Instruction Manual

and Experiment Guide

MECHANICS SYSTEM 3

4861.30

N.B.:

Pictures, images and descriptions in this manual may not exactly correspond with
the actual items supplied.
It is also important to note that the experiments in this manual are, only, suggestions.
They are not meant to indicate the limitation of the equipment, which can be used in
wide range of experiments, depending on the educational requirement of the teacher.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
This kit introduces basic concepts of the mechanics of fluids. By using an air blower its possible to explore
also experiments conducted with air. It provides a framework for understanding and quantitatively assessing
many introductory fluidodynamics questions and problems.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

Sensibility of a manometer
Communicating vessels
Hydrostatic pressure and Pascals law
Stevinos law
Archimedes law
Bernouillis equation
Torricellis theorem
Determination of the volume of a solid body
Determination of density and of specific weight of a solid body
Determination of density of immiscible liquids
Capillarity
Boyles law
Pumps and siphons
Adhesion e Cohesion
Cartesian diver
Measurement of surface tension
Perfect gas law
Viscosity

Index of related topics:

A
Adhesion and cohesion ..................................................................................................................33
Archimedes principle......................................................................................................................26
B
Bernouillis equation................................................................................................. 7; 42; 50; 56; 58
Bernoullis theorem .....................................................................................................................7; 16
Boyles law..................................................................................................................................26; 46
Buoyancy ..........................................................................................................................................26
Buoyant force...................................................................................................................................61
C
Capillarity ..........................................................................................................................................30
Cartesian diver.................................................................................................................................26
Communicating vessels .....................................................................................................34; 37; 39
D
Density of a solid body ...................................................................................................................55
Density of two immiscible liquids ..................................................................................................44
Drag coefficient................................................................................................................................61
F
Force pump ......................................................................................................................................53
H
Hagen-Poiseuille law ......................................................................................................................18
Hares apparatus .............................................................................................................................44
Hydraulic brake................................................................................................................................48
Hydrostatic pressure .......................................................................................................................39
J
Jurins law .........................................................................................................................................30
K
Kutta-Joukowski theorem...............................................................................................................56
L
Lift theorem ......................................................................................................................................56
M
Magnus force ...................................................................................................................................56
Mariottes bottle ...............................................................................................................................12

O
Ostwald viscometer.........................................................................................................................18
P
Pascals law............................................................................................................. 12; 15; 39; 48; 50
Perfect gas law ................................................................................................................................59
R
Relative density of two non-mixable fluids ..................................................................................34
Reynolds number ...........................................................................................................................61
S
Siphon ...............................................................................................................................................50
Stevinos law ..................................................................................................................18; 26; 34; 37
Stokes formula ................................................................................................................................61
Surface tension..........................................................................................................................30; 33
T
Terminal velocity..............................................................................................................................61
The Archimedes principle..............................................................................................................23
The Gamow, Oppenheimer, Bloch puzzle ..................................................................................23
Torricellis theorem......................................................................................................................7; 12
U
U-tube manometer ..........................................................................................................................29
V
Venturis tube ...................................................................................................................................42

POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE (CHEMICAL SAFETY DATA):

This kit contains potassium permanganate:

Common
synonyms

Condy's crystals

Formula

KMnO4

Physical
properties

Form: dark red to purple crystalline powder

Stability: Stable, but decomposes if heated above 150 C.
Melting point: ca 150 C (decomposes)
Water solubility: moderate, produces solutions which are intensely coloured, even when
quite dilute
Specific gravity: 2.70

Principal
hazards

This material is harmful if swallowed or inhaled. It is also harmful if absorbed through the
skin.
Potassium permanganate is a strong oxidizing agent and may react very exothermically
with organic materials.

Safe handling

Wear safety glasses and keep the solid or solution from contact with the skin.. Take care
not to allow the solid to come into contact with flammable materials.

Emergency

Eye contact: Immediately flush the eye with plenty of water. Continue for at least ten
minutes and call for medical help.
Skin contact: Wash off with plenty of water. Remove any contaminated clothing. If the skin
appears damaged, call for medical aid.
If swallowed: Call for immediate medical help.

Disposal

Small amounts of very dilute potassium permanganate solution can be flushed down a
sink with a large quantity of water, unless local rules prohibit this. More concentrated
solutions and waste solid should be retained for disposal by those in charge of the
laboratory.

Protective
equipment

Safety glasses. Protective gloves should not normally be necessary. If they are to be
used, nitrile will provide some protection, but may degrade upon contact with solid or
solution, so should be checked regularly and replaced if damage is apparent.

Experiment 1.
RELATED TOPICS:

Bernoullis theorem
Bernoullis equation
Torricellis theorem

The purpose of this experiment is to verify the Torricellis theorem (or the Bernouillis theorem since
Torricellis theorem is a direct consequence) .
ITEMS NEEDED:

Mariottes Bottle
Chronometer (Optional)
Meter stick (Optional)
Calliper (Optional)

THEORY:
Let us consider an ideal fluid (incompressible and without viscosity) in a channel at a given time t

Focus the attention to the part of the fluid that, at a time t, is between section 1 (of area S1) and section 2 (of
area S2). We can conjecture that the sections 1 and 2 are sufficiently small so that the velocity v, pressure p,
and height z, with respect to an axis system, take the same values.
In the time dt the fluid which is contained between 1 and 2 moves to 1 and 2. The work done by the gravity
dWg is to displace the mass dm from height z1 to height z2:
dm = dV = S1v1dt = S2 v2 dt
(1)
so

dWg = ( z1 z2 ) g dm

(2)

The work done by the pressures acting on the liquid surfaces is

dW p = F1ds1 F2 ds2 = S1 p1v1dt S2 p2 v2 dt =

dm

( p1 p2 )

(3)

Analogously the kinetic energy variation for dm between 1 - 1 and 2 2 is

dT =

1
dm ( v22 v12 )
2

(4)

From the energy conservation principle we can write

dT = dWg + dW p

(5)

we have

z1 +

p1 v12
p
v2
+
= z2 + 2 + 2
g 2g
g 2g

(6)

that is called Bernouillis theorem or Bernouillis equation . This equation states that for every section of the
channel we have

z+

p
v2
+
= const.
g 2g

Let us apply this equation to the following system

Its possible to prove that the lines of flux (red lines) start from the surface 1 and end in 2. If the hole in 2 is
sufficiently small, the process may be considered as stationary.
Let us apply the Bernouillis equation (6) between 1 and 2

(7)

z1 +

p0
p
v2
v2
+ 1 = z2 + 0 +
g 2g
g 2g

(8)

since the velocity v1 is very small if compared to v2 here called v. By posing h = z1-z2 we have

v = 2 gh

(9)

and this is called Torricellis theorem.

Let us apply this theorem to the following figure

The liquid in the container decreases of a quantity Sdh in a time dt and, in the same time interval, from the
hole flows out a quantity vsdt so, by applying the Torricellis theorem

dh
dh
= vs R 2
= v r 2 = 2 gh r 2
dt
dt

(10)

from which we have

1
2g r 2 12
dh
2
h
k
h
=
=

2
dt
R

where we have posed

(11)

2g r 2
= k . The initial condition is h(0)=h0.
R2

By solving the differential equation (11) we have

h(t ) =

1
4h0 4 h0 kt + k 2t 2
4

(12)

and by posing h(t)=0 we have

t=

2 h0
k

2h0 R 2
g r2

this is the time is needed to empty the container.

APPARATUS SETTING AND PROCEDURE:
Set up the apparatus as shown in the preceding figure. With a meter stick measure h0, with a calliper
measure r and R and with a chronometer take the time t the container needs to empty.

(13)

EXPERIMENTAL DATA:
By applying equation (13) with h0 = 0.285 m, r=(0.003/2) m, R=(0.039/2) m, g=9.8 m/s2 we have t= 43
seconds. The graph of equation (12)is, for the preceding data, the following
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05

10

20

30

40

The experimental value is 40 seconds which agrees with the theoretical prevision.
SUGGESTION:
Another possibility to verify the Torricellis theorem is to observe the parabolic path of the liquid jet from the
hole of the container.

For the water jet falling down from the hole we have that:

but x = v t and so

1
h = gt 2
2
1 x
h= g 2
2 v

(14)

(15)

Hence, by measuring a couple of values x1, h1 its possible to recover v from equation (15)and to verify if
equation (9) holds.

10

Interesting is also the important fact that in equation (9)theres no concern at all about the nature of the
fluid. By repeating the experiment, with the same conditions, with another fluid instead of fluid the result must
be exactly the same.

11

Experiment 2.
RELATED TOPICS:

Mariottes bottle
Torricellis theorem
Pascals law

The purpose of this experiment is to introduce the concept of Mariottes bottle as an apparatus for obtaining
a constant flux.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Mariottes Bottle

THEORY:
Mariotte siphons or Mariotte bottles are devices that provide a constant pressure that will deliver a constant
rate of flow from closed bottles or tanks. The flow rate will depend upon the head as defined in the following
figure and not on the height of the free water surface.

12

These devices find many uses where a no changing pressure is needed. One application in agriculture is for
applying liquid fertilizer to field crops. Because the fertilizer is applied at a constant rate to the field with this
device, it is applied more uniformly and there is less of a chance of over fertilizing which can result in
contaminating the groundwater.
Let us consider the following figure:

The constant flux is given from the Torricellis theorem since v =

2 gh where h is the difference in level

between C (where the atmospheric pressure is established thanks to the Pascals law) and A.
This difference in level remains constant until the level BB is above C.

13

PROCEDURE:
Verify the constant flux by observing the shape of the jet from the hole.
What happens if C is under A? Here is a picture of this configuration

14

Experiment 3.
RELATED TOPICS:

Pascals law

The purpose of this experiment is to introduce the concept of Pascals law

ITEMS NEEDED:

Pascals ball
Syringe
Connecting tube

THEORY:
In the physical sciences, Pascal's law or Pascal's principle gives the fluid pressure at mechanical equilibrium,
on which only gravity forces are taken into account. More specifically, this law is actually a set of principles or
laws discovered in 1648 by the scientist, Blaise Pascal, summarized as:
In a body of equally dense fluid at rest, the pressure is the same for all points in the fluid so long as those
points are at the same depth below the fluid's surface.
In this case we can say:
Any change in pressure applied at any given point on a confined and incompressible fluid is transmitted
undiminished throughout the fluid
PROCEDURE:
Fill the syringe with water, push the syringes plunger, and watch the water shoot out of every hole equally,
even those in the back of the bulb.
This confirms also the independence of the pressures direction transmitted by a fluid.

15

Experiment 4.
RELATED TOPICS:

Bernoullis theorem

The purpose of the experiment is to give another example (counter-intuitive) of the application of Bernouillis
theorem.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Funnel
Styrofoam ball
Air compressor (Optional)

THEORY:
Let us consider the following figure

When a fluid is flowing through a diverging channel as in a funnel the cross-sectional area available to the
fluid increases. So it's velocity must decrease to conserve mass (for constant density)
S 2 v2 = S1v1
(16)

16

Since S2<S1 then v1<v2, otherwise said the airs velocity must decrease when flowing from 2 to 1. Let us
apply the Bernouillis equation:

z1 +

p1 v12
p
v2
+
= z2 + 2 + 2
g 2g
g 2g

(17)

by substituting equation (16) in (17) and by posing h = z2-z1 we have

p1 S 22 v22
p2 v22
h
+
=
+
+
g 2 gS12
g 2g

(18)

from which

p1 p2 = p =

gv22

S 22
1

+ h g
2 g S12

(19)

which is a positive quantity since S2<S1.

So if we place a sphere at the apex there will be a large pressure drop across the sphere. The net pressure
force will balance the weight of the sphere.
APPARATUS SETTING:
Place the ball under the funnel and blow air inside by observing the balls behaviour.

17

Experiment 5.
RELATED TOPICS:

Ostwald viscometer
Hagen-Poiseuille law
Stevinos law

The purpose of the experiment is to explain quantitatively the use of the Ostwald viscometer and to
determine the relative viscosity coefficient.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Ostwald viscometer
Water, milk, oil (not included)

THEORY:
If we apply a shear stress to an ideal fluid in a direction x the Hookes law is no more valid as in solids since
the fluid starts to flow with velocity dx/dt in that direction. Anyway real fluids also oppose strains, however it
is not the amount of strain that is important but the rate at which the strain is produced. When a real fluid
flows, it has an internal resistance to flow, an internal friction, which is called its viscosity. Viscosity is a
characteristic property of all real fluids.
Let us consider a real fluid between two plates: the bottom plate is held at rest and to the upper is applied a
shear stress F/S where S is the plate surface. What is experimentally found is that the liquid flow can be
divided in many sheets of fluid that starts to move with a linear decreasing velocity from top as in the
following figure:

18

The viscosity effect manifest itself with a shear stress drag F/S applied to every single fluid sheet with
surface S and velocity v in the opposite direction of motion.
The sheets velocity is experimentally found to be
v=kr
(20)
(where r is the normal to the fluid sheet) in some kind of fluids (called Newtonian fluids as air, water)
with k =

F 1
.
S

By deriving equation (20) we found that the fluid sheets are subjected to a force drag

F
dv
= k =
S
dr
where is called dynamic viscosity,

v=

(21)

dx
is the velocity of the fluid sheet. The forces acting on a fluid
dt

sheet are the shear stress provoked by the hydrostatic pressure and the viscosity friction.
Let us study this phenomenon in relation to the Ostwald viscometer

In particular we can focus our attention to the capillary part AC of the viscometer.

19

In this case the Bernouillis equation doesnt apply since viscosity effects are relevant.
As a matter of fact, we got two different behaviour for a fluid is flowing in tubes with different diameters

Hence we have to be involved in a more subtle analysis because we have to consider the Poiseuilles region.
Let us indicate whit r0 the capillary radius, l its length and p = p1 p2 the pressure difference that push the
liquid forward.
We can imagine to divide the tube into many cylindrical coaxial layers. If r is the radius of one of this
cylinders, dr the thickness and v(r) the velocity, the carrying capacity of the single cylindrical layer is
dQ = 2 r dr v
(22)
The total carrying capacity of the tube is therefore

20

r0

Q = 2 r v dr

(23)

Beyond this, in stationary conditions the cylindrical column of liquid (the blue column in the picture) moves
without acceleration so the force exerted by the pressure gradient must be equal to the drag force (see
equation (21)) exerted by the liquid sheath that surround the column

( p1 p2 ) r 2 = S

dv
dv
= 2 rl
dr
dr

(24)

or

dv
r
= ( p1 p2 )
dr
2l

(25)

By integrating this differential equation with v=0 for r=r0, we get

r02 r 2 )
(
r
dr = ( p1 p2 )
0 v ( r ) = ( p1 p2 )
2l
4l
r
r0

from which

v ( r ) = ( p1 p2 )

(r

2
0

r2 )

4l

(26)

(27)

Its clear how the velocity distribution is parabolic with a maximum on the capillarys axis

vmax = ( p1 p2 )

r02
. If now we substitute (27) in (23)we get
4l
r0

Q=

(r
2 r ( p p )

r2 )

2
0

4l

dr =

( p1 p2 ) r04
8
l

(28)

Hence, in the time t the liquid volume streamed out is

V = Qt =

( p1 p2 ) r 4t
8 l

(29)

which is the Hagen-Poiseuille law.

If we use a liquid with a known viscosity 1 (e.g. water at a certain temperature) we have from (29)

1 =

p1 4
r0 t1
8lV

(30)

2 =

p2 4
r0 t2
8lV

(31)

for a liquid with an unknown viscosity we have

By dividing both members we get

but for the Stevinos law we have

1 p1 t1
=
2 p2 t2

(32)

pi = i gh and hence

2 2 t2
=
1 1 t1

(33)

which express the relative viscosity coefficient.

APPARATUS SETTING:
Fill the viscometer with water until a level F is reached. Wait few minutes and measure the temperature of
the water inside the apparatus.

21

PROCEDURE:
By sucking on the branch with the capillary tube bring the water above the mark B. Let the water flowing
down and measure the transit time between B and A.
Repeat the same procedure for the viscosity unknown fluid (e.g. milk, oil) and measure again the transit time.
After that, measure the density of the viscosity unknown fluid, and by knowing the density of water at the
given temperature Its possible to apply equation (33).
EXPERIMENTAL DATA:

For water at 18C we obtain a mean time of 77 seconds.

For milk (semi skimmed) at 18C we obtain a mean time of 200 seconds.
Density of water at 18C is 1008 Kg/m3
Density of milk (semi skimmed) at 18C is 1026 Kg/m3 (measured with a balance and a graduated
cylinder)
Hence by applying equation (33)we get, for semi skimmed milk =2.64

22

Experiment 6.
RELATED TOPICS:

The Gamow, Oppenheimer, Bloch puzzle

The Archimedes principle

This is a problem that embarrassed physics greats George Gamow, Robert Oppenheimer and Felix Bloch.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Two transparent vessels one containing the other (not included)

Object more dense than water (not included)
Oil (not included)

THEORY:
Imagine you are in a small boat with a large stone sitting in the bottom of it. The boat is floating in a
swimming pool. What happens if you throw the stone overboard? Does the level of the water in the pool go
up, down, or stay the same?
As a warm up, what happens to the level of the boat on the water when the stone is thrown overboard?
Well for the sake of simplicity we can start to think the boat and the pool having cubical shape

23

If the boat (mass Mboat) is charged with a stone (mass Mstone) the gravity force acting on the boat is

Fg = ( M stone + M boat ) g

(34)

the buoyancy force is given by the Archimedes principle and is equal to

FA = liquidVliquid g

(35)

where liquid and Vliquid = l h3 are the liquid density and the displaced liquid volume.
In equilibrium conditions we can write that gravity force must balance the buoyancy force or, by reasoning in
terms of masses

( M stone + M boat ) = liquid l 2 h3

(36)

If the boat is empty and the stone thrown overboard inside the pool

In this case the gravity force is

Fg = M boat g

(37)

FA = liquidVliquid g = liquid l 2 h4

(38)

and the buoyancy force

with the same reasoning of the preceding situation we have

M boat = liquid l 2 h4

24

(39)

By substituting (39)in (36) we obtain

M stone = liquid l 2 ( h3 h4 )

and since Mstone is always positive, this means

(40)

h3 > h4

(41)

Lets take in consider the volume of displaced water.

In the first case (stone onboard) we have that the volume of displaced water is

h1 L2 h3l 2

(42)

In the second case (stone overboard) we have that the volume of displaced water is

h2 L2 h4l 2 Vstone

(43)

where Vstone is the stones volume.

M stone
and inserting it into equation (43) we get
liquid l 2
M
h2 L2 h3l 2 + stone Vstone

But from equation (40) we have that h4 = h3

liquid

(44)

By equating equation (44) with equation (42) we have

h1 L2 h3l 2 = h2 L2 h3l 2 +

M stone

liquid

Vstone

(45)

or

h1 h2 =
and since liquid < stone this means

M stone
M stone
M stone 1
1

L2 liquid stone
liquid L2 stone L2
h1 > h2

(46)

(47)

Now we can abandon the hypothesis on the cubical shape.

As a matter of fact, exactly the same arguments remains if we substitute hi with f(hi) or g(hi) where f and g
are monotonically growing functions expressing respectively the volume of the boats displaced water and
the volume of the pool. Both f and g are depending on the shapes of the pool and boat.
In this way we have (by calling object what we called earlier stone)

f (h3 ) f (h4 ) =

M object

(48)

liquid

and

1
1

g (h1 ) g (h2 ) = M stone

liquid object

(49)

this means that its always h3>h4 but h1>h2 only if the object is less dense than water. Otherwise it could be
h1=h2 or h1<h2.
PROCEDURE:
Try first with an object more dense than water and observe the level difference on the pool and on the boat.
Then try with water and finally with oil.

25

Experiment 7.
RELATED TOPICS:

Cartesian diver
Archimedes principle
Boyles law
Stevinos law
Buoyancy

This is an experiment due to develop intuition for how fluids at rest behave under gravity and pressure
forces.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Plexiglas tube with rubber stop without hole

Test tube with rubber stop with hole
Salt (not included)

THEORY:
Changes in pressure change the volume of the air/test tube unit so that it alternately becomes more or less
dense than the surrounding water. This experiment demonstrates the property of buoyancy.
An object is buoyant in water due to the amount of water it displaces or pushes aside. If the weight of water
that is displaced by an object in water exceeds the weight of the object then the object will float. As you apply
pressure to the long tube, you apply pressure to the air bubble in the test tube effectively reducing its size.
As the bubbles size reduces, the test tube becomes less buoyant and begins to sink.

26

In general, thanks to the Archimedes principle, the buoyant force B(z) on the diver at a depth z is

B ( z ) = gV ( z )

(50)

where is the density of water and V(z) volume of the air in the diver at depth z. (Note that, as a simplifying
assumption, were ignoring the volume of the glass in the test tube, which well assume is small relative to
the volume of the air it holds.)
By Boyles law we have

PV
V ( z) =
0 0 = P ( z )V ( z )

PV
0 0
P( z )

(51)

The pressure P(z) at a depth z is just the surface pressure plus the weight per unit area of the water above it,
so (by the Stevinos law) we have
P ( z ) = P0 + gz
(52)
hence from (51)

V ( z) =

PV
0 0
P0 + gz

(53)

and finally from (50)

B( z ) = g

PV
0 0
P0 + gz

(54)

The critical depth is the depth beyond which the weight of the diver exceeds the buoyant force, or

PV
0 0
P0 + gz

(55)

PV
P
0 0
0
mdiver g g

(56)

mdiver g > g
solving for z, the critical depth is

zcritical =

From equation (7) it results that when

V0

mdiver

the Cartesian diver cant sink. The unique way to observe

this is to increase the liquid density (e.g. by adding salt).

27

PROCEDURE:
Fill the long tube with water. Fill the test tube partially with water, then turn it upside down without spilling the
water and put it in the long tube so it just floats at the top. Experiment a few times to get the right amount of
air into the test tube. Eventually put a rubber stopper on the top of the long tube. Press down with hand or on
the rubber stopper to see how the diver move up and down.
After that, add salt in the tube and observe how is more and more difficult to sink the diver.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA:
In a test case V0 = 8.5 cm3, mdiver=17g, g=9.81 m/s2, =1000 Kg/m3, P0=101300 Pa (N/m2), hence by
applying equation (56) we get zcritical 5 m. Since the tube is lower than 5m theres no way to loose the
Cartesian diver.
Conversely, by adding salt, its possible to make impossible the Cartesian diver sink.

28

Experiment 8.
RELATED TOPICS:

U-tube manometer

The purpose of this experiment is to explain the functioning of the U-tube manometer.
ITEMS NEEDED:

U-tube manometer
Potassium permanganate

THEORY:
The instrument is made up by a U-shaped glass tube fixed on a vertical panel as air gauge and differential
air gauge.
Fill the tube to a half with mercury or a liquid of smaller specific weight, depending on the sizes of the
pressures to be measured.
With an adequate tube connect one of the two limbs of the gauge to the vessel containing the fluid the
pressure of which must be measured; the difference between that pressure and the atmospheric is
determined (expressed in centimetres or millimetres of liquid) by reading the difference in level of the liquid
between the two limbs:

If also the other limb is connected to a vessel the difference in level will show the difference in pressure
between the fluids contained in the two vessel (differential gauge)

29

Experiment 9.
RELATED TOPICS:

Capillarity
Jurins law
Surface tension

The purpose of this experiment is to introduce the concepts of capillarity.

ITEMS NEEDED:

Capillary tubes

THEORY:
The general laws of the heavy fluids static must be modified when the existence of phenomena linked to the
cohesion force of the molecules that compose them is considered. In particular, the surface tension along
the dividing line between an aeriform fluid A, a liquid B and the wall C of the container causes the bending of
the surface at rest of B (fig 1).

It is said that the liquid wets (for instance water, fig 1a) or does not wet (for instance mercury, fig. 1b) the
wall, depending if it results <90 or >90, where is the connecting angle. The surface tension is the
cause of the existence of the phenomena of capillarity. For example, in a U-tube, where one of the two
branches has the radius of some tenths of mm, the surface of the two branches will not be at the same level;
the shape of the liquid surface in the capillarity will be concave or convex for <90 and >90 respectively
(fig 2a and 2b).

30

The surface tension of the liquid intervenes to determine the equilibrium of the column by exerting a
pressure upward in the first case, downward in the second: the level in the capillary is therefore higher or
lower than the level in the wider branch, depending if liquid wets or does not wet the wall

By referring us to the preceding figure we can indicate with the superficial tension acting on the perimeters
unit length of the circle TT. The vertical component of the superficial tension is cos .
Hence, along all the liquid meniscus we have the force 2 r cos , this force is directed upwards and
raises the liquid column of height h.
The volume of the raised liquid is evidently composed of two parts: one cylindrical part of volume r h and
one crown shaped part (generally neglectable) around the meniscus of volume between MM and TT
2

r2 r

1 4 3 r3
r =
.
23
3

If is the density of the liquid at the equilibrium we must have

2
r3
2 r cos = r ( h r ) +
g
3

(57)

and if <<1 (hence cos 1) we can write

2 gr

= h r
3 2

grh
2

(58)

by supposing r<<h and hence by neglecting the crown shaped volume. This is the Jurins law.
With this formula its possible to calculate the surface tension by measuring h, r and .
APPARATUS SETTINGS:
Observe that the liquid reaches different levels in the different capillary tubes and that the differences in
heights increase as the radius decreases, according to the Jurins law:

31

EXPERIMENTAL DATA:
With a tube of 1 mm. diameter its possible to observe an height of 15 mm. By applying equation (58) we
get a surface tension of nearly 40 N/m (at 16 C). The order of magnitude agrees well with the tabulated
values.

32

Experiment 10.
RELATED TOPICS:

Adhesion and cohesion

Surface tension

The purpose of this experiment is to illustrate the

ITEMS NEEDED:

Mercury (not included)

Distilled water (not included)
Potassium permanganate

THEORY:
Surface tension is a phenomenon observed at a liquid-gas interface. It is caused by the difference in forces
of adhesion and cohesion.
The amount of surface tension is caused by the magnitude of the difference in these forces.
The mercury shown in the picture at left has a high surface tension, resulting in small drops that are almost
spherical.
The larger drops are flattened because mercury has a high specific gravity (density), and gravity is acting on
a larger volume of mercury.
The image at right has two drops of distilled water, four drops of distilled water with green colouring added in
a line through the centre, and an outer ring of distilled water with green colouring and dishwashing detergent
added.
The shape of the drops is an indication of the amount of surface tension. The drops with the highest domes
have the greatest surface tension.
So it appears the colouring enhanced the surface tension of the distilled water by increasing cohesion within
the drop.
Adding detergent relaxes the surface tension by decreasing the cohesion of water molecules for themselves.
Surfactants are materials that decrease the surface tension of water.
Surfactants are regularly used when mixing dissimilar liquids or liquids with dry powders.
The decrease in cohesion allows easier and more thorough mixing

33

Experiment 11.
RELATED TOPICS:

Stevinos law
Communicating vessels
Relative density of two non-mixable fluids

The purpose of this experiment is to study the Stevinos law that allows us to get in touch with the
communicating vessels principle.
ITEMS NEEDED:

U-tube

THEORY:
The pressure exerted within a liquid depends only from the free surface and from the liquid density. Let us
consider the following figure:

34

We want to determine the hydrostatic pressure in the point p at a deep h with respect to the free surface of
the liquid.
If p0 is the pressure exerted from the environment to the free surface (atmospheric pressure) we can isolate
a fluid cylinder of volume V and apply to it the first law of dynamics

F = 0
i

(59)

F1 + F2 F3 = 0

(60)

In the y-direction we have

where

F1 = p0 A , F2 = mg = Vg = Ahg , F3 = pA . By substituting these values in equation (60)we have

p0 A + Ahg pA = 0
(61)

or

p = p0 + hg

(62)

which is called the Stevinos law.

By analyzing that law we can conclude that:

The pressure p is the same in all the points at the same deep h
The pressure p is linearly growing with deep h
Whatever will be the vessel shape we have

or (another form of the Stevinos law)

p2 p1 = g h

PROCEDURE:
Pour some liquid inside the U-tube (water with potassium permanganate is more clearly visible). If at the
equilibrium there was a level difference between the two arms:

35

(63)

by applying equation (63)we would get a net force on the free surface and the equilibrium could not be
reached. So the only solution for the equilibrium is to have the liquid at the same level in both the arms.
Now pour two non-mixable fluids inside the U-tube (e.g. water and oil):

By applying equation (62) we get

or

patm + ' gh ' = patm + '' gh ''

(64)

' h ''
=
'' h '

(65)

hence by measuring h and h we can find the relative density of two non-mixable fluids.

36

Experiment 12.
RELATED TOPICS:

Stevinos law
Communicating vessels

The purpose of this experiment is to get more involved with the communicating vessels principle.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Communicating vessels
Water (not included)
Oil (not included)

THEORY:
Observing the level reached by the liquid in the four glass tubes of the apparatus, one can check the socalled communicating vessels principle. According to it, the level of the liquid surface in a set of tubes
communicating with one another is the same in all tubes if the liquid contained in each tube is the same.
That is a direct consequence of Stevino's law (see preceding experiments), according to which the pressure
inside a liquid of density at a point at depth h from the liquid surface is
p = gh + p0
(66)
where p0 is the atmospheric pressure on the liquid surface and g the local acceleration of gravity.
In fact, since at equilibrium pressure must be the same at all points of the liquid at the same depth, the
height of the liquid columns in the various tubes with respect to some horizontal plane must be the same. If
the tubes about contain the same liquid, the heights of the surfaces are the same for the tubes containing the
same liquid.
APPARATUS SETTING:
Lay the apparatus on a horizontal plane and fill it with water up to 4-5 cm from the edge of the tubes.
PROCEDURE:
It can be immediately verified that the level of the water surface is the same in all tubes and it remains so
even if the apparatus is inclined (if the water level is such that in the second tube the surface is in the curved

37

section, the separating surface with air results slightly inclined; this depends upon the presence of a surface
tension determining the patched angle between the glass surface and the water).
By partially empty in the apparatus from the water and by substituting in a tube with a liquid non-miscible
with water (for instance an oil) it can be seen that, while the level in the tubes containing water coincide, the
level in the tube containing the other liquid is different:

This is exactly the same experiment we did before with the U-tube.

38

Experiment 13.
RELATED TOPICS:

Communicating vessels
Hydrostatic pressure
Pascals law

The purpose of this experiment is to show how the hydrostatic pressure at a given depth does not depend
upon the shape of the vessel containing the liquid or the amount of liquid in the vessel..
ITEMS NEEDED:

Communicating vessels

THEORY:
If the height of the fluid's surface above the bottom of the five vessels is the same, in which vessel is the
pressure of the fluid on the bottom of the vessel the greatest ? The amount of liquid in each vessel is not
necessarily the same. Let us imagine to have the following vessels:

The pressure P is the same on the bottom of each vessel.

Why the pressure does not depend upon the shape of the vessel or the amount of fluid in the vessel rests
upon three things:
Pressure is force per unit area and this is not same as the total weight of the liquid in a vessel.
A fluid can not support its self without a container. Thus the walls of the container exert a pressure
on the fluid equal to the pressure of the fluid at that depth.
The pressure at given level is transmitted equally throughout the fluid to be the same value at that
level.

39

Vessel A
No matter how wide the vessel, the pressure is just the weight of the fluid above unit area on the bottom.
Even if you take the whole weight of the fluid in the container mg and divide by the area of the bottom A, you
still get the same results since the vessel is equivalent to a column of water:

In formulas we have:

P=

mg Vg Ahg
=
=
= gh
A
A
A

(67)

Vessel B
Vessel B could be divided into three parts.

The fluid in parts 1 and 3 is supported by upward force of the vessel on the fluid. Part 2 could be though of a
vertical column of liquid similar to vessel A.
One could ask why doesn't the fluid in parts 1 and 3 (which are much bigger) not squeeze column 2 where
they meet (along the dashed line) and there by increase the pressure on the bottom of the column?
The answer is that the fluid in column 2 exerts and equal but opposite pressure outwards on the two other
liquids to support itself. From the point of view of column 2, the water outside the dashed lines in sections 1
& 3 could be replace by solid vertical walls (along the dashed lines) and column 2 would still be in
equilibrium.
Vessel C
Again we could divide the water into three sections.

40

The middle section is similar to that of vessel A or B. Since the height of the fluid in section 1 or 3 is not high
enough to produce the same pressure as the height of the fluid in 2, how does the pressure on the bottoms
of section 1 and 3 get to be the same as that of 2 ?
The answer is that top of the container's walls in sections 1 and 3 produce a downward pressure that is
equal to the fluid pressure in the middle section at the same level. If you poked a hole in the top of the
container in sections 1 or 3, water would fountain upwards from the hole under pressure (see preceding
experiment). From Pascal's principle, this pressure has to be that of the fluid in the middle section at the
same level.
Vessel D
Again the center column is similar to vessel A.

The pressure of the vessel's wall creates a pressure that vertically supports the fluid in sections 1 and 3. At
the same time the pressure of the walls create a horizontal component of pressure that sustains the fluid in
the center column.
Vessel E
While one can not offer simple arguments like those for the other vessels, the pressure on the bottom is still
the same basically because of Pascal's principle:

You go down from the surface to some depth, then move sideways until you can go down again. Repeat the
process until you reach the bottom. Since the pressure at the same depth is the same, moving sideways
does not change the pressure. Only downwards motion increases the pressure.

41

Experiment 14.
RELATED TOPICS:

Venturis tube
Bernouillis equation

The purpose of this experiment is to explain the venturi effect.

ITEMS NEEDED:

Venturis tube
Air blower

THEORY AND PROCEDURE:

A fluid passing through smoothly varying constrictions experience changes in velocity and pressure. These
changes can be used to measure the flowrate of the fluid. To calculate the flowrate of a fluid passing through
a venturi, let us consider the following image:

From the Bernouillis equation we have

z1 +

p1 v12
p
v2
+
= z2 + 2 + 2
g 2g
g 2g

42

(68)

and since z1 = z2 we get

pa pb = p =
From the continuity equation ( Aa va

1 2 1 2
vb va
2
2

(69)

= Ab vb ), the throat velocity vb can be substituted out of the above

equation to give

1 2 Aa2
p = va 2 1
2
Ab

(70)

From equation (70) we see that in A the pressure is greater than in B:

Solving for the upstream velocity va and multiplying by the cross-sectional area Aa gives the volumetric
flowrate Q,

Q=

2p

Aa
Aa2
2 1
Ab

(71)

Ideal, inviscid fluids would obey the above equation. The small amounts of energy converted into heat within
viscous boundary layers tend to lower the actual velocity of real fluids somewhat. A discharge coefficient C is
typically introduced to account for the viscosity of fluids

Q=C

2p

Aa
Aa2
2 1
Ab

(72)

C is found to depend on the Reynolds number of the flow, and usually lies between 0.90 and 0.98 for
smoothly tapering venturis.
The mass flowrate can be found by multiplying Q with the fluid density.

43

Experiment 15.
RELATED TOPICS:

Hares apparatus
Density of two immiscible liquids

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the density of a liquid using the Hares apparatus.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Hares apparatus
2 beakers
some liquid with unknown density

THEORY:
The Hares apparatus consists of an upside-down U-tube the free ends of which can draw on two containers
filled one with water and the other with the liquid whose density must be determined; on the bend of the Utube there is a third shorter limb through which is possible to obtain a depression in the tube sucking off the
air.
That depression makes the liquids rise in their respective limbs so to balance the difference between
pressure inside the tube and pressure outside.
Now, since such difference has the same value for both liquids, being equal for both the value of the internal
pressure (the produced depression) and that of the external pressure (atmospheric), from the comparison
between the heights of the columns in the two limbs of the U-tube it is possible to derive the relative density
respect with water of the liquid under exam.
APPARATUS SETTING:
Put the two glasses under the free ends of the U-tube as shown in the preceding picture; if necessary make
the U-tube slide along its support. Pour water in one beaker and the liquid whose density we are looking for
in the other, in such a quantity to wet the two ends for some centimeters.
Suck from the rubber tube starting from the third limb of the U-tube.

44

PROCEDURE:
Suck off air from the U-tube until an appreciable raise in the height of the liquids in the two limbs is obtained;
using two fingers stop the rubber tube used to suck.
By using a stick meter measure the heights of the two columns respect to the surfaces of the liquid in the
two glasses: the density of the liquid under exam is given by the ratio between the measurements of the two
heights, with that of water at the numerator.
In fact the pressure, expressed in dine/cm2, exerted by a column of liquid with an height of h cm and a
density of grams/cm3 is equal to hg where g is the gravity acceleration.
Therefore if two columns of different liquids exert equal pressure, the following relationship will hold:
h1 1 g = h2 2 g
(73)
or

1 h2
=
2 h1

otherwise said the inverse of ratio between two different liquids heights gives us the relative density.

45

(74)

Experiment 16.
RELATED TOPICS:

Boyles law

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the relationship between the volume and pressure for a fixed
mass of gas at constant temperature (Boyles law).
ITEMS NEEDED:

U-tube manometer
Syringe
Potassium permanganate

THEORY:
Boyle's law is a basic law in chemistry describing the behaviour of an ideal gas under a constant
temperature. An ideal gas is a perfectly pure gas undergoing perfect elastic collisions with its container. No
such gas actually exists, but real gases behave closely enough to ideal gases that we can use theories
applying to the latter to describe the former.
Boyle's law states that at a fixed temperature the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure
applied to it. In other words, the pressure of a gas times its volume is a constant

PV = const

(75)

It is not necessary to know the exact value of this constant to meaningfully understand the behaviour of
gases. The law was discovered by Robert Boyle in 1662. The standard measurements for volume and
pressure are cubic meters and pascals (or atmospheres).
One obvious example of Boyle's law in action is in a syringe. In a syringe, the volume of a fixed amount of
gas is increased by drawing the handle back, thereby lessening the pressure. The blood in a vein has higher
pressure than the gas in the syringe, so it flows into the syringe, equalizing the pressure differential.
Boyle's law is one of three gas laws which thoroughly describe the behaviour of gases under varying
temperatures, pressures and volumes.
Another way of describing Boyle's law is that when you push a gas, it tends to push back. Without the
massive amount of gravity holding them together, the solar system's gas planets would rapidly diffuse in all
directions, quickly depressurising. There is a limit to the amount we can compress any given gas sample, because
eventually the pressure becomes so great that it bursts out of any container we can create for it.

46

PROCEDURE:
Connect the syringe to the U-tube manometer previously filled with coloured water (use the potassium
permanganate)

Take care that the syringe has no air losses in the connection point.
While pushing on the syringe plunger, record simultaneously the volume of the syringe expressed in ml and
the pressure on the column of coloured water expressed in mm.
You should obtain a graph like this:
Pressure
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Volume
10

20

30

47

40

Experiment 17.
RELATED TOPICS:

Hydraulic brake
Pascals law

The purpose of this experiment is to explain the principle of the hydraulic brake.
ITEMS NEEDED:

2 syringes
connecting tube for syringes
2 extension clamp
universal base
base clamp
weights (not included)

THEORY:
One of the technological application of the hydraulic press, and therefore of the Pascals law, is the hydraulic
transmission brake that is used in many machines.
In this kind of brake a force f, of very small intensity is exerted on a plunger.

The associated pressure P propagates along an hydraulic circuit until it reaches a second piston, normally of
much larger section.

48

The ratio between the intensity of the thrust F of this second piston and that of f is equal to the ratio A/a
between the surfaces of the plungers, that is between the squares of the radii in the case of cylindrical
plungers.
PROCEDURE:
The two syringes (and the connecting tube) must be filled with water eliminating completely the air.
After that, by using suitable weights, the preceding equation can be verified:

F A
=

f a

Fg A
=

fg a

where M is the mass acting on A and m is the mass acting on a.

49

M A
=
m a

(76)

Experiment 18.
RELATED TOPICS:

Siphon
Bernouillis equation
Pascals law

The purpose of this experiment is to explain the principle of the siphon.

ITEMS NEEDED:

2 beakers
silicon tubing

THEORY:
A siphon (also spelled syphon) is a continuous tube that allows liquid to drain from a reservoir through an
intermediate point that is higher than the reservoir, the up-slope flow being driven only by hydrostatic
pressure without any need for pumping. It is necessary that the final end of the tube be lower than the liquid
surface in the reservoir.
Once started, a siphon requires no additional energy to keep the liquid flowing up and out of the reservoir.
The siphon works because the ultimate drain point is lower than the reservoir and the flow of liquid out the
drain point creates a vacuum in the tube such that liquid is drawn up out of the reservoir.
The maximum height of the intermediate point (the crest) is limited by atmospheric pressure and the density
of the liquid. At the high point of the siphon, gravity tends to draw the liquid down in both directions creating a
vacuum. Atmospheric pressure on the top surface of the higher reservoir is transmitted through the liquid in
the reservoir (Pascals law) and up the siphon tube and prevents a vacuum from forming. When the pressure
exerted by the weight of the height of the column of liquid equals that of atmospheric pressure, a vacuum will
form at the high point and the siphon effect ended. For water at standard pressure, the maximum height is
approximately 10 m; for mercury it is 76 cm.
An analogy to understand siphons is to imagine a long, frictionless train extending from a plain, up a hill and
then down the hill into a valley below the plain. So long as part of the train extends into the valley below the
plain, it is "intuitively obvious" that the portion of the train sliding into the valley can pull the rest of the train up
the hill and into the valley. What is not obvious is what holds the train together when the train is a liquid in a
tube. In this analogy, atmospheric pressure holds the train together. Once the force of gravity on the
couplings between the cars of the train going up the hill exceeds that of atmospheric pressure, the coupling
breaks and the train falls apart. The train analogy is demonstrated in a "siphon-chain model" where a long
chain on a pulley flows between two beakers.
A plain tube can be used as a siphon. An external pump has to be applied to start the liquid flowing and
prime the siphon. This can be a human mouth and lungs. This is sometimes done with any leak-free hose to

50

siphon gasoline from a motor vehicle's gasoline tank to an external tank. If the tube is flooded with liquid
before part of the tube is raised over the intermediate high point and care is taken to keep the tube flooded
while it is being raised, no pump is required. Devices sold as siphons come with a siphon pump to start the
siphon process.
Among some physicists there is some dispute as to what causes the siphon to lift liquid from the upper
reservoir to the crest of the siphon. They argue that theoretically, internal molecular cohesion is sufficient to
pull the liquid up the intake leg of the siphon to the crest. Furthermore, some argue that theoretically a
siphon will operate in a vacuum. In practice atmospheric pressure is required, to prevent the liquid from
boiling.
Bernoulli's equation may be applied to a siphon to derive the flow rate and maximum height of the siphon.

Let the surface of the upper reservoir be the reference elevation.

Let point A be the start point of siphon, immersed within the higher reservoir and at a depth d below the
surface of the upper reservoir.
Let point B be the intermediate high point on the siphon tube at height +hB above the surface of the upper
reservoir.
Let point C be the drain point of the siphon at height hC below the surface of the upper reservoir.
The Bernouillis equation is

z+

p
v2
+
= const.
g 2g

Applying Bernoulli's equation to the surface of the upper reservoir we get

0+

patm 02
+
= const.
g 2g

51

(77)

since we said that the surface of the upper reservoir is the reference elevation (z=0) and v that is the velocity
of the upper reservoirs surface may be set to zero
Apply Bernoulli's equation to point A at the start of the siphon tube in the upper reservoir where p = pA, v =
vA and z = d

d +

pA vA2
+
= const.
g 2g

(78)

Apply Bernoulli's equation to point B at the intermediate high point of the siphon tube where p = pB, v = vB
and z = hB

hB +

p B vB 2
+
= const.
g 2g

(79)

Apply Bernoulli's equation to point C where the siphon empties. Where p = pC=patm, v = vC and z = - hC

hC +

patm vC 2
+
= const.
g 2g

(80)

As the siphon is a single system, the constant in all four equations are the same. Setting equations (77)
and (80) equal to each other gives

patm
patm vC 2
= hC +
+
g
g 2g

(81)

vC = 2 ghC

(82)

or
The velocity of the siphon is thus driven solely by the height difference between the surface of the upper
reservoir and the drain point. The height of the intermediate high point, hB, does not affect the velocity of the
siphon. However, as the siphon is a single system, vB = vC and the intermediate high point does limit the
maximum velocity. The drain point cannot be lowered indefinitely to increase the velocity. Equation (79) will
limit the velocity to a positive pressure at the intermediate high point to prevent cavitations (the phenomenon
where small and largely empty cavities are generated in a fluid, which expand to large size and then rapidly
collapse, producing a sharp sound). The maximum velocity vC=vB=vmax may be calculated by combining
equations (77) and (79) with pB=0:

patm
0 vmax 2
= hB +
+
g
g 2g

(83)

vmax = 2 g atm hB
g

(84)

or

and since this quantity must at least be 0 we have that

0 hB

patm
g

(85)

This gives us the maximum height that a siphon will work. It is simply when the weight of the column of liquid
to the intermediate high point equates to atmospheric pressure. Substituting values for water will give 10
metres for water and 0.76 metres for mercury.
PROCEDURE:
Try to realize a siphon with the items supplied.

52

Experiment 19.
RELATED TOPICS:

Force pump

The purpose of this experiment is to explain the principle of the force pump.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Force pump

THEORY:
Pumps are machines that through work provide potential and kinetic energy to a liquid

53

A and B are two valves, that is devices that permit the liquid flow in one direction only. Raising the piston, a
depression is created in the chamber C1 and the water, pushed by the atmospheric pressure, opens the
valve A and it enters inside the chamber. The next compression of the piston first causes the closing of valve
A, then the opening of valve B and the consequent passage of the liquid from chamber C1 to C2. Repeating
the cycle until chamber C2 is entirely filled, in the compression phase of the piston the liquid comes out.
APPARATUS SETTING:
Fill a small tank of adequate dimensions with water and immerge the suction tube in the liquid.
PROCEDURE:
Try to verify the functioning principle of the force pump.

54

Experiment 20.
RELATED TOPICS:

Density of a solid body

The purpose of this experiment is to explain the difficulties underlying this apparently simple experiment.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Electronic balance (not included)

Meter stick (not included)
Vernier calliper (not included)

THEORY:
See Basics of the experimental error theory in the appendix.

55

Experiment 21.
RELATED TOPICS:

Bernouillis equation
Magnus force
Kutta-Joukowski theorem
Lift theorem

The purpose of this experiment is to explain a dramatically clear effect due to an underlying complex theory
starting from the Bernouillis equation.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Air blower
Voltage regulator
Styrofoam ball
Ping pong ball

THEORY:
The details of how a spinning ball creates lift are fairly complex.
Next to any surface, the molecules of the air will stick to the surface. This thin layer of molecules will pull the
surrounding air for a spinning ball in the direction of the spin. If the ball were not moving, we would have a
spinning, vortex-like flow set up around the spinning ball. If the ball is moving through the air at some
velocity, on one side of the ball the air will oppose the flow. On the other side of the ball, the air will flow in
the same direction. The spinning ball will then turn the flow, and a force will be generated. Because of the
change in the air velocity, the air pressure will also be altered around the ball. The magnitude of the force
can be computed by multiplying the surface pressure times the area around the ball. The direction of the
force is perpendicular to the flow direction. This is due to the following qualitative reasoning.
Assume you have a sphere around which a flow streams. The flow velocity is denoted by U. The pressure on
the upper part of the sphere is denoted by pt and at the bottom part pb. According to Bernoullis equation the
pressure difference is given by

pb pt =
since

(v
2

2
t

vb2 ) =

( vt + vb )( vt vb ) = U ( vt vb )

(86)

vt = U + R and vb = U R where R is the sphere radius and the angular velocity.

The force acting on the sphere (or Magnus force), L, called also lift if the force acts upwards, is obtained by
integrating along the upper part of the sphere. The integration here should be intended just as symbolic
since we should perform some coordinates system change:
2

L = U ( vt vb )

(87)

A close inspection of the integral reveals that it corresponds to the negative circulation around the sphere.
The circulation is given by (always symbolic):

56

= vb + vt =

vb vt = ( vt vb )

(88)

Hence, we can establish a relation between the lift and the circulation:

L = U

(89)

this is called lift theorem or Kutta Joukowski theorem.

This implies that if there is lift, the circulation is non-vanishing and negative, and the flow velocity above the
sphere is larger than beneath the sphere.
PROCEDURE:
Incline of an adequate angle the air blower and turn it on at a fixed air speed. This is important to keep more
evident the fact that theres a lift acting on the ball.

Try to release from your hands the styrofoam ball in order to keep it self stable in the air flux produced by the
air blower. If the air flux is too strong or too weak please act on the voltage regulator.
Observe how the ball is spinning. The best think to visualize it is to mark a point on the ball with a pencil.
Observe how the ball is in a potential well due to the combinations of all the forces acting on it since if we
gently touch the ball, it recovers its original position.
Observe the differences by using the ping pong ball instead of the styrofoam one

57

Experiment 22.
RELATED TOPICS:

Bernouillis equation

The purpose of this experiment is to show another effect that implies the Bernouillis equation.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Air blower
Voltage regulator
Toilet paper (not included)

THEORY:
The pressure difference obtained by the Bernouillis equation can be visualized also by using the air blower
with a roll of toilet paper.

58

Experiment 23.
RELATED TOPICS:

Perfect gas law

The purpose of this experiment is to verify the perfect gas law validity by measuring the force needed to pull
the piston at a certain distance
ITEMS NEEDED:

Syringe
Data-acquisition system (not )

THEORY:
Let us consider the following picture, where the syringe is kept in a vertical position and the temperature is
assumed constant

If we start from the perfect gas law

PV = NkT

and we apply it to the air contained in the syringe we have

59

(90)

Pinside air =

NkT NkT
=
V
xS

(91)

NkT
x

(92)

from which

Finside air =
By applying Newtons second law it results

Finside air + F Patm S = 0

(93)

or, by substituting equation (92) in equation (93)

F = Patm S

NkT
NkT
x x0 +
Patm S

(94)

where we have rescaled the force since we want that when x = x0 , F= 0

APPARATUS SETTING:
With the syringes cap open place the piston at a fixed distance x0.
Hold the syringe with one hand while keeping the cap closed with a finger. With the other hand pull the force
sensor until the desired position on the scale is reached.
At this point keep the experimental data of the force.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA:
Heres a graph of the data collected with a force sensor

from which its clear the hyperbolic behaviour predicted by equation (94).

60

Experiment 24.
RELATED TOPICS:

Reynolds number
Drag coefficient
Stokes formula
Buoyant force
Terminal velocity

The purpose of this experiment is to show a uniform rectilinear motion by using a tube and an air bubble.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Perspex tube (100 cm)

Water (not included)

THEORY:
One of the classic problems of physics concerns a spherical object moving vertically through a resistive
medium. One may think for instance of a cannon ball shot up into the air, or of a grain of sand sinking slowly
to the bottom of a lake. If the resistive force F(v) is either linear or quadratic in the velocity v, the problem
admits an analytical solution. First of all, however, we discuss when these two particular forms of resistive
force actually occur. Both correspond to a specific interval of the Reynolds number and can be derived from
the following general formula:

1
F ( v ) = Cd Av 2
2

(95)

Here Cd is the so-called drag coefficient, the density of the medium, A the objects cross-sectional area (in

the case of a sphere R ), and v its velocity. It should be noted that equation (95) is actually only valid in
the case of constant v, the so-called stationary situation, and that in general (if v varies) one should also take
into account the BoussinesqBasset viscous memory force and the added mass term.
These terms are especially important if the density and the viscosity of the medium are large. On the other
hand, they complicate the calculations to such a high degree that we choose to ignore them.
The most intriguing element in equation (95) is the drag coefficient; it depends in a complicated way on the
Reynolds number (Re), as depicted in the following figure
2

61

This figure can be found in almost any textbook on hydrodynamics. So in order to use the above equation
one first has to know the value of Re. This dimensionless number is defined as follows:

Re =

lv

(96)

where l represents the characteristic length scale of the object in the cross-sectional plane (in the case of a
sphere this is just the diameter 2R) and the dynamic viscosity of the medium.
In the hydrodynamic literature one finds several formulas to describe the curve of the preceding figure, most
of which are restricted to a relatively small range of Re. An exception to this rule is the following curve-fit
formula which holds for all 0<Re<2x105:

Cd (Re)

24
6
+
+ 0.4
Re 1 + Re

(97)

In the limit for very small Reynolds number, say Re<1, the first term dominates and we may ignore the
second and third terms.
With Cd (Re) =

24 24 12
2
=
=
and A = R the general formula in equation (95) then reduces to
Re lv Rv

F (v ) =

1 12
R 2 v 2 = 6 Rv
2 Rv

(98)

This is known as Stokes formula. It tells us that the drag on a (very) slowly moving sphere is linearly
proportional to its velocity.
The formula applies to the sinking grain of sand mentioned above, to micro-organisms in water, to tiny dust
particles floating in air and we try to use it to an air bubble rising in a tube filled with water. Generally
speaking, though, the condition Re<1 is rather restrictive and rarely met in practice. This has not prevented
the linear drag force or viscous friction, with its appealing simplicity and nice theoretical properties (e.g., it
can be incorporated in the Lagrangian formalism), from becoming the favorite type of damping in the physics
literature.
If we imagine an air bubble like a sphere rising in a tube filled with water along a vertical path, the equation
of motion reads

mair

dv
= ( mair mwater ) g 6 Rv
dt

(99)

Here mwaterg, with mwater the mass of the displaced water is the buoyant force.
The above equation may also be written as

m
dv
= 1 water
dt
mair

6 R
v
g
mair

(100)

or equivalently

dv
= g% v
dt

(101)

where g% (the effective gravitational acceleration) is given by

m
g% = 1 water
mair

which is clearly a negative quantity since

water
g = 1
air

(102)

4
3

water >> air . Moreover we have, with mair = R 3 air

=

6 R
9
=
mair
2 R 2 air

(103)

Equation (101) is readily integrated [with initial condition v(0)=0] to give the velocity

v(t ) =

g%

e t

62

g%

(104)

This looks quite different from the solution without drag but if we take the Taylor expansion we have

% + gt
% 2 + o(t 3 )
v(t ) = gt
and for 0, g% g indeed reduces to the frictionless velocity v = gt .
Equation (104) shows that the velocity during the upward journey cannot grow beyond
terminal velocity

vterm

2 ( water air ) gR 2
= =
9

g%

(105)

g%

, the so-called

(106)

this also follows directly from equation (101), when dv/dt is set equal to zero.
Let us consider a water density of = 103 Kg/m3 , a viscosity of = 10-3 Kg/ms and an air density of 1.29
Kg/m3. If we apply equation (106) we obtain a terminal velocity

vterm = 2.18 106 R 2

(107)

With this velocity the Reynolds number becomes

Re =

lv
= 4.35 1012 R 3

(108)

which means that only sufficiently small air bubbles with radius R < 0.6 x 10-4 m will raise according to the
Stokes law.
If, as in our case, this condition is not verified we have to use another expression for the drag coefficient.
The second interval we focus upon is 103<Re<2x105 where the drag coefficient is seen from equation (97)
to
be approximately constant: Cd~0.4. In that case equation (95) reduces to

F ( v ) = 0.2 R 2 v 2

(109)

So in this regime the drag on the sphere is quadratic in the velocity. It applies for instance to a pebble
dropped from the Leaning Tower of Pisa (except for a fraction of a second at the very start) or a sky diver
and is commonly known as air drag..
Now the equation of motion reads

mair

dv
= ( mair mwater ) g 0.2 water R 2 v 2
dt

(110)

this equation can be written as follows

water
0.2 3 water R 2 v 2
dv
= 1
g
dt
air
air 4 R 3

(111)

dv
= g% (1 + 2 v 2 )
dt

(112)

or

where

2 =

By posing

0.2 3

4 R air 1 g
water

dv
= 0 in equation (112) we have that the terminal velocity is
dt

4 R 1 air g
1
water
2
vterm
= 2 =
0.2 3

or

63

(113)

(114)

vterm = 6.67 1 air

water

gR

(115)

Let us consider the same values as before: water density of = 103 Kg/m3 ,and an air density of 1.29 Kg/m3.
If we apply equation (106) we obtain a terminal velocity

vterm = 8.08 R

(116)

With this velocity the Reynolds number becomes

Re =

3
lv
= 1.62 107 R 2

(117)

which means that only air bubbles with radius 1.5 mm < R < 53 mm will raise according to the quadratic
drag. This is our case.
For example if we consider an air bubble of 2 mm we have from equation (115) that vterm is nearly 36 cm/s.
PROCEDURE:
Try to verify the preceding equations with the perspex tube filled with water and an air bubble.

64

APPENDIX
Basics of experimental error theory
We can say that everything we known about the physical world has an inherent uncertainty. In
particular, when we experimentally investigate something there is always an experimental error
and an experimental precision. Since one of the main features of experiments is their
reproducibility, it is very important to deal with this subject in order to be able to explain how good
our results are. This is possible with experimental error theory, a scientific approach to this
problem.
Let us consider the following example: find the density of a solid rubber cube.
o First trial (with very raw instrument). We can estimate that the mass of the cube is
nearly 50 g and the length of a side is nearly 6 cm. So the density would be:
M M
=
= 3 = 0,23148... . There are many questions: Where can I stop with
V
L
decimal digits to communicate my result? Is it better to have precision on the
mass measurement or on length measurement? How do we combine our
experimental error on the mass measurement with the experimental error on length
measurement?
o Second trial (with more accurate instruments). By using an electronic balance and
a meter stick I find a mass of 60g and a side length of 5,4 cm. So the density would
be:
M M
=
= 3 = 0,381039475... . We still need to answer the questions posed above
V
L
but we also have to answer a new question: What makes this trial better than the
first one?
o Third trial (with much more accurate instruments to measure the side length). If
we improve the accuracy of the length measurement, for example by using a vernier
caliper, the problem becomes more involved. This is due to the fact that we do not
get the same result if we make more than one measurement. Instead we have a set of
different measurements like (5,455 cm; 5,425 cm; 5,465 cm; ). So we are again
faced with the question: Which one of the measurements (5,455 cm; 5,425 cm;
5,465 cm; ) do should I take?

Therefore, the more we analyse the problem the more it gets involved. To search for a possible
solution we can start from the third trial and observe that, generally speaking, when we improve the
accuracy of an instrument we reach a point at which the experimental results are not unique but are
scattered around some value as illustrated in this graph:

65

If the number of measurements N is greater then about 30, the distribution of the experimental data
is bell-shaped and has a value X for which there is a maximum and around which the data are
scattered in a nearly symmetrical way. It is also possible to distinguish a value that determines an
interval around X into which a significant percentage of the measurements are placed. We need to
answer the questions: Is X the best estimate of our measurement?, How much can we rely on
this value? and What percentage of the measurements are in the interval X- and X+ ?
To express these questions mathematically, we could try a prototype function that fits our data and
that expresses the probability to get a particular measurement value:
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

-3

-2

-1

this is the graphical representation of the function

f ( x) = e x

If we want to centre the function around the value X we use the expression x-X in place of x, and if
we want to control the scattering of the measurements around X its possible to divide (x-X)2 by
22.
The following figure shows f(x) with X=2 and =1;1.5;2

66

-2

0.8

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.2

10

-2

10

-2

10

Finally, if we want to control the area under the curve we have to multiply it by a normalization
factor A that would depend on .
Therefore our prototype function is:
f ( x) = A e

( x X )2
2 2

(118)

where X is the value for which we have the maximum and determines how the measurements are
scattered around X. This is called a Gaussian function or a Normal function, but the underlying
data represent a distribution (still called Gaussian) and not a function. It can be proved that the
Gaussian distribution is derivable from the binomial distribution assuming that the number of
measurements N and remains constant.
The physical meaning of all this is that we do not describe a measurement with a single number but
rather with a set of values each one with its own probability to appear as an experimental datum.
This probability is governed by the Gaussian distribution. There is an analogy with quantum
mechanics (for example with the wave packet of a particle) where the interpretation is that if we
make a measure of the position of the particle then the probability to obtain a particular value is
governed by the Gaussian function and is never a well defined fixed value.
Let us determine the value of A in (118). We must have a probability of 1 to get a measurement in
the range from - to + (that is, if we perform a measurement we are certain to get some kind of
result no matter how large or how small that result is):
+
1
f ( x)dx = 1 A = 2
To give an interpretation of we can ask what happens if we are only interested in the probability
of finding measurements in the range from X- to X+ instead of the range from - to +:

X +
X

t
+1
1
f ( x) dx =
e 2 dt
2 1

0.68

so , also called then standard deviation (2 is called variance), is the amount of uncertainty we
have to allow for, in the most probable value X, if we want to claim a roughly 68% chance of
correctly predicting the result of any single measurement.
To determine X, also called the mean value, we consider a set of N measurements x1, x2, , xN.
The probability to get a single result between xi and xi+dx is:

Pi =

1
e
2

67

( x xi )2
2 2

so the probability to get all the results (viewed as independent events) is:
N

( x xi )

P = P1 P2 ... PN

i=1

2 2

Since we are speaking about the probability P to get all the results and we can suppose to have
already done our experiment with a set of real results what should be the value of P?
If we accept the maximum likelihood principle we can make an analogy with entropy and say that P
is proportional to the entropy obtained from our experiment. The value X must be a point of
maximum entropy. By the second principle of thermodynamics we have to maximize P, otherwise
d N
2
said X is the value of x that minimize the exponent:
( x xi ) = 0 from which it results:

dx i =1

1 N
(119)
xi
N i =1
that is, the mean value X is the arithmetic mean and describes all the collected data since it is the
value for which the maximum entropy is obtained for our set of data.
X=

( x xi )
=
1
i
d 1 2 2
e

= 0 from which:
To determine we can proceed in the same way
d N

1 N
2
(120)
( x xi )

N i =1
But what should be use instead of x in equation (120)? If we use (119) then equation (120) is

1 N 1

slightly self-referential because =

( x1 + ... + xi + ... + xN ) xi and the i-esim term

N i =1 N

appears two times. It is possible to show that the correct value of the standard deviation is:

1 N
2
(121)
( X xi )

N 1 i =1
Clearly is not defined for N=1 (we are assuming N greater of nearly 30, otherwise there are better
distributions to consider).

Suppose now we have a function Q of several variables Q = f ( a, b, c,...) and we want to know how
the experimental error on each variable contributes to Q.
We can say that by varying the variables, the quantity Q varies of:
Q
Q
Q
Q =
a +
b +
c + ...
a
b
c
and if we identify our uncertainty x with the standard deviation x we can say that:
Q
Q
Q
Q =
a +
b +
c + ...
(122)
a
b
c

68

the modulus is due to the fact that errors could cancel each other and we want to consider the
maximum error.
We could do better, obtaining a smaller value, if the variables are normal and independent, by

1 N
2
( Qi ) where Qi = f (ai , bi , ci ,...) is the i-esim value of Q by

N 1 i =1
taking the i-esim value of each variable of our set of data, = f ( A, B, C ,...) is the mean value of Q
by taking the mean value of each variable of our set of data.
starting from (121) Q =

Q
Since
( Qi ) = ( Qi ) = ai + bi + ...
bi
ai

neglecting terms of higher order) we have:

2

Q
Q
2
2

( ai ) +
( bi ) + ...
ai
bi

(by

2
2
Q 1 N
Q 1 N
Q =
( ai ) +
( bi ) + ...

N 14i244
N 14i244
a 14
=1
=1
3 b 14
3
2

a2

b2

or
Q 2 Q 2
Q =
a +
b + ...
a
b
which is better of (122) since its always lower.
2

Suppose now that the function Q is just the arithmetic mean X =

(123)

1
N

x . By applying equation
i =1

(123) we get
2

X 2 X 2
X =
x1 +
x2 + ...
x1
x2

but

X
1
=
xi xi N

x = N and
i =1

x1

(124)

= x2 = ... = and so

X =

(125)

N
which is called standard deviation of the mean. Analogously to the standard deviation, it tells
us how good is the mean value X and we can assume it as the amount of uncertainty we have to
allow for if we want to claim a roughly 68% chance of correctly predicting the result of any other
mean value it is possible to obtain.
It is also useful to speak about relative error

Q
Q

instead of absolute error Q . The relative error can

be expressed in percentage.
For example let us return to the problem of determine the density of a cube.
Now, the function Q is the density which is function of the mass M and the side length L: =
If M = 60 g and L = 54mm its easy to find that the mean value is =
By applying equation (122) we have that the relative error is:

69

60 g
g
= 3,81 104 3
3
3
54 cm
cm

M
.
L3

 1
1
L3 1
L3 3M
1
3
=
+
M +
L =

L = M + L .
M
3
4
M
L
M L
M L
M
L
If we can suppose the precision of the mass measurement is M = 2 g and the precision of the
length measurement is L = 1mm we have:
2 3 1
=
+
3,3% + 5, 6% = 8,9%
60 54
(this says it is more important to make a careful length measurement than a careful mass
measurement).
By applying equation (123) we get a better (lower) estimate of the density error:

M 2 9 L2
22 9 12
=
+
=
+
= 6,5% .

M2
L2
602 542
This means that if we take another measurement of density theres a probability of nearly 68% that
g
the new value will lie between (3,8 0, 2) 104 3 .
cm
It is important to note that since the standard deviation on density is 0,2 x 10-4 g/cm3 we can stop at
the first decimal digit 3,8 x 10-4.

70