Hydropower systems

Hydropower systems convert hydraulic

energy, the potential and kinetic energy of
water, into mechanical or electrical work.
Most hydrosystems utilize a renewable
source of energy, water lifted to elevation
through evaporation and precipitation, driven
by solar energy.
In the case of pumped storage hydrosystems,
a non-renewable source of energy, such as
fossil or nuclear electricity, may be employed
to lift the water to elevation.

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

Classification by size
Class

Size (MWe)

Large

30

Small

< 30

Mini

<1

Micro

< 0.1

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

Classification by head
Class

Head (m)

High

> 150

Medium

20 - 150

Low

< 20

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

Classification by type
Class

Configuration

Run-of-river

Little or no
impoundment of
water course

Storage

Impoundment behind
dam or other
reservoir

Pumped storage

Reversible flow for

timing of generation

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

Hydraulic turbine classification

Virtually all modern hydrosystems utilize
hydraulic turbines as the primary energy
converter.
Turbines are classified into two types depending
on how the water does work on the runner, or
the moving part of the machine:
Impulse turbines, such as the Pelton, Turgo, and
crossflow types, which utilize the kinetic energy in a
high velocity stream, or jet, of water, and
Reaction turbines, such as the Francis, Kaplan, and
propeller types, which utilize both pressure (potential)
and kinetic energy.

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

Hydrosystems

Impulse Turbine
(Pelton)

Pelton wheel installation

(source: http://www.acre.murdoch.edu.au/ago/hydro/hydro.html)

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Reaction Turbine
(Francis)

Francis turbine installation

(source: http://www.acre.murdoch.edu.au/ago/hydro/hydro.html)

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

Hydrosystems

Reaction Turbine
(Kaplan)

Kaplan or propeller
turbine installation
(source: http://www.acre.murdoch.edu.au/ago/hydro/hydro.html)

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Derivation of hydropower equation

Head-water level

1
Dam

Reservoir

Penstock
Generator

z1

2
Turbine
z2

z
3

Draft tube

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Tail-water
level
3

Hydrosystems

Basic hydropower
balance

Head-water level
Reservoir

1
Dam

Penstock
Generator

z1

2
Turbine
z2
Draft tube

Tail-water
level
3
z3

V32 p3
V12 p1
z1 +
+
= z3 +
+
+ h + hf
2g
2g
zi
Vi
pi
h
hf
g

EBS 216 Energy Systems

elevation (m)
velocity of the flow (m s-1)
fluid static pressure (Pa)
net head utilized by turbine (m)
friction head loss between reservoir and turbine (m)
acceleration of gravity (m s-2)
= g = specific weight of water (N m-3)
= density of water (kg m-3)
Hydrosystems

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Simplifications
If the reservoir is large such that the
velocity, V1, is low, it may be neglected
without substantial error
V1 actually cannot be zero otherwise there
would be no work (no flow)

With p1 = p3

V32
h = z1 z 3
hf
2g
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Hydrosystems

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Power output
Power extracted from the flow,

W& = m& gh

W&, is

m& = mass flow rate of water (kg s-1)

From continuity:

m& = AV = Q

Q = flow rate of water (m3 s-1)

Water power:

W& = Qgh = Qh

Turbine output power:

W& = Qh

= turbine efficiency
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Hydrosystems

12

Hydraulic turbine efficiency

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Hydrosystems

13

Selection example
Run-of-river hydroelectric plant
50 m3 s-1 rated flow
Turbine
Percent
exceedance
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Total Annual

River flow
(m3 s-1)
368.0
86.0
50.0
26.2
20.6
15.0
13.8
12.6
11.0
9.0
4.0

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Net head discharge

Efficiency

Power

Energy

(m3 s-1)
50.0
50.0
50.0
26.2
20.6
15.0
13.8
12.6
11.0
9.0
4.0

(%)
87
87
87
92
92
89
87
85
83
78
54

(MW)
4.05
4.18
4.26
2.36
1.86
1.31
1.18
1.05
0.89
0.65
0.19

(MWh)

(m)
9.5
9.8
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
9.5
9.0

Hydrosystems

3,604
3,697
2,902
1,848
1,387
1,088
975
852
678
370
17,400
14

Stream flow duration

400
350

Flow (m 3 s-1)

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Exceedance (%)
EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

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Rated power of turbine

Q
h

= 0.87
= 9,800 N m-3
= 50 m3 s-1 rated
= 10 m

W& R = (0.87)(9,800 N m )(50 m

-3

EBS 216 Energy Systems

s-1)(10 m) = 4,263,000 W

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Turbine selection

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Hydrosystems

17

Turbine speed
Specific speed, Ns, of the turbine

NW& 1 / 2
Ns = 5/4
h

EBS 216 Energy Systems

& in kW)
(W

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Specific speed correlations

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Hydrosystems

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Turbine speed
Specific speed, Ns, of the turbine

NW& 1 / 2
Ns = 5/4
h

& in kW)
(W

Tubular type with propeller turbine:

1107.3
N s = 0.2998
h
10 m head yields specific speed = 555
N h5 / 4
(555)(10) 5 / 4
Turbine speed: N = s 1 / 2 =
= 150 rpm
1/ 2
W&
4.26 x10 3

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

20

10

Turbine diameter
Correlation for turbine diameter, D (m)
based on propellers

D = (66.76 + 0.136 N s )

h
N

For h = 10 m, Ns = 555, N = 150 rpm,

D=3m

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

21

Generator
The rotational speed, n (rpm), of an AC generator with a
number of poles, p, to produce a frequency, f (Hz), is

n=

120 f
p

For a direct connected generator running at the same

speed as the turbine in the example and generating at
60 Hz (US, Europe 50 Hz), the generator would need 48
poles
A gearbox can be used to increase the speed of the
generator and reduce the required number of poles
EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

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11

Turbine setting to avoid

cavitation
The cavitation coefficient, known as Thoma's sigma, ,
is defined in terms of the water pressure (or head), and
the atmospheric and vapor pressure heads

ha hv hs
h

ha
hv
hs

= absolute atmospheric pressure head = patm/ (m)

= net head (m)

= vapor pressure head (m)

= suction head (m)
= (elevation at turbine discharge) - (minimum tail water elevation)

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

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Turbine setting to avoid

cavitation
The critical cavitation coefficient, cr, is
defined as the maximum above which
cavitation is likely.
The maximum suction head, and thus
the turbine setting, is

hs = ha hv cr h

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

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12

Turbine setting to avoid

cavitation
The critical cavitation coefficient has been
correlated to the specific turbine speed as

cr

N s1.64
=
50,227

with Ns = 555,cr = 0.63

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Hydrosystems

25

Example: Turbine setting

For a sea level setting, if the water
temperature is 15C, the vapor pressure
of water is 1,762 Pa
ha =

101,325 Pa
= 10.3 m
9,800 N m -3

hv =

1,762 Pa
= 0 .2 m
9,800 N m -3

hs = 10.3 - 0.2 - 0.63(10) = 3.8 m

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

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13

Example: Turbine setting

The turbine should not be set more than 3.8 m
above the minimum tail water level to avoid
cavitation at the runner.
The critical suction head declines with increased
elevation due to the reduction in ha with height.
The value of ha decreases about 1.1 m for every
1,000 m increase in elevation.
For plants situated at high elevation, the critical
suction head may be negative, and the turbine
outlet may need to be set below the tail water
level to avoid cavitation.
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Hydrosystems

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Cost of energy
Hydrosystems tend to have a larger share of fixed costs
than operating costs compared to thermal station power
plants.
Costs for operation and maintenance may typically run
about 2% of the annual capital cost charge.
Hydrosystems also tend to be subject to economies of
scale, both in terms of capital cost and operation.
Siting may be difficult due to the limited number of
locations with good head and flow, and the potentially
adverse environmental impacts where impoundments or
significant intervention in stream flow are required.

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Hydrosystems

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14

Cost of energy: analytical optimization

Consider a stream flow duration curve
modeled by a correlation of the form

Q = at b
a, b = constant coefficients
t = exceedance time,or the time in hours
per year the flow exceeds the value Q

EBS 216 Energy Systems

Hydrosystems

29

Cost of energy: analytical optimization

An approximate model of the turbine
efficiency (which fails to model the small dropoff in efficiency for operation near the rated
capacity) is

Q
=
QR

QR = rated flow for the turbine at its rated capacity

f = constant coefficient

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Hydrosystems

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15

Cost of energy: analytical optimization

Annual energy generation for a run-of-river plant is

8, 760
E = W& R t R + W& dt
t

tR = rated exceedance time

=

exceedance value in hours giving the

rated turbine flow, QR

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Hydrosystems

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Cost of energy: analytical optimization

If the capital costs (and operating costs as well) are

subject to an economy of scale, the cost of the facility
may be estimated from

C = mW& Rs
m = constant coefficient
s = scale factor (--)

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Hydrosystems

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16

Cost of energy: analytical optimization

The cost of energy, COE ($ Wh-1), based on capital

cost alone, and assuming constant head over all flows:

( )

m 1t Rb ( A / P)
C ( A / P)
COE =
=
E
(1 2 )t Rb +1 + 3t Rbf
s

2 =

1 = R ha

1
b(1 + f ) + 1

3 =

1 (8,760)b (1+ f )+1

b(1 + f ) + 1

(A/P) = capital recovery factor

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Hydrosystems

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Cost of energy: analytical optimization

Objective function: minimize COE

Taking

The optimum value of tR is

dCOE
=0
dt R
1
bf +1+ b

(s + f )
t R = 8760

(1 + f )(b + 1 bs )
the optimum tR depends only on the values of the
exponents b, f, and s
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Hydrosystems

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17

Cost of energy: analytical optimization

Constraints on results

Where the facility is neither run-of-river nor base-loaded,

the results of this analysis would not apply.

Note that in the case of s = 1, the optimization is trivial

giving tR = 8,760 h
with no economy of scale, the lowest cost is simply achieved
by rating the plant at the lowest flow, thereby achieving the
lowest expenditure of capital.
result may fail to meet the design criteria
the ability to optimize in this manner assumes unrestricted
choice in the generating capacity

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Hydrosystems

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18