9.4.

2(b) Students gather, process and analyse information from secondary

sources to describe ways in which drinking water can be treated and
use available evidence to explain how these methods reduce the risk of
infection from pathogens
Introduction
The provision of clean water and the disposal of waste water is a public health
issue, and water supplied to houses must be pure and safe to drink. Water is
usually treated chemically before it is supplied. However, in many third world
countries treatment of water is minimal. Water is a carrier for many contaminants
that can be the cause of disease. Dysentery, caused by swallowing contaminated
water, can cause fever, nausea, cramps and convulsions.
To ensure that water is of good quality and that drinking guidelines are met, water
quality testing and monitoring takes place at every stage of the supply system.
Samples are taken in the catchment area, after the water has been treated and in
the distribution pipelines. Water is tested for more than 70 different
characteristics including taste, colour, odour, microorganisms and chemical
content.

Purpose
To gather, process and analyse information on drinking water treatment and
quality.
To explain how water treatment methods reduce the risk of infection from
pathogens.

Background information: understanding your water

Coliforms
Coliform bacteria are used as a scientific indicator of the cleanliness of the water
and the possible presence of disease-causing microorganisms. Coliform bacteria
include faecal coliforms, such as Escherichia coli found in the gut of humans and
warm blooded mammals plus other types found in vegetation and soil. If the
coliform count is above a certain level, the water is condemned for drinking
purposes. These bacteria are very resistant organisms and harder to kill off than
actual disease producers. If samples tested contain no coliforms then health
authorities can be reasonably sure that no other pollution bacteria are present as
well. Chlorine is often used to kill bacteria.
Cryptosporidium and Giardia
These microorganisms occur in the gut of infected warm-blooded animals. They
can be introduced into the water supply through dead animal carcasses and
faeces.
Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of suspended material in water that may cause it to look
muddy or discoloured.
Colour
Water should be virtually colourless.

Chlorine
To ensure good quality drinking water, chlorine is added to kill bacteria that may
cause disease. Tests are carried out for the residual level of chlorine, which needs
to be present after treatment to make sure that the water is disinfected all the
way to the tap.
Fluoride
Small amounts of fluoride are added for dental health reasons in accordance with
legislation.
Aluminium, iron and manganese
These substances occur naturally in water at low levels and may be responsible
for taste and staining problems with water.
Drinking water guidelines
Australian drinking water guidelines are set by the National Health and Medical
Research Council (NH&MRC). They are specific standards that must be met for the
water to pass as safe to drink.
The units used are:
mg/L = thousandths of a gram per litre of water
g/L = millionths of a gram per litre of water
Table 1
Recommended limits on the numbers of coliforms permitted in water samples.
Class Grading of
Coliform
drinking
count
water
per 100 mL
Class Excellent
0
1
Class Satisfactor 13
2
y
Class Suspicious
410
3
Class Unsatisfact >10
4
ory
Note; Criteria may vary depending on the use of water.
from Human Disease C. Odlum, R. Garner & E. Sakker (1988).

Research Activity
Procedure
A. Gather relevant, current, information about the water supply of a
named area. In your research you should include:
Name
Give the name of the area that drinks the
water.
Location
Describe the location of the water catchment
area.
Management
Who is responsible for the management of
the water supply?
Treatment
what ways is the water treated?

Water quality

Explain which of the treatment methods

reduce the risk of infection and how the
treatment improves water quality.
Analysis of the water supplied for drinking
Where possible, access
charts of water analysis and compare with
those given in part B.

Results
1. Present the findings from your research as a report using the headings given
above.

Water Data Analysis

Procedure
B. Study the statistical data in Tables 2 and 3 from two of the water
filtration plants, Illawarra and Warragamba, that form part of
Sydneys water supply.
Table 2
Illawarra Water Filtration Plant.
Raw Water
No. of
sampl
es
Microbiological
total coliforms
faecal coliforms
Giardia
Cryptosporidium
Physical/Chemical
turbidity
true colour
pH
total chlorine
fluoride
trihalomethanes
iron
aluminium
manganese

Filtered Water
Min

Me
d

Ma
x

Guidelines*

Sampl
es
passe
d

15
15
0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0 CFU/100 mL
0 CFU/100 mL
**
**

100%
100%

0.72

6.13

360
90
90

0
0
7.87

0.13
0.65
7.99

1
3.3
8.04

100%
100%
100%

1090
66
26

361
90
15
90
90
90

1.38
0.9
0
0
12
0

1.5
0.99
100
25
12
6

1.67
1.26
150
65
83
28

<5 NTU
<15 HU
6.58.5 pH
units
<5 mg/L
<1.5 mg/L
<250 g/L
<300 g/L
<200 g/L
<100 .g/L

Max

No. of
Sampl
es

9
0
0
0

230
0
0
0

0.22

5.34

0.4

5.77

0
0
0

93
18
6

Min

Me
d

38
38
38
38

1
0
0
0

90
0
90
0
0
0
90
90
90

100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%

Table 3
Warragamba Water Filtration Plant.
Raw Water

Filtered Water

No. of
sampl
es

Min

Me
d

total coliforms
faecal
coliforms
Giardia
Cryptosporidiu
m

13
13

0
0

300
0

600
1

13
13

94
94

0
0

0
0

445
1765

94
94

turbidity
true colour
pH

13
13
13

2.4
4
6.51

3.1
17
6.64

0
0
0

13
13
0

13
13
13

235
259
3

320
469
6

371
567
12

13
13
13

Max

No. of
Samp
les

Me
d

Ma
x

Guidelines*

Sampl
es
passe
d

0
0

0
0

0
0

0 CFU/100 mL
0 CFU/100 mL

100%
100%

0
0

0
0

23
26

**
**

0.3
<2
6.98

0.4
<2
7.24

100%
100%
100%

1.03
0.97

1.5
1.02

2.09
1.17

<5 NTU
<15HU
6.58.5 pH
units
<5 mg/L
<1.5 mg/L
<250 g/L

<25
<12
<1

<25
<12
8

<25
15
11

<300 g/L
<200 g/L
<100 g/L

100%
100%
100%

Mi
n

Microbiological

total chlorine
fluoride
trihalomethan
es
iron
aluminium
manganese

Physical/Chemical
4
13
0.2
22
13
<2
6.82
13
6.77

100%
100%

*
**

Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, NH&MRC 1996, normally reported on an annual basis.
This represents a quarterly result only.
The NH&MRC has not set guideline values for Cryptosporidium and Giardia but Sydney Water
tests for these as a precautionary measure. Sydney Water and NSW Health have a protocol
which covers testing, monitoring and providing information to the public about these
microorganisms. NSW Health was notified on each occasion that Cryptosporidium and Giardia
were detected. All results for Cryptosporidium and Giardia are posted daily on the Sydney
Water website.
Source: Sydney
Water

Discussion
2. Make a comparison of total coliforms in both raw and filtered water in the
Illawarra and Warragamba filtration plants. Suggest an explanation for the
possible changes in counts and why the counts differed in the first place.
3. Why is the number of samples tested for Giardia and Cryptosporidium in the
Warragamba filtration plant greater than other samples (for pH, turbidity,
etc.) tested at the plant on the same water?
4. Would the water in the Warragamba filtration plant have been cleared for
release to customers? Explain your answer.
5. Guidelines set by the NH&MRC indicate safe levels of material that can be
present in the water that is supplied to customers.
What is the recommended maximum level for
a) microbiological material
b) pH
c) chlorine levels
d) iron levels?
6. Why are there no readings for chlorine, fluoride and trihalomethanes in raw
water?
7. What do min, med and max mean? Why are these recorded?
8. Which catchment area Warragamba or Illawarra appears to have a more
reliable source of raw water? Explain your answer using the tables to
support your answer.

Sydneys water supply

C. Read the article from Heinemann Biology, p. 346: Sydneys water:
problems and solutions, reproduced below. Complete the following
questions that refer to this article.
9. Why was Sydneys water issue such a crisis between late July and midSeptember in 1998?
10.
Using your understanding of part B and Sydneys water problems, why
have The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines been developed and what
do they outline?
11.
Explain why Cryptosporidium and Giardia are seen as potential health
risks.
12.
How did these two pathogens end up in Sydneys water supply, before
and even after the raw water had been treated?
13.
What methods are employed by Australian water authorities to ensure
high water quality is maintained?
14.
How do these methods reduce the risk of infection from drinking
water?

15.

Why is the cost of an effective water treatment plant so high?

Sydneys Water: Problems and solutions

Water quality became an important issue for people living in Sydney because of
the problems experienced between late July and mid September 1998. Water is
supplied to homes and businesses by an extensive network administered by water
authorities established to oversee the flow and quality of our water. In Sydney,
Sydney Water is the authority with this responsibility. Domestic water quality must
comply with strict standards and guidelines. The Australian Drinking Water
Guidelines are set by the National Health and Medical Research Council and the
Agricultural and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand.
Sydneys water quality monitoring program is controlled by NSW Health. The
Licence Regulator examines Sydney Waters methods of monitoring and testing
water quality each year, and consults NSW Health. Water must be continually
tested for microbiological, chemical and physical quality.
The problems experienced by Sydney has focused attention on two protozoans:
cryptosporidium and giardia. These parasites are usually transmitted through
water contaminated with faeces of an animal or person, or by direct contact with
a carrier or contaminated food. The symptoms they cause are abdominal cramps,
diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting. Some Australian water catchments are closed;
that is, they are protected from contamination by humans, domestic animals and
livestock, and from agriculture, timber harvesting and other human activities. In
contrast, Sydneys catchments were open to multiple uses, including grazing and
agriculture. If the catchment areas are protected, there is less risk of faecal
contamination and other dangers, and therefore an outbreak of cryptosporidium
and giardia is less likely. Sydney Water blamed the contamination of its water on
either the existence of a dead animal in a water catchment or a defect in the
water filtration system.
Water filtration and disinfection is the method used by Australian water
authorities to maintain high water quality. Chlorination is the principal method of
disinfection used by most authorities, including Sydney Water. Chlorination is very
effective in killing most protozoans and other disease-causing organisms. The
water is filtered, then disinfected with small amounts of chlorine. At each
treatment plant and other specified points of the water supply, careful monitoring
maintains chlorine levels at a minimum. Another disinfection method used is
chloramination, which is a modified form of chlorination in which a small amount
of ammonia is added to the water just before the chlorine. This results in the
formation of chloramines, which provide a longer lasting means of disinfection.
During Sydneys water quality crisis, US experts advised Sydney Water that future
contamination could be avoided if an ozone filtration plant was installed in
Sydneys water system, at a cost of about $100 million. It appears that ozone is
the only chemical that can eliminate the single-celled organisms that
contaminated Sydneys water. It is used in many US water supply systems. Ozone
can be produced from generators fed by air or oxygen.

The cryptosporidium parasite