusion
(b) index-guided
Strongly index-guided eg. V-grooved or Channelled Substrate Buried
Heterostructure (CSBH)

(a) Gain-guided
Width of the optical mode along the junction
is mainly determined by the width of the
optical gain region which in turn is determined
by the width of the current pumped region. A
stripe geometry can give a gain-guided
structure
Broad area laser threshold: 1A (for CW)
Gain-guided laser threshold: 10-100mA (for
CW)

(i) Oxide stripe

SiO2 layer confines
injected current
flow to a small
region

Proton
Bombardment
Implanted protons
create a region of high
resistivity: restricts
current to an opening
in the implanted
region.

Zn diffusion
Zn diffusion
converts a small
region in the top nlayer to p-type, so
that we now get a
current path.
Current is blocked
outside this region.

Index-Guided Lasers

Want to
(a) Confine carriers
(b) Confine light
Use strongly index-guided structure for
lowest thresholds (10-15mA), active region is
buried in higher bandgap materials to give a
Buried Heterostructure Laser

V-grooved or Channelled-Substrate
Buried Heterostructure (CSBH) Laser
Example: take a InP (or GaSb) system
Take a substrate with a p-blocking layer grown
by MOVPE, for example
Etch selectively a V-groove
For InP system, regrow n-InP, InGaAs acctive
layer, p-InP top cladding and metal contact
For GaSb: regrow n-AlGaAsSb, p-GaInAsSb
active layer, p-AlGaAsSb top cladding and
metal contact

CSBH structures InP, GaAs systems