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Revision Notes
BRUSH UP your concept in Fast Track Mode
7. Equivalence Classes
Given, an arbitrary equivalence relation R on an
arbitrary set X, R divides X into mutually disjoint subsets
Ai called partitions satisfying Ai Aj = X and
Ai Aj = , i j . The subset Ai are called equivalence
class and it is denoted by [a].
Types of Relation
Function
1. Empty Relation
2. Universal Relation
A relation R on a set A is called universal relation, if each
element of A is related to every element of A i.e.,
R = A A.
Types of Function
3. Reflexive Relation
where, x1, x2 A
4. Symmetric Relation
2. Many-one Function
5. Transitive Relation
A relation R defined on set A is said to be transitive, if
( x, y ) R and ( y, z ) R ( x, z ) R, x, y, z A
6. Equivalence Relation
A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence relation, if
it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Mathematics-XII
4. Into Function
Binary Operation
a b S , a, b S
Then, is called a binary operation on S.
6. Composite Function
Group
7. Invertible Function
A function f : X Y is defined to be invertible, if there
exists a function g : Y X, such that gof = IX and
fog = IY . The function g is called the inverse of f and it is
denoted by f 1. Thus, f is invertible, then f must be
one-one and onto and vice-versa.
A
f(x)
g [f(x)]
gof
= f og .
1
sin1 x sin1
x
1
(sin x)1
sin x
Domain
Range
[1, 1]
,
2 2
cos 1 x
[1, 1]
[0, ]
tan1 x
2 2
cosec 1 x
( , 1 ] [1, )
, { 0}
2 2
sec 1 x
( , 1 ] [1, )
[0, ]
2
cot 1 x
( 0, )
sin
y ,
2
2
where y = sin1 x
0 y ,
where y = cos 1 x
< y< ,
2
2
where y = tan1 x
y , y 0, where y = cosec 1 x
2
2
0 y , y ,
2
where y = sec 1 x
Mathematics-XII
T-ratios of Some Standard Angles
Angle ()
0 = 0
30 =
Ratio
45 =
60 =
90 =
sin
1
2
1
2
3
2
cos
3
2
1
2
1
2
tan
1
3
Transformation of a Function
(i)
sin
cos 1 ( 1 x2 )
tan1
1 x2
1 x2
cot 1
sec 1
1 x2
1
cosec 1
x
(ii)
cos 1 x
sin1 ( 1 x2 )
1 x2
tan1
cot 1
1 x2
1
sec 1
x
cosec 1
1 x2
(iii)
tan1 x
sin1
1 + x2
cos 1
1 + x2
1
cot 1
x
sec 1 1 + x2
1 + x2
cosec 1
Property I
(i) sin 1 (sin ) = , ,
2 2
(ii) cos
(cos ) = , [0, ]
(iii) tan 1 (tan ) = , ,
2 2
Property III
(i) sin 1 (1 / x ) = cosec 1 x, x 1 or x 1
(vi) sec 1 (sec ) = , [0, ]
2
(iii) tan
, x [ 1, 1]
2
1
1
(iii) cosec x + sec x = , x (,1] [1, )
2
Property II
(i) sin
(ii) cos
( x ) = sin
cot 1 x , x > 0
1
=
x
1
+ cot x, x < 0
Property IV
Property V
1
x, x [ 1, 1]
( x ) = cos 1 x, x [ 1, 1]
if 1 x, y 1 and x 2 + y 2 1 or
Mathematics-XII
(vi) tan ( A B) =
if 1 x, y 1 and x 2 + y 2 1 or
cot A cot B 1
cot B + cot A
cot A cot B + 1
(viii) cot ( A B) =
cot B cot A
(vii) cot ( A + B) =
if 1 x, y 1 and x y
x + y
(v) tan 1 x + tan 1 y = tan 1
, xy < 1
1 xy
(vi) tan
x tan
cos
2
2
x y
y = tan
, xy > 1
1 + xy
1
C D
C + D
(xiv) sin C sin D = 2 cos
sin
2
2
Property VI
(i) 2 sin 1 x = sin 1 (2 x 1 x 2 ),
C D
C + D
(xv) cos C + cos D = 2 cos
cos
2
2
1
1
x
2
2
C D
C + D
(xvi) cos C cos D = 2 sin
sin
2
2
x = sin
tan A tan B
1 + tan A tan B
D C
C + D
= 2 sin
sin
2
2
2x
, | x | 1 or 1 x 1
1 + x2
1 x
(iv) 2 tan 1 x = cos 1
, x 0
1 + x2
(xix) tan 2 x =
2x
(v) 2 tan 1 x = tan 1
, 1< x 1
1 x2
2 tan x
1 tan 2 x
2 tan x
1 tan 2 x
;
=
x
2
cos
1 + tan 2 x
1 + tan 2 x
(xxiii) tan 3 x =
3 tan x tan 3 x
1 3 tan 2 x
Matrices
Matrix
Order of Matrix
A matrix of order m n is
a11 a12
a
a22
A = 21
K
K
a
m1 am2
Types of Matrices
of the form
a13 K a1n
a23 K a2 n
K K K
am3 K amn
(i) Row matrix A matrix having only one row and many
columns, is called a row matrix.
(ii) Column matrix A matrix having only one column and
many rows, is called a column matrix.
Mathematics-XII
Addition of Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices each of order m n. Then, the
sum of matrices A + B is defined, if matrices A and B are of
same order.
If
A = [aij ]m n , B = [aij ]m n
Then,
A + B = [aij + bij ]m n
Difference of Matrices
If A = [aij ], B = [bij ] are two matrices of the same order m n,
then difference, A B is defined as a matrix D = [d ij ], where
d ij = aij bij, i , j .
Multiplication of Matrices
Let A = [aij ]m n and B = [bij ]n p be two matrices such that the
number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B,
then multiplication of A and B is denoted by AB, is given by
c ij =
aik bkj
Transpose of a Matrix
The matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and
columns of a given matrix A, is callled transpose of a
matrix. It is denoted by A or AT .
(ii) (kA) = kA
(iv) ( A ) = A
of
k =1
Mathematics-XII
Properties of Invertible Matrices
Invertible Matrices
If A is a square matrix of order m and there exists another
square matrix B of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I,
then B is called the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by
A1.
(iv) ( A1 ) 1 = A
(v) ( A )1 = ( A1 ) or ( AT )1 = ( A1 )T
where, A or AT is transpose of a matrix A.
Determinants
Determinant
a31 a32
a33
Minors of A are
a
a
M11 = 22 23 ,
a32 a33
a13
a23 = a11 (a22 a33 a32 a23 )
a33
M12 =
a21 a23
,
a31 a33
M13 =
a21 a22
a31 a32
, etc.
Properties of Determinants
(i) If the rows and columns of a determinant are
interchanged, then the value of the determinant does not
change.
(ii) If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are
interchanged, then sign of determinant changes.
(iii) If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are identical,
then the value of the determinant is zero.
(iv) If each element of a row (column) is multiplied by a
non-zero number k, then the value of the determinant is
multiplied by k. By this property, we can take out any
common factor from any one row or any one column of a
determinant.
(v) If A is a n n matrix, then| kA| = k n | A|.
(vi) If each element of any row (column) of a determinant is
added k times the corresponding element of another row
(column), then the value of the determinant remains
unchanged.
(vii) If some or all elements of a row (column) of a determinant
are expressed as sum of two (more) terms, then the
determinant can be expressed as sum of two (more)
determinants.
Area of Triangle
Let A( x1, y1 ), B( x2 , y2 ) and C( x3 , y3 ) be the vertices of a
ABC. Then, its area is given by
x1
1
x2
=
2
x3
=
y1 1
y2 1
y3 1
1
x1( y2 y3 ) + x2 ( y3 y1 ) + x3 ( y1 y2 )
2
Mathematics-XII
(iii) ( AT )1 = ( A1 )T
Condition of Collinearity
Three points A( x1, y1 ), B( x2 , y2 ) and C( x3 , y3 ) are
collinear, when = 0.
x1 y1 1
x 2 y2 1 = 0
i . e .,
x3
(ii) ( AB)1 = B 1 A1
y3 1
d 3
z
a3 b3 c 3
Adjoint of a Matrix
The adjoint of a square matrix A is defined as the transpose
of the matrix formed by cofactors.
Let A = [ aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then adjoint of A,
i . e ., adj A = CT , where C = [Cij ] is the cofactor matrix of A.
Inverse of a Matrix
A square matrix A has inverse, if and only if A is a
non-singular (| A| 0 ) matrix. The inverse of A is denoted
by A1 i.e.,
1
A 1 =
(adj A),| A| 0
| A|
Continuity at a Point
xc
(ii) (f g ) is continuous.
(iii) cf is continuous.
(iv) fg is continuous.
f
(v) is continuous in domain except at the points,
g
where, g( x ) = 0.
xc
x = c . Otherwise, f ( x ) is discontinuous at x = c .
Graphically, a function f( x) is said to be continuous at a
point, if the graph of the function has no break point.
Mathematics-XII
(xv)
d
1
, 1 < x < 1
(cos 1 x ) =
dx
1 x2
(xvi)
d
1
(tan 1 x ) =
dx
1 + x2
(xvii)
d
1
(cot 1 x ) =
dx
1 + x2
(xviii)
1
d
,| x| > 1
(sec 1 x ) =
dx
| x| x 2 1
Differentiability or Derivability
A function f is said to be derivable or differentiable at x = c ,
if its left hand and right hand derivatives at c exist and are
equal.
f (a + h ) f (a)
(i) Right Hand Derivative Rf (a) = lim
h 0
h
f (a h ) f (a)
(ii) Left Hand Derivative Lf (a) = lim
h 0
h
(xix)
Differentiation
d
du dv
(u v ) =
dx
dx dx
d
du dv dw
(ii)
(u v w K ) =
K
dx
dx dx dx
d
d
d
(iii)
[product rule]
(u v ) = u
(v ) + v
(u )
dx
dx
dx
d
d
v
(u ) u
(v )
d u
dx
dx
[quotient rule]
(iv)
=
2
dx v
v
(i)
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
1
,| x| > 1
(cosec 1 x ) =
dx
| x| x 2 1
( x n ) = nx n 1
(constant) = 0
(cx n ) = cn x n 1
(v) y = [f ( x )]g( x )
dy
= [f ( x )]g( x )
dx
(sin x ) = cos x
(cos x ) = sin x
g( x )
f ( x ) f ( x ) + log f ( x ) g ( x )
(tan x ) = sec 2 x
dy
= f [g( x )] g ( x )
dx
(cot x ) = cosec 2 x
and a 1
(e x ) = e x
(a x ) = a x loge a, a > 0
1
(loge x ) = , x > 0
x
1
, a > 0, a 1
(log a x ) =
x loge a
1
d
, 1 < x < 1
(sin 1 x ) =
dx
1 x2
Mathematics-XII
Rolles Theorem
Application of Derivatives
Rate of Change of Quantities
1
(Sum of parallel sides)
2
dy
dy
is positive, if y increases as x increases and
is
dx
dx
negative, if y decreases as x increases.
Here,
and
volume = r 2 h
Marginal Cost
Marginal cost represents the instantaneous rate of change
of the total cost at any level of output. If C( x ) represents the
cost function for x units produced, then marginal cost,
d
denoted by MC, is given by MC =
{C( x )}.
dx
Marginal Revenue
Marginal revenue represents the rate of change of total
revenue with respect to the number of items sold at an
instant. If R( x ) represents the revenue function for x units
sold, then marginal revenue, denoted by MR, is given by
d
MR =
{ R( x )}.
dx
3
(Side) 2 .
4
f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ), x1, x2 I
Mathematics-XII
f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ), x1, x2 I
Approximation
f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 ), x1, x2 I
Theorem Let f be
differentiable on (a, b).
continuous
on
[a, b]
and
and m2 =
f ( x + x ) = f ( x ) + y f ( x + x ) f ( x ) = y
Monotonic Function
( x1, y1 )
m1 =
Also,
where,
y = f ( x ) x + x
dy
y dy
y =
x, approximately.
Q
x dx
dx
dy
for y = f1( x )
dx
( x1, y1 )
dy
for y = f2 ( x ).
dx
( x1, y1 )
10
Critical Point
A point c in the domain of a function f at which either
f (c ) = 0 or f is not differentiable, is called a critical point
of f. Note that, if f is continuous at c and f (c) = 0, then
there exists a h > 0 such that f is differentiable in the
interval (c h, c + h).
Mathematics-XII
Integrals
Indefinite Integral
(xv)
(xvi)
Thus, f ( x )dx = F( x ) + C
(xvii)
1+
x n +1
+ C, n 1
(n + 1 )
(i)
x ndx =
(ii)
1
dx = log| x| + C, x 0
x
(iii)
(iv)
(xix)
(xx)
dx = cos 1 x + C
1
dx = cot 1 x + C
1+ x 2
dx
x
x2 1
1
x2 1
= sec 1 x + C
dx = cosec
x+C
ax
a dx =
+C
log a
x
sin x dx = cos x + C
(vi) cos x dx = sin x + C
(vii) tan x dx = log|sec x| + C
(viii) cot x dx = log|sin x| + C
(ix) sec x dx = log|sec x + tan x | + C
{ f ( x ) g ( x )} dx = f ( x )dx g ( x )dx
(iii) K f ( x )dx = K f ( x )dx
(ii)
= log|tan ( / 4 + x / 2 )| + C
cosec
x dx = log|cosec x cot x| + C
= log|tan( x / 2 )| + C
sec x dx = tan x + C
(xii) cosec 2 x dx = cot x + C
(xiii) sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
(xiv) cosec x cot x dx = cosec
(xi)
1 + x2
dx = e x + C
(v)
(x)
dx = cos 1 x + C
dx
= tan 1 x + C
x2
(xviii)
Important Results
1 x
Integration by Substitution
The method of reducing a given integral into one or other
standard integral by changing the independent variable is
called method of substitution.
Thus, f ( x )dx = f { g (t )} g(t ) dt , if we substitute x = g (t ),
x+C
11
Mathematics-XII
Some Standard Substitutions
Partial Fractions
Form of the
Rational Functions
1.
Form of the
Partial Fractions
px q
,ab
(x a) (x b)
px q
2.
A
B
+
(x a) (x a)2
(x a)2
px2 qx r
3.
A
B
+
xa
xb
1.
a x
2.
a + x
3.
x a
2
Bx + C
A
, where
+ 2
(x a)
x bx c
px2 qx r
(x a) (x2 bx c)
x2 bx c cannot be factorised
further.
Integration by Parts
x = a tan or a cot
x = a sec or a cosec
4.
a+ x
or
ax
5.
x
or (x ) (x )
x
ax
a+ x
(i)
(x2 + a2 ) (x2 + b2 ) dx
(ii)
a+ x
dx
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
dx
(x a )
2
dx
x 2 + a2
= log x +
x
2
x
x 2 a2 dx =
2
a2 x 2 dx =
dx
x
2
, then
Put cos x =
x
1 + tan2
2
x
put tan = t
2
(iii)
a b sin x
dx
x
2 , then
x
1 + tan2
2
x
put tan = t
2
(iv)
a sin x +
(v)
(vi)
p sin x +
1 tan2
Put sin x =
x 2 + a2 + C
x 2 + a2 dx =
x
2
a2
log x +
2
x 2 a2 + C
x 2 + a2
+
a2
log x +
2
b cos x
a sin x + b cos x + c
dx
p sin x + q cos x
a sin x + b cos x
dx
q cos x + r
x 2 a2
(vii)
a2
x
sin 1 + C
2
a
2 tan
dx
x 2 a2| + C
a2 x 2 +
partial fraction of
y
a b cos x
+C
= log| x +
(ii)
xa
( x 2 a2 ) = 2 a log x + a + C
(a2 x 2 ) = 2 a log a x
Substitution
( y + a2 ) ( y + b2 )
x = cos 2 + sin2
Integral
dx
x = a cos 2
d
dx = u v dx u v dx dx
uv
dx
I II
(i)
Substitution
x = a sin or a cos
A
B
C
+
+
(x a) (x b) (x b)2
(x a) (x b)2
4.
Expression
2
x 2 + a2 + C
12
(vii)
(ax +
(viii)
(ax2 +
(ix)
(x)
dx
b) px + q
Put
px + q = t
dx
Put
px + q = t
bx + c) px + q
dx
Put px + q =
Put x =
1
t
1
t
Mathematics-XII
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Definite Integral
An integral is of the form of
Then,
(ii)
a f ( x )dx = b f ( x )dx
(iii)
a f ( x )dx = 0
(iv)
(v)
a f ( x )dx = a f (a + b x )dx
(vi)
0 f ( x )dx = 0 f (a x )dx
(vii)
+ + f { a + (n 1 ) h}]
nh = b a
2a
f ( x )dx = f ( x )dx +
0
0 f (2 a x )dx
2 a f ( x )dx, if f (2 a x ) = f ( x ), even
f
x
dx
(
)
=
0
0
0,
if f (2 a x ) = f ( x ), odd
a
a
if f ( x ) = f ( x ), even
(ix) f ( x )dx = 2 0 f ( x )dx,
a
0,
if f ( x ) = f ( x ), odd
n 2 (n + 1)2
3. n = 1 + 2 + 3 + + n =
4
3
a f ( x )dx = a f (t )dt
ba
n
n(n + 1)
2
n(n + 1)(2 n + 1)
2
2
2
2
2
2. n = 1 + 2 + 3 + + n =
6
(i)
h [f (a) + f (a + h ) + f (a + 2 h )
a f ( x )dx = hlim
0
where,
Then,
(viii)
2a
Application of Integrals
1.
3.
Y
A
x=a
X O
x=a
X
x=b
L dx M
4.
The area enclosed by the curve x = f ( y ), the Y-axis and
d
x=b
2.
ydx .
f(x) B
y=
y
y = f (x)
Y
B
dy
X
y=d C
x
x = f(y)
A y=c
A1
X
x=b
X
x=a
O
O
Y
13
A2
5.
Mathematics-XII
7.
y2 y1 dx.
y=
)
f (x
y2 = g(x)
y=
)
g (x
y1 = f(x)
X
x=a
x=b
x=b
Curve Sketching
The points given below are of great help in curve sketching.
x2 x1 dy.
x2 = g(y)
x1 = f(y)
y=d
x=c
6.
O x=a
y=c
Differential Equations
Differential Equation
An equation containing an independent variable, dependent
variable and derivative of dependent variable with respect to
independent variable, is called a differential equation. The
derivates are denoted by the symbols
dy d 2 y
d ny
, 2 ,...., n or y , y , ..., y ... n or y1, y2 ,..., yn
dx dx
dx
General Solution of a
Differential Equation
14
f ( x ) dx + g( y ) dy = C
Mathematics-XII
dy f ( x, y )
=
dx g( x, y )
Type II Form
Vector Algebra
Vector
Like Vectors
Unlike Vectors
Scalar
Equal Vectors
Magnitude of a Vector
If
a = a $i + b $j + c k$ , then | a | = a2 + b2 + c 2
Negative of a Vector
A vector whose magnitude is same as that of given vector
but the direction is opposite is called negative vector of the
Free Vector
Type of Vectors
Coplanar Vectors
Addition of Vectors
Unit Vector
A vector whose magnitude is one unit. The unit vector in
If
OA = a
and
AB = b,
then a + b = OA + AB = OB
B
Coinitial Vectors
Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called
coinitial vectors.
Collinear Vectors
15
Mathematics-XII
Section Formulae
BC + CA = BA
mb + n a
.
m+ n
vector of P =
mb n a
.
mn
Component of a Vector
OA + OC = OB or OA + AB = OB
[Q AB = OC]
a+ b
.
2
Thus, we may say that the two laws of vectors addition are
equivalent to each other.
a+ b = b + a
[commutative law]
[associative law]
defined as a + ( b ).
b
a+
b b b
(v) If 1 = 2 = 3 = k (constant)
a1 a2 a3
Difference of Vectors
given by a = (a ) $i + (a ) $j + (a )k$
a + (b + c ) = (a + b ) + c
16
Mathematics-XII
|a|
|a|
|a|
(i) k a + m a = (k + m) a
(ii) k (m a ) = (km) a
(iii) k (a + b ) = k a + k b
n$ =
a b < 0
(iii) a b a b = 0.
(viii) If
a = a1$i + a2 $j + a3k$
$i
$j
$
$
$
and b = b1i + b2 j + b3k, then a b = a1 a2
b1 b2
a b
(v) Projection of a on b =
|b |
(ix) a b = b a
(x) a (b + c ) = a b + a c
(a) a b = b a
(b) a (b + c ) = a b + a c
(c) a a = |a | 2 = a 2
(xiii) $i $i = 0 , $j $j = 0 , k$ k$ = 0
(xi) a a = 0
(xii) $i $j = k$ , $j k$ = $i , k$ $i = $j;
$j $i = k$ , k$ $j = $i , $i k$ = $j
[commutative]
(vii) a || b a b = 0
(iv) $i $i = $j $j = k$ k$ = 1 and $i $j = $j k$ = k$ $i = 0
1
1
(vi) Area of a ABC = | AB AC | = | BC BA |
2
2
1
= | CB CA |
2
a b =| a || b |cos
(a b )
= | a b|
then
|a b |
P1 P2 = OP2 OP1
a b =| a|| b |sin n$ , where, n$ is a unit vector
(e) ( a ) b = ( a b )
17
k$
a3
b3
Mathematics-XII
Three-Dimensional Geometry
Direction Cosines and
Direction Ratios
two
r =a +tb
lines
cos =
distance
between
the
skew-lines
r = a 1 + b 1 and r = a 2 + b 2 is given by
SD =
|(a 2 a 1 ) (b 1 b 2 )|
|b 1 b 2 |
r = a 1 + b and r = a 2 + b is given by
SD =
b (a 2 a 1 )
where, PQ = ( x2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2 + ( z2 z1 )2
Line
A straight line is the locus of the intersection of two planes.
A line is uniquely determined, if
cos =
or sin =
then
| b|| d|
b d
r = c + s d,
(a) Shortest
and
r = a + t (b a ), where t is a scalar.
18
Mathematics-XII
x x 2 y y 2 z z2
is
=
=
a2
b2
c2
x2 x1
y2 y1
z2 z1
a1
a2
b1
b2
c1
c2
p=
+ (a1b2 a2 b1 )2
cos =
Plane
+ b12 + c12
a22 + b22 + c 22
If
two
planes
are
perpendicular,
then
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c 2 = 0 and if they are parallel, then
a1 b1 c1
.
=
=
a2 b2 c 2
(i) The normal to the plane and its distance from the
origin is given, i.e., equation of a plane in normal form.
(ii) It passes through a point and is perpendicular to a
given direction.
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1
a12
+ c12
b12
a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2
a22 + b22 + c 22
Two lines
a2
b2
c2
a2
a ( x x1 ) + b( y y1 ) + c ( z z1 ) = 0
where, a, b and c are direction ratios of perpendicular
vector.
b2
c2
a2 + b2 + c 2
2
2
(bc
1 2 b2c1 ) + (c1a2 c 2 a1 )
x3 x1
z3 z1
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
and
a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0 is
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 ) + (a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 ) = 0
(r a ) n = 0
19
Mathematics-XII
( r a ) [( b a ) ( c a )] = 0
a n d
r n1
(a 2 a 1 ) (b 1 b 2 ) = 0.
b n
r n = d is cos =
.
| n 1|| n 2|
n1 n 2
| n|
= d1 and r n 2 = d 2 is
r ( n 1 + n 2 ) = d1 + d 2 .
and parallel, if n1 n2 = 0 .
and
sin =
b n
, where = 90 .
b n
Linear Programming
Linear Programming Problem
5. Solution
1. Constraints
The linear inequations or inequalities or restrictions on the
variables of a linear programming problem are called constraints.
The conditions x 0, y 0 are called non-negative restrictions.
2. Optimisation Problem
A problem which seeks to maximise or minimise a linear function
subject to certain constraints determined by a set of linear
inequalities is called an optimisation problem. Linear
programming problems are special type of optimisation
problems.
3. Objective Function
A linear function of two or more variables which has to be
maximised or minimised under the given restrictions in the form
of linear inequations (or linear constraints) is called the
objective function.The variables used in the objective function
are called decision variables.
4. Optimal Values
The maximum or minimum value of an objective function is
known as its optimal value.
20
6. Feasible Solution
7. Feasible Region
The set of all feasible solutions constitutes a region
which is called the feasible region. Each point in this
region represents a feasible choice. The region other
than feasible region is called an infeasible region.
8. Bounded Region
A feasible region of a system of linear inequalities is
said to be bounded, if it can be enclosed within a
circle. Otherwise, it is said to be unbounded region.
9. Optimal Solution
A feasible solution at which the objective function has
optimal value is called the optimal solution of the
linear programming problem.
Mathematics-XII
Probability
Some Basic Definitions
Complement of an Event
1. Experiment
An operation which results in some well-defined outcomes, is
called an experiment.
2. Random Experiment
3. Trial
4. Sample Space
The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is
called its sample space. It is usually denoted by S.
Die
Event
A subset of the sample space associated with a random
experiment is called an event or case.
Type of Events
Equally Likely Events
The given events are said to be equally likely, if none of them is
expected to occur in preference to the other.
Exhaustive Events
A set of events is said to be exhaustive, if the performance of the
experiment always results in the occurrence of atleast one of
them.
If E1, E2 , , En are exhaustive events, then E1 E2 En = S .
21
(1, 1), (1, 2 ), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6)
(2, 1), (2, 2 ), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6)
(3, 1), (3, 2 ), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)
(4, 1), (4, 2 ), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6)
(5, 1), (5, 2 ), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6)
(6, 1), (6, 2 ), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)
Mathematics-XII
If a set of events A1, A2 , , An are exhaustive, then
P ( A1 A2 An ) = 1.
Playing Cards
A pack of playing cards has 52 cards. There are 4 suits
(spade, heart, diamond and club), each having 13 cards.
There are two colours, red (heart and diamond) and black
(spade and club), each having 26 cards.
In 13 cards of each suit, there are 3 face cards namely
king, queen and jack, so there are in all 12 face cards.
Also, there are 16 honour cards, 4 of each suit namely ace,
king, queen and jack.
Booleys Inequality
(i) If A1, A2 , , An are n events associated with a
random experiment, then
n
(a) P (A1 A2 An )
n
(b) P ( Ai )
Cards
i= 1
52
P(Ai ) (n 1)
i= 1
P(Ai )
i= 1
Colours
Red
26
Black
26
Heart
13
Diamond
13
Club
13
(b) P ( A B ) = P( A) P ( A B)
Spade
13
Probability
(e) P( A B ) = 1 P ( A B)
(f) P( A) = P ( A B) + P ( A B )
(g) P(B) = P ( A B) + P (B A )
(iv) (a) P (exactly one of A, B occurs)
= P( A) + P(B) 2 P( A B)
= P ( A B) P ( A B)
2P ( A B)
(b) P( ) = 0
(c) P(S ) = 1
= P( A) + P(B) + P(C ) 2 P ( A B)
(ii) P (E ) = 1 P (E )
2 P (B C ) 2 P ( A C ) + 3P ( A B C )
(vi) P(atleast two of A, B, C occurs)
= P( A B) + P(B C ) + P(C A) 2 P( A B C )
(viii) (a) P( A ) = 1 P( A)
(b) P ( A A ) = P(S ), P ( ) = 0
P( A B) = P(B C ) = P(C A)
= P( A B C)=0
Conditional Probability
Let E and F be two events associated with a random
experiment. Then, probability of occurrence of event E,
when the event F has already occurred, is called
conditional probability of event E over F and is denoted by
P(E / F ).
P(E F )
, where P(F ) 0.
P(E / F ) =
P(F )
(i) P(S / A) = P( A / A) = 1
(ii) P{( A B)/ C} = P( A / C ) + P(B / C ) P{( A B)/ C};
P(C ) 0
(iii) P( A / B) = 1 P( A / B), where A is complement of A.
22
Mathematics-XII
Probability Distribution of a
Random Variable
The system in which the value of a random variable are
given along with their corresponding probability is called
probability distribution. If X is a random variable and takes
the value x1, x2 , x3 ,..., xn with respective probabilities
p1, p2 , p3 ,..., pn . Then, the probability distribution of X is
represented by
E E F
x1
x2
x3
...
xn
P( X )
p1
p2
p3
...
pn
such that pi = 1
If xi is one of the possible values of a random variable X,
the statement X = x i is true only at some point(s) of the
sample space. Hence, the probability that X takes value x i
is always non-zero, i.e., P( X = x i ) 0.
Independent Events
Two events A and B are said to be independent, if the
occurrence or non-occurrence of one event does not affect
the occurrence or non-occurrence of another event.
Then,
P( A B) = P( A) P(B); P( A / B) = P( A)
and
P(B / A) = P(B)
xi pi.
i =1
n
or
It is also
i =1
Bayes Theorem
Let S be the sample space and E1, E2 ,..., En be n mutually
exclusive and exhaustive events associated with a random
experiment. If A is any event which occurs with E1, E2 , ..., En ,
then probability of occurrence of Ei when A occurred,
P(E )P( A / Ei )
, i = 1, 2,..., n
P(Ei / A) = n i
P(Ei )P( A/ Ei )
i =1
Bernoulli Trials
The independent trials which have only two outcomes i.e.,
success or failure, is called Bernoulli trial.
Binomial Distribution
The probability distribution of number of successes in an
experiment consisting n Bernoulli trials obtained by the
binomial expression ( p + q )n , is called binomial
distribution.
This distribution can be represented by the following table
0
P( X ) C 0 q
1
n n
C1 q
n1 1 n
C2 q
...r
n2 2
p ... C r q
n r
...
p
...
n
n
Cnpn
P(E / Ei )
i =1
23