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Abstract: Compression data on over 100 sands were examined to clarify the role of particle rearrangement through interparticle slip and rotation and particle damage on primary compression, including the yield stress, secondary compression,
and coefficient of lateral pressure at rest. During the increase in effective vertical stress, mechanisms such as tighter packing that promote particle locking and interparticle slip and particle damage that promote particle unlocking together determine the relationship between void ratio and effective vertical stress. Three levels of particle damage together with
interparticle slip and rotation determine three types of compression behavior and a yield stress at the abrupt onset of particle fracturing and splitting. The ratio of secondary compression index to compression index is independent of whether
compression results from overcoming interparticle friction through interparticle slip, from overcoming particle strength
through particle damage, or both; and therefore it is a constant independent of the effective stress range. The coefficient of
lateral pressure at rest of an initially dense sand starts with a value defined by the Jaky equation and the maximum friction
angle and remains constant up to the abrupt onset of particle fracturing and splitting, at which point it begins to increase
with an increase in effective vertical stress.
Key words: sand, compression, yield stress, secondary compression, coefficient of earth pressure at rest.
Resume : Des donnees de compression de plus de 100 sables ont ete examines afin declaircir le role du rearrangement
des particules par glissement et rotation inter-particulaire et du dommage sur les particules lors de la compression primaire,
incluant la limite decoulement, la compression secondaire, et le coefficient de pression laterale au repos. Pendant laugmentation de la contrainte verticale effective, les mecanismes tels que le serrage qui entrane le blocage des particules, et
le glissement inter-particules et le dommage qui entranent le deblocage des particules, determinent ensemble la relation
entre lindice des vides et la contrainte verticale effective. Trois niveaux de dommage aux particules, en plus du glissement et de la rotation inter-particules, determinent trois types de comportement en compression ainsi que la limite decoulement au moment ou` il y a fracture et separation des particules. Le ratio entre lindice de compression secondaire et
lindice de compression est independant de lorigine de la compression, que ce soit le surpassement de la friction entre les
particules par glissement inter-particulaire ou le surpassement de la resistance des particules par du dommage, ou les deux,
alors ce ratio est une constante independante de lintervalle des contraintes effectives. Le coefficient de pression laterale
au repos dun sable initialement dense est premie`rement definit par lequation de Jaky avec langle de friction maximal, et
demeure constant jusquau moment ou` les particules commencent soudainement a` fracturer et a` se separer; a` partir de ce
point le coefficient de pression laterale commence a` augmenter avec laugmentation de la contrainte verticale effective.
Mots-cles : sable, compression, limite decoulement, compression secondaire, coefficient de la pression des terres au repos.
[Traduit par la Redaction]
Introduction
In all soils, one-dimensional compression and isotropic
compression are achieved through particle rearrangement
into a tighter packing. In some soils, particle rearrangement
is accompanied by particle deformation, such as bending
and particle compression, as in fibrous peats. In all soils,
particle rearrangement into a more compact configuration is
achieved by overcoming interparticle friction through interReceived 13 March 2008. Accepted 5 December 2008.
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at cgj.nrc.ca on
3 April 2009.
G. Mesri.1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 North Mathews
Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
B. Vardhanabhuti. Department of Civil Engineering, Kasetsart
University, 50 Phahonyotin St., Ladyao Jatujak, Bangkok 10900,
Thailand.
1Corresponding
particle slip and rotation. In some soils, particle rearrangement is also facilitated by overcoming particle strength
through particle damage as in granular soils. Particle damage may be quantified as level I damage (abrasion or grinding of particle surface asperities), level II damage (breaking
or crushing of particle surface protrusions and sharp particle
corners and edges), and level III damage (fracturing, splitting, or shattering of particles) (Roberts and de Souza 1958;
Hendron 1963; Marsal 1967; Hardin 1985; Rahim 1989;
Coop 1990; Pestana and Whittle 1995; Nakata et al. 2001a,
2001b; Chuhan et al. 2002, 2003).
Compression, i.e., more intimate packing of particles, promotes locking, including engaging surface roughness, among
soil particles and increases the stiffness of a granular aggregate (Vesic and Clough 1968; Lambe and Whitman 1969).
However, interparticle slip and especially particle damage
are unlocking mechanisms that decrease the stiffness of a
granular mass. During compression of granular materials,
both unlocking and locking mechanisms operate simultaneously. The net effect determines the shape of the void ratio
doi:10.1139/T08-123
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Fig. 1. Scanning electron micrographs of the surface of three particles of Ottawa sand (ac) and three particles of Lake Michigan sand (df).
a, 1401; b, 21552; c, 5000; d, 560; e, 1647; f, 835.
improved locking through denser particle packing and M decreases with an increase in s v0 . An equal balance behavior is
also possible when unlocking and locking effects are equal
and M remains constant with s v0 .
One-dimensional and isotropic compression of all soils
can be interpreted in terms of primary compression that occurs during the increase in effective stress and secondary
compression that follows at constant effective stress. Onedimensional compression is observed in a laterally constrained condition in response to an increase in s v0 , and
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Fig. 1. (continued). Scanning electron micrographs of the surface of three particles of Niigata sand (gi) and three particles of Toyoura sand
(jl). g, 2364; h, 1674; i, 3700; j, 40000; k, 7500; l, 1200.
tive horizontal stress, is determined by the nature of particles, nature and history of particle packing, and particle
damage.
In this paper, we utilized data from 182 oedometer tests
on 98 sands and 17 isotropic loading tests on six sands reported in the literature (Vardhanabhuti 2005) to examine
and clarify the role of particle rearrangement through interparticle slip and rotation and particle damage on primary
compression including the yield stress, secondary compression, and coefficient of lateral pressure at rest. This paper
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Fig. 2. Type A compression behavior of a loose Ottawa sand (data from Roberts and de Souza 1958). CU, uniformity coefficient; Dr, relative density; D50, mean grain size; Mmax, tangent constrained modulus at the first inflection point; Mmin, tangent constrained modulus at the
second inflection point; s v0 Mmax , effective vertical stress at the yield point defined at the first inflection point; s v0 Mmin , effective vertical
stress at the yield point defined at the second inflection point; s v0 MC , effective vertical stress at the yield point defined at the point of
maximum curvature.
Fig. 3. Type A compression behavior of a dense Ottawa sand (data from Roberts and de Souza 1958). eo, initial void ratio.
Primary compression
Laboratory information on the compressibility of granular
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Fig. 4. Type A compression behavior of Toyoura sand (data from Nakata et al. 2001a).
Fig. 5. Type A compression behavior of Ottawa sand (data from Pestana and Whittle 1995).
tinuous loading. Because of the dry condition or high permeability of saturated granular soils, primary consolidation
of a laboratory specimen essentially is completed as soon as
the load is applied, and the end-of-primary (EOP) void ratio
or volumetric strain for incremental loading is defined at
several seconds or minutes past the application of the load
increment. The EOP void ratio or volumetric strain sometimes corresponds to a relatively fast constant rate of loading (e.g., 0.01 MPa/s in oedometer tests conducted by
Chuhan et al. 2002, 2003) or constant rate of compression
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Fig. 6. Type A compression behavior of mono-quartz sand (data from Chuhan et al. 2003).
Fig. 7. Type A compression behavior of a quartz sand (data from Nakata et al. 2001b).
the aggregate framework, allowing larger interparticle movements, and M begins to decrease with an increase in s v0 . The
first inflection point in the e versus s v0 relationship marks
the beginning of the second stage at an effective vertical
stress s v0 Mmax , and a second inflection point at s v0 Mmin
marks the end at which major particle fracturing and splitting are substantially complete (Nakata et al. 2001a,
2001b). Figure 1 shows examples of sand particle surface
roughness that is further engaged during small interparticle
movements of the first stage of compression and is disenPublished by NRC Research Press
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Fig. 8. Type B compression behavior of Ganga sand (data from Rahim 1989).
Fig. 9. Type B compression behavior of Wabash River sand (data from Hendron 1963).
concentration and a decrease in the void ratio, and the associated relative movement among grains is small (DeBeer
1963, 1965; Hagerty et al. 1993; Lade et al. 1996; Bopp
and Lade 1997; Nakata et al. 2001a, 2001b; Chuhan et al.
2002, 2003). Examples of type A e versus s v0 behavior are
shown in Figs. 27. Type A compression behavior is most
commonly, but not exclusively, observed for clean wellrounded, strong (high degree of hardness) coarse particles
(Nakata et al. 2001b; Chuhan et al. 2002).
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Fig. 10. Type B compression behavior of Mol sand (data from DeBeer 1963).
Fig. 11. Type B compression behavior of Feldspar sand (data from Pestana and Whittle 1995).
nates and M gradually increases with an increase in s v0 . During the second stage, improved packing just balances the
unlocking produced by level III particle damage, and M remains constant with s v0 . During the third stage, improved
packing dominates over the effects of particle damage and
interparticle slip, and M gradually increases with an increase
in s v0 (Nakata et al. 2001a, 2001b; Chuhan et al. 2003). Examples of type B e versus s v0 behavior, which is less comPublished by NRC Research Press
377
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Fig. 12. Type C compression behavior of Quiou sand (data from Pestana and Whittle 1995).
Fig. 13. Type C compression behavior of carbonate sand (data from Chuhan et al. 2003). D60, grain size at which 60% of the sample is
finer.
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Fig. 14. Type C compression behavior of silty sand (data from Huang et al. 1999). FC, fines content passing number 200 US standard sieve.
Fig. 15. Type C compression behavior of mono-quartz sand (data from Chuhan et al. 2003).
ticles of mica or clay minerals, or for very fine granular materials for which particle damage is a minor factor (Hardin
1985; Chuhan et al. 2002, 2003).
Yield stress
Yield stress traditionally has been considered to mark the
abrupt onset of increased deformability or increased compressibility as in the present case. For soils where particle
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Fig. 16. Type C compression behavior of Ganga sand (data from Rahim 1989).
Fig. 17. Type C compression behavior of silica-2 sand (data from Nakata et al. 2001b).
nomenological definition of the yield stress, as it corresponds to the abrupt onset of level III particle damage. The
values of s v0 Mmax for 61 oedometer tests on 57 sands in
Fig. 18 show that the yield stress may range from less than
0.3 MPa for an angular biogenic carbonate sand to near
30 MPa for a well-rounded quartz sand. (The other sands
category corresponds to the mixtures of quartz, carbonate,
and other minerals.) Figure 18 also shows that the net unPublished by NRC Research Press
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density and particle characteristics, a well-graded sand is expected to display a higher s v0 Mmax than a uniformly graded
sand (Hall and Gordon 1964; Lade and Yamamuro 1996;
Nakata et al. 2001b). An increase in particle angularity promotes level I and level II particle damage during the first
stage of compression, leads to higher normal and shear
stresses at interparticle contacts, and results in lower values
of Mmax/Mmin and s v0 Mmax (Kjaernsli and Sande 1963; Hagerty et al. 1993; Lade and Yamamuro 1996; McDowell and
Bolton 1998).
Secondary compression
Secondary compression is a continuation of the processes
that begin during an increase in effective stress. All mechaPublished by NRC Research Press
382
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Fig. 22. Type A compression behavior of Toyoura sand in isotropic compression (data from Kwag et al. 1999). p0 MC , equal all-around
pressure at the yield point defined at the point of maximum curvature of e versus log p; p0 Mmax , equal all-around pressure at the yield point
defined at the first inflection point of e versus p; p0 Mmin , equal all-around pressure at the second inflection point of e versus p defining the
end of the second stage of compression.
Fig. 24. Data on the ratio Ca/Cc for Antelope Valley sand in onedimensional and isotropic compression (data from Lade and Liu
1998).
Souza 1958; Lee and Farhoomand 1967; Mesri and Godlewski 1977; Mejia et al. 1988; Lade et al. 1997; Mesri 2001).
The term creep should not be used to refer to secondary
compression observed under drained, laterally constrained,
one-dimensional loading or drained, equal all-around loading. The term creep should be reserved for time-dependent
deformation that may develop under both drained and undrained conditions when a soil is subjected to external shear
stresses (e.g., Mesri et al. 1981; Murayama 1983; Murayama
et al. 1984). A major distinction is that time-dependent deformation due to creep may lead to global failure, whereas
secondary compression does not.
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Fig. 25. Compression behavior of silica sand used to study secondary compression (data from Yet 1998).
Fig. 26. The Ca/(1+eo) and Cc/(1+eo) data for silica sand (data from
Leung et al. 1996 and Yet 1998).
Table 1. Computed and measured s 0pI for test IC-8-1 of Lade and
Liu (1998).
Preconsolidation pressure in
0
isotropic compression, ppI
(kPa)
Pressure
No.
1
2
3
4
5
The Ca/Cc law of compressibility (where Ca is the secondary compression index and Cc is the compression index) indicates that Ca/Cc is a constant at all instances during
secondary compression. At any instant (e, s v0 , t, where t is
the time) during secondary compression, Cc De=Dlog s v0
is the slope of the e versus log s v0 relationship, and Ca =
Equal all-around
pressure, p (kPa)
50
100
197
393
785
Measured
70
121
246
500
Computed
61
120
250
500
1004
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Fig. 27. Behavior of Ko for normally consolidated young loose Wabash River sand with Dr = 5% (data from Hendron 1963). K , slope of s h0
versus s v0 Ds h0 =Ds v0 ; Kop, coefficient of earth pressure at rest in normally consolidated young loose sands.
isotropic and one-dimensional compression tests were carried out on saturated, reconstituted specimens in a triaxial
cell in the pressure range of 0.051.5 MPa. The laterally
constrained condition for one-dimensional compression was
realized through proportional loading (i.e., axial strain =
volumetric strain). Consistent with secondary compression
behavior observed for soft clay and silt deposits (e.g., Mesri
1987), Ca/Cc has the same value for both isotropic and onedimensional compression despite the fact that EOP e versus
the logarithm of effective stress relations for isotropic and
one-dimensional compression are different. Lade and Liu
(1998) reported that 20% of the particles passed the number
200 US standard sieve after a compression test, whereas
none of the sand passed this sieve before testing.
A comprehensive series of one-dimensional compression
tests with secondary compression measurements have been
reported by Leung et al. (1996) and Yet (1998) on a uniform, subangular, fine (D50 = 0.2 mm) silica sand with
CU = 2.4, emax = 0.9820, and emin = 0.5904. Reconstituted
specimens were prepared in a relative density range of
37%77% and tested in a s v0 range of 0.0537 MPa. A series of EOP compression curves are shown in Fig. 25. All
three initial relative densities display type A compression
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Fig. 28. Behavior of Ko for normally consolidated young dense Wabash River sand with Dr = 71% (data from Hendron 1963).
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Fig. 29. Behavior of Ko for normally consolidated young dense Pennsylvania sand with Dr = 63% (data from Hendron 1963).
1
Ca =Cc
1C
r =Cc
t
tp
s v0
s p0
0
Kop 1 sin fcv
0
where fcv
is the constant-volume friction angle. Kop is the
coefficient of earth pressure at rest in normally consolidated
young loose sands and remains constant with s v0 (Jaky 1944,
1948; Mesri and Hayat 1993; Vardhanabhuti and Mesri
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Fig. 30. Behavior of Ko for normally consolidated young dense Pennsylvania sand with Dr = 74% (data from Hendron 1963).
K 1 sin f0
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Fig. 31. Behavior of Ko for normally consolidated young dense Minnesota sand with Dr = 89% (data from Hendron 1963).
0
al. 1975) and displays fcv
= 438, a Kop = 0.31 was directly
measured (Diaz-Rodriguez et al. 1992) and is very close to
the value according to eq. [2] (Mesri and Hayat 1993). It appears from the following that the constant-volume friction
angle of granular materials is independent of the level of
particle damage, ranging from none to level III: (i) the be0
of Dogs Bay carbonate sand, which was indehavior of fcv
pendent of effective stress level; (ii) the observed behavior
of Kop of initially young loose sands, in which Kop remains
constant with s v0 (e.g., Fig. 27); and (iii) constant
0
a sin fcv
, independent of initial relative density in the
Schmidt (1966) equation for the Ko of overconsolidated
sands unloaded from a stress level greater than s v0 Mmin
(Mesri and Hayat 1993) (for a further examination of this
issue, reference is made to Yamamuro and Lade (1996) and
Lade and Yamamuro (1996)).
Yamamuro et al. (1996) inferred the lateral pressures during one-dimensional compression from measurements of radial strain of a thick-walled oedometer confining ring. For a
uniform angular quartz sand and a uniform rounded Cambria
sand of intermediate hardness, they inferred values of Ko &
0.4, which remained constant in the s v0 range from 50 to
850 MPa. For a soft uniform gypsum sand, the inferred Ko
increased at a decreasing rate to values in the range of 0.7
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389
(7)
Conclusions
(8)
The following conclusions are based on a review and interpretation of data from 182 oedometer tests on 98 sands
and 17 isotropic loading tests on six sands.
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
level I and level II particle damage begins at low effective stress and continues with or without gradual level III particle damage, displays a net locking effect
throughout the effective stress range.
A yield stress for type A and type B compression behavior is defined at s v0 Mmax , which marks the abrupt
onset of particle fracturing and splitting. The values
of s v0 Mmax range from less than 0.3 MPa for an angular biogenic carbonate sand to near 30 MPa for a wellrounded quartz sand.
The effective stress that marks the end of the second
stage of compression, s v0 Mmin , is two to five times
the value of s v0 Mmax .
The yield stress commonly defined at the point of
maximum curvature of void ratio against the logarithm
of effective vertical stress, s v0 MC , is 0.72.5 times the
value of s v0 Mmax and 0.30.8 times the value of
s v0 Mmin .
All mechanisms of compression, including particle rearrangement through interparticle slip and rotation and
particle damage, that operate during primary compression continue into secondary compression.
Secondary compression of granular materials follows
the Ca/Cc law of compressibility, with Ca/Cc in the
range of 0.010.03.
The Ca/Cc for any one granular material is independent of the mechanism that facilitates particle rearrangement. Therefore, Ca/Cc is a constant independent of
effective vertical stress range. For any one sand, Ca/Cc
has the same value for both one-dimensional compression and isotropic compression.
The Ca/Cc law of compressibility also correctly predicts the behavior of Ca with time: when Cc increases
with an increase in s v0 , Ca increases with an increase
in time; and when Cc is constant with s v0 , Ca remains
constant with time.
The coefficient of lateral pressure at rest of a normally
consolidated
young
loose
sand
starts
at
0
and remains constant with an inKop 1 sin fcv
crease in effective vertical stress.
The coefficient of earth pressure at rest of an initially
dense sand starts with K 1 sin f0 , which is less
than Kop, and remains constant up to s v0 Mmax , at
which point the onset of level III particle damage destructures the aggregate framework
and K begins to
increase, however, returning to K = Kop by the end of
the second stage of compression.
In summary, it is possible to provide a rational explanation of the observed primary compression, including
yielding of the aggregate framework, secondary compression, and lateral pressure in constrained compression, of granular materials in terms of particle
rearrangement facilitated through interparticle slip and
rotation and particle damage.
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List of symbols
compression index ( De=Dlog s v0 )
recompression index ( De=Dlog s v0 )
uniformity coefficient (= D60/D10)
secondary compression index (= De/Dlog t)
grain size at which 10% of the sample is finer
mean grain size
grain size at which 60% of the sample is finer
relative density
void ratio
initial void ratio
void ratio in loosest state
void ratio in densest state
coefficient of earth pressure at rest
coefficient of earth pressure at rest in normally con solidated young loose sands
K slope of s h0 versus s v0 Ds h0 =Ds v0
M tangent constrained modulus (Ds v0 =D3v )
Cc
Cr
CU
Ca
D10
D50
D60
Dr
e
eo
emax
emin
Ko
Kop
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Mmax tangent constrained modulus at the first inflection
point of s v0 versus 3v or p versus 3v
Mmin tangent constrained modulus at the second inflection point of s v0 versus 3v or p versus 3v
p equal all-around pressure
(p)MC equal all-around pressure at the yield point defined
at the point of maximum curvature of e versus log
p
p0 Mmax equal all-around pressure at the yield point defined
at the first inflection point of e versus p
p0 Mmin equal all-around pressure at the second inflection
point of e versus p defining the end of the second
stage of compression
t time
tp duration of primary consolidation
3v vertical strain; volumetric strain