Notes Lectures Wireless

WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
lecture notes (part 1)

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco
c

Politecnico di Torino
2013/2014

c

Copyright Notice
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Basic concepts
Outline
Basic concepts
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel

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Basic concepts
Section Outline
Basic concepts
Model of a digital communication system
Band-pass signalling
Problem set 1
Probability
Gaussian random variables
Complex Gaussian random variables
Signal spaces
Problem set 2

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Basic concepts
Reference books in Wireless Communications

S. Benedetto and E. Biglieri, Principles of Digital Transmission:
With Wireless Applications. Kluwer.
A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications. Cambridge University
Press.
U. Madhow, Fundamentals of Digital Communication. Cambridge
University Press.
A. Molisch, Wireless Communications. Wiley.
J. Proakis and M. Salehi, Digital Communications (4th Edition).
McGraw-Hill.
T. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice
(2nd Edition). Prentice-Hall.
D. Tse and P. Viswanath, Fundamentals of Wireless
Communication. Cambridge University Press.

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Basic concepts
Reference books in Wireless Communications

S. Benedetto and E. Biglieri, Principles of Digital Transmission:
With Wireless Applications. Kluwer.
A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications. Cambridge University
Press.
U. Madhow, Fundamentals of Digital Communication. Cambridge
University Press.
A. Molisch, Wireless Communications. Wiley.
J. Proakis and M. Salehi, Digital Communications (4th Edition).
McGraw-Hill.
T. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice
(2nd Edition). Prentice-Hall.
D. Tse and P. Viswanath, Fundamentals of Wireless
Communication. Cambridge University Press.

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Basic concepts

CHANNEL MODEL
The main subject of this course is the study of digital
communications over a transmission channel.
To this purpose, it is useful to characterize the model of a
digital communication system in order to get acquainted with
its different constituent parts.
TOP LEVEL CLASSIFICATION
The model can be divided into three sections, as illustrated in
the following picture:
1
2
3
The user section

The interface section
The channel section

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Basic concepts

CHANNEL MODEL
1
2
3
The user section

The channel section

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Basic concepts

CHANNEL MODEL
1
2
3
The user section

The channel section

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Basic concepts
ENCODER
MODULATOR
RX
DECODER
DEMODULATOR
CHANNEL
TX

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Basic concepts
ENCODER
MODULATOR
RX
DECODER
DEMODULATOR
CHANNEL
TX
user section
interface section

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channel section
Basic concepts
TX
ENCODER
MODULATOR
CHANNEL
D=digital
W=waveform
RX
user section
DECODER
DEMODULATOR
interface section

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channel section
Basic concepts

ENCODER
Implements source encoding to limit the amount of
transmitted data (for example, voice can be encoded at 4
kbit/s or sent at 64 kbit/s with conventional telephony).
Implements channel encoding to limit the effect of channel
disturbances
MODULATOR
Converts the digital signal into a waveform to be transmitted
over the channel
CHANNEL
Reproduces the transmitted waveform at the receiver
Its operation is affected by frequency distortion, fading,
additive noise, and other disturbances
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Basic concepts

ENCODER
disturbances
MODULATOR
over the channel
CHANNEL
8

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Basic concepts

ENCODER
disturbances
MODULATOR
over the channel
CHANNEL
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c

Basic concepts
DEMODULATOR
Converts the received waveform into a sequence of samples to
be processed by the decoder
DECODER
Implements channel decoding to limit the effect of the errors
introduced by the channel
Implements source decoding

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Basic concepts
DEMODULATOR
Converts the received waveform into a sequence of samples to
be processed by the decoder
DECODER
Implements channel decoding to limit the effect of the errors
introduced by the channel
Implements source decoding

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Basic concepts
Band-pass signals
A band-pass signal has spectral components in a limited range
of frequencies f (f2 , f1 ) (f1 , f2 ) provided that
0 < f1 < f2 .
A certain frequency in the range (f1 , f2 ) (usually the middle
frequency) is called carrier frequency and denoted by fc .
The signal bandwidth is Bx = f2 f1 .
Bx
f2
fc
f1
f1
fc
f2
It is often convenient to represent band-pass signals as

equivalent complex signals with low-pass frequency spectrum
(i.e., including the zero frequency).
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Basic concepts
The analytic signal

A real band-pass signal x(t) can be mapped to a complex
analytic signal x
(t) by passing through a linear filter with
transfer function 2u(f ) = 2 1f >0 :
x(t)
2u(f )
x
(t)
The indicator function 1A = 1 if A is true, 0 otherwise.

Summarizing:
The analytic signal is a complex representation of a real signal.
It is used to simplify the analysis of modulated signals.
It generalizes the concept of phasor used in electronics.
The basic properties of the analytic signal derive from the

Fourier transform.
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Basic concepts
The analytic signal (cont.)
If x(t) is a real signal, then its Fourier transform is a

Hermitian function since:
Z
Z
X(f ) =
x(t) e +j 2f t dt =
x(t)e j 2(f )t dt
= X(f )
Therefore, the spectrum is completely determined by its

positive frequency (or negative frequency) part.
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Basic concepts
Hilbert transform
Since:
) = 2u(f )X(f ) = X(f ) + sgn(f )X(f ) , X(f ) + j X(f
b ),
X(f
applying F 1 yields:
x
(t) = x(t) + jb
x(t).
The signal x
b(t) is called the Hilbert transform of x(t):
Z
1
1 x( )
x
b(t) , x(t)
=
d
t
t
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Basic concepts
Hilbert transform (cont.)
Here, the Cauchy principal part of the integral has been taken,
namely,
Z t Z T
x( )
+
lim
d
0,T T
t
t+
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Basic concepts
Spectral properties
Assuming x(t) a zero-mean stationary real random process,
we have
Gx (f ) = |2u(f )|2 Gx (f ) = 4u(f )Gx (f )
Therefore,
Gx (f ) =
1
[Gx (f ) + Gx (f )]
4
Moreover,
2
E[|
x(t)| ] =
15
4Gx (f )df = 2

c

Gx (f )df = 2E[x(t)2 ]
Basic concepts
Assume that x(t) is a zero-mean stationary band-pass random
process with bandwidth Bx and carrier frequency fc so that
its power density spectrum is nonzero over the frequencies
f (fc Bx /2, fc + Bx /2) (fc Bx /2, fc + Bx /2)
where fc > Bx /2 > 0.
We define the baseband complex envelope of x(t) as
x
(t) = x
(t) e j 2fc t
The complex envelope is sometimes called baseband
equivalent signal.
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Basic concepts
The complex envelope x(t)
Then, we derive the autocorrelation function and the power

density spectrum of x
(t):
h
i
Rx ( ) = E x
(t + ) e j 2fc (t+ ) x
(t) e j 2fc t
=
Rx ( ) e j 2fc
= Gx (f ) = Gx (f + fc ).
Then, the power density spectrum of x

(t) is nonzero over the
frequencies f (Bx /2, Bx /2), i.e., it is a baseband signal
with bandwidth Bx /2.
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Basic concepts
In-phase and quadrature components

The real and imaginary parts of x
(t) = xc (t) + j xs (t) are
called in-phase and quadrature components of the signal.
They can be expressed in terms of the signal itself and of its
Hilbert transform:
(
xc (t) = Re[
x(t)e j 2fc t ] = x(t) cos(2fc t) + x
b(t) sin(2fc t)
xs (t) = Im[
x(t)e j 2fc t ] = x
b(t) cos(2fc t) x(t) sin(2fc t)
The previous relationships can be inverted and yield:

(
x(t) = Re[
x(t)e j 2fc t ] = xc (t) cos(2fc t) xs (t) sin(2fc t)
x
(t) = Im[
x(t)e j 2fc t ] = xs (t) cos(2fc t) + xc (t) sin(2fc t)
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Basic concepts
Frequency up-conversion = modulation

The modulation (or frequency up-conversion) of a real signal
x(t) consists in the following operation:
x(t) 7 x(t) cos(2fc t).
The modulation of a couple of real signals xc (t) and xs (t)

consists in the following operation:
[xc (t), xs (t)] 7 xc (t) cos(2fc t) xs (t) sin(2fc t).
In the analytic signal domain, modulation can be represented

as follows:
x
(t) 7 x
(t) = x
(t)e +j 2fc t .
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Basic concepts
Frequency down-conversion = demodulation
Therefore, demodulation (or frequency down-conversion) in

the analytic signal domain is represented as follows:
x
(t) 7 x
(t) = x
(t)e j 2fc t .
Correspondingly, in the real signal domain, demodulation can

be represented by:
(
xc (t) = x(t) cos(2fc t) + x

b(t) sin(2fc t)
xs (t) = x
b(t) cos(2fc t) x(t) sin(2fc t)
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Basic concepts
Frequency down-conversion = demodulation (cont.)

In a real system, demodulation can be implemented by
observing that
MULTIPLICATION BY IN-PHASE CARRIER
x(t) cos(2fc t + ) 2 cos(2fc t + )
= x(t) + x(t) cos(4fc t + 2)
In other words, multiplication of the signal x(t) cos(2fc t + )
by the phase-coherent sinusoid 2 cos(2fc t + ) returns the
superposition of
the modulating signal x(t);
another modulated signal with carrier frequency 2fc .
Low-pass filtering with bandwidth Bx eliminates the

modulated signal with carrier frequency 2fc .
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Basic concepts
Demodulator
The following picture illustrates the block diagram of a
demodulator with input:
x(t) = xc (t) cos(2fc t) xs (t) sin(2fc t).
2 cos(2fc t)
LOW-PASS
FILTER
xc (t)
LOW-PASS
FILTER
xs (t)
x(t)
2 sin(2fc t) = 2 cos(2fc t + 2 )
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Basic concepts
Problem set 1
Problem set 1
Calculate the analytic signal corresponding to

x(t) = cos(2fc t + ).
x(t) = sinc(t) cos(20t).
x(t) = sinc(t)2 cos(20t).
Calculate the baseband equivalent signal corresponding to

x(t) = cos(41t) + 2 sin(39t), fc = 20.
x(t) = sinc(t) cos(20t), fc = 10.
x(t) = sinc(t) cos(20t), fc = 9.
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Basic concepts
Probability
Topics on Probability
Probability is based on the concept of probability space.

A probability space consists of three parts:
A set of all possible outcomes.
2 A set of events, F, which are sets of outcomes.
3 A probability function P : F 7 [0, 1], assigning a probability to
every event.
1
The probability function is a normalized measure:
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Basic concepts
Probability
Topics on Probability (cont.)

1
A weighted sum of the probabilities of the outcomes in an

event E, if they are finite or countable:
X
P (E) =
P ().
E
In this case, outcomes are also events and have nonzero

probabilities.
2 An integral of the probability density function (pdf) over the
event E, if the outcomes are uncountable:
Z
P (E) =
d().
E
In this case, outcomes are not events.

Some technical assumptions on F are made in order that
integration can be carried out (-algebra assumption).
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Basic concepts
Probability
In all cases, the following normalization holds:

P () = 1,
that is, the probability of the set of all possible outcomes is 1.
Given two events A, B, we can build the union A B and the

intersection A B:
A B = set of outcomes in A or in B.
A B = set of outcomes in A and in B.
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Basic concepts
Probability

The probability of the intersection is called joint probability
and allows to define the conditional probability as
P (A | B) =
P (A B)
.
P (B)
Commonly, we write P (A, B) P (A B).

Conditional probabilities satisfy the Bayes rule:
P (A | B) =
=
27
P (A, B)
P (B, A) P (A)
=
P (B)
P (A) P (B)
P (B | A) P (A)
.
P (B)

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Basic concepts
Probability

A useful result is the total probability law:
If the events Bi , i = 1, 2, . . . form a partition of (i.e.,
]i Bi = and Bi Bj = for i 6= j), then:
P (A) =
P (A, Bi ) =
P (A | Bi )P (Bi ).
By the total probability law, one can obtain the conditional

probabilities P (Bi | A) from the P (A | Bi ):
P (A | Bi )P (Bi )
.
P (Bi | A) = P
j P (A | Bj )P (Bj )
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Basic concepts
Probability

The above result finds application in the design of digital
communication receivers where the event A represents the
received signal and the events Bi represent all the possible
transmitted data in a given framework.
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Basic concepts
Probability
The probability of the union has also some special properties.

For illustration, we interpret events as two-dimensional regions
and their probabilities as the areas of the regions.
A
B
P (A)
P (A B)
P (B)
P (A B)
P (A B) P (A) + P (B)
= P (A) + P (B) P (A B)
The inequalities derive from the fact that the area of the union
is always greater than or equal to the areas of each event.
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Basic concepts
Probability

Moreover, the sum of the areas is equal to the area of the
union plus that of the intersection, which is counted twice.
This yields the last inequality.
The previous results can be generalized to the case of m
events:
Lower and upper union bounds
Given a set of events {A1 , . . . , Am }, the following inequalities hold:
max P (Ai ) P
[
1im
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Ai
m
X
P (Ai ).
i=1
(1)
Basic concepts
Probability
Random variables
A discrete real random variable X is characterized by its

probability distribution
pX (xn ) = P (X = xn )
for n = 1, 2, . . . , N (where N may become infinity).
The expectation operator E[] is defined by
E[(X)] =
(xn )pX (xn )
for an arbitrary function ().
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Basic concepts
Probability
Random variables (cont.)

Since the expected value of every constant is the constant
itself, we obtain by definition:
X
E[1] =
pX (xn ) = 1.
n
This property holds for all probability distributions.

P
The mean of X is X = E[X] = n xn pX (xn ).
P
(2)
The second moment of X is X = E[X 2 ] = n x2n pX (xn ).
(2)
2 = E[(X )2 ] =
2
The variance of X is X
X
X X .
The square root of the variance is called standard deviation.
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Basic concepts
Probability

Continuous random variables are characterized by a pdf fX (x)
defining the expectation operator as
Z
E[(X)] =
(x)fX (x)dx,
I
where I is the support of the random variable, i.e., the set of

values where fX (x) > 0.
Again, the expected value of every constant is the constant
itself, so that:
Z
E[1] =
fX (x)dx = 1.
I
This property holds for all pdfs.
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Basic concepts
Probability
The mean, second moment, and variance are given by

Z
X =
xfX (x)dx
I
Z
(2)
X =
x2 fX (x)dx
2
X
I
(2)
X
2X ,
respectively.
Random variables can also be complex. Their properties
derive from the properties of real random variables.
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Basic concepts
Probability

A complex random variable Z = X + j Y has mean
Z = E[X] + j E[Y ]
and variance
Z2
, E[|Z Z |2 ]
= E[(X X )2 + (Y Y )2 ]
2
+ Y2
= X
= E[X 2 + Y 2 ] (2X + 2Y )
= E[|Z|2 ] |Z |2 .
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Basic concepts
We will be particularly concerned with Gaussian random

variables whose distribution is given by
fX (x) =
2 /(2 2 )
2 2
e (x)
and denoted by N (, 2 ).
The parameters and are the mean and the standard
deviation of a Gaussian random variable with distribution
N (, 2 ).
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Basic concepts
Gaussian random variables (cont.)

We will often be interested in calculating the probability
P (N (, 2 ) > x), i.e., the probability that a Gaussian random
variable with mean and standard deviation exceeds the
real value x.
These probability can be calculated by using the function
Q(x) (referred to as Q-function), which is the counter
cumulative probability distribution function of the normalized
Gaussian random variable N (0, 1).
The Q-function is defined as:
Z
Q(x) , P (N (0, 1) > x) =
x
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1
2
e u /2 du.
2
(2)
Basic concepts
By using the Q-function we can see that

P (N (, 2 ) > x) = P (N (0, 2 ) > x )

x
= P N (0, 1) >

x
= Q
.
The Q-function cannot be calculated in terms of elementary

functions (such as exp, ln, and trigonometric functions).
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Basic concepts

However,
by applying
integration by parts
R
R
( udv = uv vdu), we obtain the following simple
inequalities:
2
e x /2
2x

2
1
e x /2
1 2
Q(x)
.
x
2x
The upper bound is a good approximation for x 3 and

yields the asymptotic behavior:
2
e x /2
Q(x)
.
2x
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Basic concepts
In some cases, the following crude approximation is used:

Q(x) e x
2 /2
The following diagram compares the Q-function and the two

x2 /2
approximations, which are plotted as the red ( e2x ) and

green (e x
2 /2
) dashed curves, respectively.
We can see that the approximation of the red curve is better

than 10% for x 3.
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Basic concepts

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-4
42
-2

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Basic concepts
We will also consider complex Gaussian random variables with

a special property, namely, that of having zero mean and
independent and identically distributed (iid) real and
imaginary parts.
In other words, if Z = X + j Y , we assume that
X N (0, 2 /2) and Y N (0, 2 /2), where X and Y are
statistically independent.
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Basic concepts
Complex Gaussian random variables (cont.)

These assumptions lead to the following equivalent pdf
expressions:
fZ (z) = fXY (x, y)
1
1
2
2
2
2
=
e x /
e y /
2
2
1 (x2 +y2 )/2
e
=
2
1 |z|2 /2
=
.
e
2
The concept can be extended to vectors of complex Gaussian
random variables.
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Basic concepts
Complex Gaussian random variables (cont.)

If z = (Z1 , . . . , Zn )T is a vector of complex Gaussian random
variables with zero mean and covariance matrix
z = E[zz H ], then the pdf of z can be expressed as follows:
fz (z) = det(z )1 e z
H 1 z
z
In the special case of iid components of z, corresponding to

z = 2 In , the pdf simplifies to
2 / 2
fz (z) = ( 2 )n e kzk
which is the product of the individual (marginal) pdfs of the

2
2
Zi s: ( 2 )1 e |zi | / .
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Basic concepts
Signal spaces
Signal spaces
Signal spaces are linear (or vector) spaces built upon the
concept of Hilbert space, i.e., finite or infinite-dimensional
complete inner product spaces.
The elements of a signal space are real or complex signals x(t)
defined over a support interval I, for example I = (0, T ).
The inner product of two elements (signals) x and y is defined
as
Z
(x, y) =
x(t)y (t)dt.
(3)
I
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Basic concepts
Signal spaces
Signal spaces (cont.)
Correspondingly, the induced norm of x is given by

kxk , (x, x)1/2 .
Accordingly, the set

L2 (I) = {x : kxk < }
is defined as a signal space.
47

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(4)
Basic concepts
Signal spaces

Inner products satisfy the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality
|(x, y)| kxk kyk.
If |(x, y)| = kxk kyk, then the two signals are proportional,
i.e., y(t) = x(t) for some C.
A signal x(t) H L2 (I) if kxk is finite.
The squared norm of a signal x(t) is the signal energy:
Z
E(x) , (x, x) =
|x(t)|2 dt = kxk2 .
I
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Basic concepts
Signal spaces

A finite-dimensional signal space H L2 (I) is identified
through a base [n (t)]N
n=1 .
The elements of a base have the following orthogonality
property:
(m , n ) = 1 if m = n and 0 otherwise.
A signal x(t) H L2 (I) can be represented by the

expansion
N
X
x(t) =
xn n (t).
n=1
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Basic concepts
Signal spaces

The coefficients xn in this expansion can be calculated by
Z
x(t)n (t) dt.
xn = (x, n ) =
I
In many cases, a signal space H is defined as the set of all

possible linear combinations of a set of signals:
H = L(s1 , . . . , sM )
= {x(t) = 1 s1 (t) + + M sM (t),
(1 , . . . , M ) CM }.
The set L(s1 , . . . , sM ) is called linear span of s1 (t), . . . , sM (t).
In general, the signal set {s1 , . . . , sM } is not a base, but a
base can be found by using the Gram-Schmidt algorithm.
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Basic concepts
Signal spaces

The Gram-Schmidt algorithm finds a base (n )N
n=1 of
H = L(s1 , . . . , sM ) by the following set of iterative equations:
For k = 1, . . . , n :
k1
X
dk = sk
(sk , i )i
(projection step)
k =
51
dk
kdk k
i=1

c

(normalization step)
Basic concepts
Signal spaces
At every projection step such that dk = 0 the corresponding

k is not assigned and not accounted for in the remaining
steps.
The number of signals in the base is the number of
dimensions of H.
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Basic concepts
Signal spaces

The Gram-Schmidt algorithm works since, at every step, the
signal dk (t) is orthogonal to all previously generated signals
i (t), i = 1, . . . , k 1. In fact,

k1
X
(dk , i ) =
sk
(sk , ` )` , i
`=1
= (sk , i )
k1
X
(sk , ` )(` , i )
`=1
= (sk , i ) (sk , i ) = 0.
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Basic concepts
Signal spaces

The projection of a signal x(t) H over the subspace
Y = L(1 , . . . , N ) H is a signal xY (t) with the following
properties:
It can be expressed through the base of Y as follows:
xY (t) =
N
X
(x, n )n (t).
n=1
It is the closest signal in Y to x(t):

xY = arg min kx yk.
yY
The minimum distance is:

min kx yk2 = kxk2 kxY k2 .
yY
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Basic concepts
Signal spaces
Proof
The previous
property can be proved by assuming
P
y(t) = N
n=1 yn n (t). Then,
kx yk2 = (x y, x y)
= (x, x) (y, x) (x, y) + (y, y)
= kxk2 2Re[(x, y)] + kyk2
2
= kxk 2
N
X
n=1
55

c

Re[(x, yn n )] +
N
X
n=1
|yn |2 . (5)
Basic concepts
Signal spaces

The minimum of kx yk2 is obtained by minimizing
n , |yn |2 2Re[(x, yn n )] for all n = 1, . . . , N .
Since (x, yn n ) = yn (x, n ), we have
n = |yn |2 2|yn |Re[e j yn (x, n )]
= |yn |2 2|yn ||(x, n )| cos[(x, n ) yn ]
Therefore, for a given |yn |, the minimum is attained when the
argument of the cosine is 0.
In that case, n = |yn |2 2|yn ||(x, n )| and the optimum
phase of yn is yn = (x, n ).
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Basic concepts
Signal spaces

The minimization over |yn | is straightforward and gives
|yn | = |(x, n )|. In this case, n = |(x, n )|2 .
Summarizing, the yn minimizing kx yk2 over y Y is:
yn = |yn |e j yn = |(x, n )|e j (x,n ) = (x, n ).
The minimum is:
2
min kx yk = kxk
yY
57

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N
X
|(x, n )|2 .
n=1
Basic concepts
Signal spaces
A matrix version of the GS algorithm

An alternative approach to the Gram-Schmidt algorithm is
based on standard linear algebra methods.
It can be noticed that the GS algorithm leads to expressions
of the orthogonal base signals of the following type:
X
i (t) =
Cij sj (t).
ji
These equations can be written in matrix form as follows:

= Cs,
where = (1 (t), . . . , N (t))T and s = (s1 (t), . . . , sM (t))T .
C is a lower triangular matrix.
58

c

Basic concepts
Signal spaces
A matrix version of the GS algorithm (cont.)

From the previous equation we get
(, T ) = (Cs, sT C T ) = C(s, sT )C T .
The lhs is the identity matrix IN since (i , j ) = ij .

The rhs can be written as Cs C T where the matrix s is
the Gram matrix of the signals in s(t).
The elements of s are (s )ij = (si , sj ).
If a signal si (t) is linearly dependent from the signals
s1 (t), . . . , si1 (t), the corresponding row and column of s
must be eliminated because linear combinations of the
previous row and columns.
59

c

Basic concepts
Signal spaces
A matrix version of the GS algorithm (cont.)

A reduced Cholesky factorization can be applied to s leading
to the following matrix expression:
Es E T = LLT
where the N M matrix E removes the redundant rows and
columns and L is a square nonsingular lower triangular
matrix.
The previous result leads to C = L1 E.
As an example, if we have four signals but only s3 is a linear
combination of s1 , s2 ,
1 0 0 0
E = 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
The matrix product E(s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 )T = (s1 , s2 , s4 )T
eliminates s3 .
60

c

Basic concepts
Problem set 2
Problem set 2
61
Calculate the mean and variance of the discrete random

variable X with probability distribution
pX (1) = 0.5, pX (2) = 0.25, pX (4) = 0.25.
Calculate the mean and variance of the continuous random

variable X with probability distribution fX (x) = e x 1x>0 .
Calculate the mean and variance of the continuous random

variable X with probability distribution fX (x) = 0.5 1|x|<1 .
Calculate the probability P (X > a) for a Gaussian random

variable X N (, 2 ).
2 = E[X 2 ] E[X]2 .
Show that the variance identity holds: X
Assume support interval I = (0, 1) from now on.

Let H be the linear span of cos(2t) and sin(2t). Determine
if the signal cos(2t + /4) belongs to H.
c

Basic concepts
Problem set 2
Problem set 2 (cont.)
62
Given the signals s1 (t) = u(t) u(t 0.6),

s2 (t) = u(t 0.4) u(t 1), and s3 (t) = u(t) u(t 1),
apply the Gram-Schmidt algorithm to find a base of
L(s1 , s2 , s3 ) [u(t) = 0 for t < 0 and 1 for t > 0 is the unit
step function].
Given the signals s1 (t) = cos(2t) and s2 (t) = sin(3t), apply

the Gram-Schmidt algorithm to find a base of L(s1 , s2 ).
Check Schwarzs inequality for the signals

s1 (t) = u(t) u(t 0.6), s2 (t) = u(t 0.4) u(t 1), and
s3 (t) = u(t) u(t 1).
10
Let Y = L(s1 = sin(t), s2 = cos(3t)). Find the projection

of x(t) = u(t) u(t 1) over Y and calculate kx xY k2
(notice that s1 and s2 are orthogonal).

c

Basic concepts
Problem set 2
11
63
Apply the matrix GS algorithm to find the matrix C

determining the orthogonal base to the set of signals
s1 = 10<t<.36 , s2 = 1.36<t<1 , s3 = 10<t<1 , s4 = 10<t<.5 .

c

Outline
64
Basic concepts

c

Section Outline
2
65

Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) Channel
Linear digital modulation
Digital receiver design
Baseband digital modulation
Band-pass digital modulation
Signal detection
Error probability
Standard digital modulations
Problem set 3
Power density spectrum of digital modulated signals
Comparison of digital modulations
Problem set 4

c

Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) Channel
AWGN channel
This channel model is specified by the equation
y(t) = Ax(t) + z(t)
(6)
where:
Channel parameters
A is the real channel gain.
x(t) and y(t) are the channel input and output signals.
z(t) is the zero-mean additive white Gaussian noise process. It has
autocorrelation function and power density spectrum:
N0
Rz ( ) = E[z(t + )z(t)] =
( ),
2
N0
Gz (f ) =
.
2
66

c

Linear modulations
We consider the following modulated signal:
x(t; a) =
N
X
an n (t)
n=1
where
N is the number of dimensions of the modulation scheme.
The vector a = (an )N
n=1 represents a modulation symbol
vector and is taken from a finite set A = {1 , . . . , M }.
A is called modulation alphabet or signal constellation.
n (t) is the nth shaping pulse of the modulated signal.
We assume that each n (t) 6= 0 only for t (0, T ).
We also assume that (m , n ) = mn = 1 if m = n and 0
otherwise (Kroneckers delta).
67

c

(7)
Linear modulations (cont.)
The signal x(t; a) allows us to send one symbol vector every

T time units so that T is called symbol time, symbol interval,
or signalling interval.
The signal x(t; a) belongs to the Hilbert space H generated by
all possible linear combinations of the base signals (n )N
n=1 .
The corresponding received signal
y(t) = A
N
X
an n (t) + z(t)
n=1
does not necessarily belong to H = L(1 , . . . , N ).
68

c

(8)
Linear modulations (cont.)

The projection of y(t) on H is given by:
yH (t) =
N
X
yn n (t) =
n=1
N
X
(Aan + zn )n (t).
(9)
n=1
In this expression we find the nth received signal and noise

components:
yn = (y, n ) =
zn = (z, n ) =
RT
R 0T
0
y(t)n (t)dt and

z(t)n (t)dt
Here, zn , is a Gaussian random variable.

A receiver calculating the vector y = (y1 , . . . , yN ) from y(t) is
called correlation receiver.
69

c

Receiver design
The goal of a digital receiver is to recover the transmitted

symbol vector a from the received signal y(t).
The correlation receiver projects y(t) on H to obtain (9) and
outputs the coefficients yn = Aan + zn for n = 1, . . . , N .
In the absence of noise, the correlation receiver outputs a
scaled version (by the channel gain A) of the transmitted
symbol vector.
When noise is present, the receiver guesses which symbol
vector from A was transmitted with the goal of minimizing
the error probability.
This process is called detection or decision.
70

c

Receiver design (cont.)
The correlation receiver can be interpreted as a matched filter

by observing that:
Z
y(t)n (t)dt
yn =
0
y(t)hn (T t)dt
=
0
= [y(t) hn (t)]t=T ,
where we defined the impulse response of the matched filter
as hn (t) = n (T t).
71

c

Sequential receiver design

The signalling model described can be repeated over many
symbol times.
We can write the sequential modulated signal as:
x(t; a0 , . . . , aL ) =
L X
N
X
ai,n n (t iT ).
i=0 n=1
The corresponding received signal over the AWGN channel is:

y(t) = A
L X
N
X
ai,n n (t iT ) + z(t).
i=0 n=1
72

c

Sequential receiver design (cont.)

The matched filter structure lends itself to a sequential
implementation accounting for the transmission of successive
modulated symbols in time.
The bank of matched filters receiver is illustrated as follows:
y(t)
1 (T t)
yi,1
2 (T t)
yi,2
..
.
yi,N
N (T t)
t = (i + 1)T
73

c


The output of the nth matched filter at time t = (i + 1)T is
given by:
yi,n = [y(t) n (T t)]t=(i+1)T
Z
=
y(t1 )n (T (i + 1)T + t1 )dt1
Z
=
y(t2 + iT )n (t2 )dt2

0
= A
N Z
L X
X
aj,m m (t2 + iT jT )n (t2 )dt2
j=0 m=1 0
Z
+
z(t2 )n (t2 )dt2

0
= A ai,n + zi,n
74

c

The previous expression holds since the shaping pulses are

orthogonal and time-limited to the signalling interval (0, T ).
Therefore,
T
m (t2 + iT jT )n (t2 )dt2 = m,n i,j .

0
This is just an extension of the digital receiver operation

described over the first signalling interval (0, T ).
75

c


If the symbols an and the shaping pulses n (t) are real,
x(t; a) in (7) represents a baseband digitally modulated
signal.
A simple example of digital modulation is the binary antipodal
modulation with alphabet A = {1}.
If a = (+1, +1, 1, 1, 1, +1, 1, +1, +1, 1), the signal is
illustrated as follows.
x(t) +1
+1
+1
+1
+1
g(t)
t
T
76

c

Baseband digital modulation (cont.)
Another example (same data symbols).

x(t) +1
+1
+1
+1
+1
Baseband digital modulations are represented in a

one-dimensional space.
77

c


Next, we deal with band-pass digital modulations.
We start from the baseband equivalent signal:
x
(t; a) = a g(t),
where g(t) is a real baseband signal of bandwidth lower than
fc and we assume that a A = {a1 , . . . , aM } is a complex
modulation symbol.
Then, we obtain the corresponding band-pass signal as:
i
h
x(t; a) = Re x
(t; a)e j 2fc t
= Re(a) [g(t) cos(2fc t)]
+ Im(a) [g(t) sin(2fc t)],
78

c

Band-pass digital modulation (cont.)
The signal x(t; a) can be interpreted as a two-dimensional

linear modulation.
In fact, it can be represented as a linear combination of:

1 (t) = g(t) cos(2fc t)
(10)
2 (t) = g(t) sin(2fc t)
with coefficients Re(a) and Im(a).
Now, assume that the bandwidth of g(t) is Bg < fc , i.e., its
Fourier transform G(f ) = F[g(t)] is equal to 0 for every
f fc .
Then, G2 (f ) , F[g(t)2 ] = G(f ) G(f ) has bandwidth
2Bg < 2fc .
79

c

Band-pass digital modulation (cont.)

As a consequence,
Z
G2 (2fc ) =
g(t)2 e j 4fc t dt = 0.
Using the above result,

Z
1
1 cos(4fc t)
2
dt = kgk2
k1,2 k =
g(t)2
2
2
and
1
(1 , 2 ) =
2
g(t)2 sin(4fc t)dt = 0.
Thus, if kgk2 = 2, the signals (1 , 2 ) are orthogonal and

form the base of a two-dimensional signal space H provided
that the bandwidth of g(t) is smaller than the carrier
frequency fc .
80

c

Signal detection
Detection of transmitted symbols

b
The receiver outputs an estimate of the transmitted symbol a
based on the received signal y(t) over t (0, T ).
The first stage of the receiver converts y(t) into the vector
y = Aa + z
where a = (a1 , . . . , aN ) and z = (z1 , . . . , zN ).
We define a generic decision rule (or detection rule):
b (y) = (
a
a1 (y), . . . , a
N (y)).
b (y) maps H into the modulation alphabet A.
a
The decision rule can be optimized according to some
goodness criterion.
Typically, the goal is minimizing the error probability.
81

c

(11)
Signal detection
Optimum digital receiver

We can write the (average) error probability as follows:
P (e) =
M
X
P (m )P (e | m )
(12)
m=1
where
P (m ) is the a priori probability of transmitting m .
P (e | m ) is the probability of error conditioned on the
transmission of m .
We notice that

b (y = Am + z) 6= m ,
P (e | m ) = P a
i.e., the probability that the decision rule returns a symbol
different from the transmitted one.
82

c

Signal detection
Optimum digital receiver (cont.)
It is plain to see that minimizing the (average) error

probability is equivalent to maximizing the (average)
probability of correct decision P (c) since P (c) = 1 P (e).
Let us define
The pdf of y given the transmitted symbol : f (y|).
The decision regions
b (y) = m ),
Rm , {y : a
m = 1, . . . , M.
Notice that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the

set of decision regions and the decision rule.
83

c

Signal detection
b (y) is a well defined (i.e.,

Since the decision rule a
single-valued) function for all y H = RN (the signal space),
the decision regions do not intersect and their union fills H
itself:
M
]
Rm = H
m=1
U
( denotes the union of disjoint sets).
84

c

Signal detection

Now, we can write the probability of correct decision as a
function of the a priori probabilities P (m ), f (y|), and the
b (y) = m for y Rm , we get:
decision rule. Since a
P (c)
M
X
P (m )P (b
a(y) = m | m )
m=1
M Z
X
m=1
P (m )f (y|m )dy
yRm
M Z
X
m=1
P (b
a(y))f (y|b
a(y))dy
yRm
Z
=
P (b
a(y))f (y|b
a(y))dy
H=RN
85

c

(13)
Signal detection

Maximizing P (c) requires to maximize the integrand in (13),
which can be accomplished by selecting the symbol A
that maximizes
P ()f (y | )
for all possible received vectors y.
The resulting optimum decision rule is:
b opt (y) = arg max P ()f (y | ).
a
A
86

c

(14)
Signal detection

Since applying the Bayes rule, we have
P (m | y) =
P (m )f (y | m )
,
f (y)
the optimum decision rule is equivalent to maximizing the a

posteriori probability P (m | y).
Thus, the optimum decision rule is called maximum
a-posteriori (MAP) decision.
87

c

Signal detection

When transmitted symbols are equiprobable, i.e.,
P (m ) = 1/M , the MAP rule reduces to a maximum
likelihood (ML) rule:
b (y) = arg max f (y | m )
a
m
This name comes from the name of the functions f (y | m )

(likelihood functions in radar theory).
88

c

Signal detection
The decision regions can be represented as follows:

Rm =
{y : P (m )f (y | m ) > P (n )f (y | n ) n 6= m}
89
{y : f (y | m ) > f (y | n ) n 6= m}

c

MAP
ML
Signal detection
Special case: The AWGN channel

Proposition. The additive noise components of an AWGN
channel are iid Gaussian random variables with zero mean and
variance N0 /2.
Proof.
We have, by definition,
T
Z
zn =
z(t)n (t)dt
0
for n = 1, . . . , N .
Then,
Z
E[z(t)]n (t)dt = 0
E[zn ] =
0
since the additive noise random process has zero mean.

90

c

Signal detection
Special case: The AWGN channel (cont.)

Moreover,
T
Z
E[zn zn0 ] = E
Z
z(t)n (t)dt
91
z(t )n0 (t )dt
E[z(t)z(t0 )]n (t)n0 (t0 )dtdt0
N0
n (t)n0 (t)dt
2
0
T
=
Z
=
0
N0
(t t0 )n (t)n0 (t0 )dtdt0
2
N0
n,n0 .
2

c

Signal detection

In other words, different components of the noise vector z are
uncorrelated (and hence independent since Gaussian), and
each one has variance N0 /2.
As a result, the conditional pdf of the received vector y is
f (y | ) = fz (y A)
2 /N
0
= (N0 )N/2 e kyAk
(15)
It is worth noting that the joint pdf (15) depends only on the
distance of the received signal from the transmitted one
scaled by the channel gain A.
Using (15), the logarithms of the likelihood functions are
readily obtained as follows:
ln f (y | m ) =
92
1
N
ln(N0 )
ky Am k2 .
2
N0

c

Signal detection

Since these functions depend on a distance, they are called
decision metrics.
The MAP and ML decision rules can be expressed in terms of
decision metrics for the AWGN channel as follows:
n
o
(
arg minm ky Am k2 N0 ln P (m )
MAP
b (y) =
a
arg minm ky Am k2
ML
As a result, the ML decision rule for the AWGN channel is
often referred to as minimum distance decision.
93

c

Signal detection

The decision regions on the AWGN channel can be
represented as follows:
Rm =
{y : ky Am k2 N0 ln P (m ) <
ky An k2 N0 ln P (n ) n 6= m}
MAP
{y : ky Am k2 < ky An k2 n 6= m} ML
94

c

Signal detection

Here is an example of minimum distance decision regions (aka
Voronoi regions):
2
(2, +1)
(+2, +1)
(2, 1)
95

c

(+2, 1)
Signal detection

Here is another (asymmetric) example of minimum distance
decision regions:
2
(1, +1)
(+2, +1)
(2, 1)
96

c

(+1, 1)
Error probability
Error probability
Using the optimum decision rule (14) and assuming that m
has been transmitted, we can see that the symbol decision is
incorrect if one or more of the following events occur:
n
o
P (n )f (y | n ) > P (m )f (y | m ) | m .
for n = 1, . . . , M and n 6= m.
Notice that all the pairwise error events contain the
conditioning clause | m . This clause is equivalent to the
assumption that m was transmitted.
97

c

Error probability
Error probability (cont.)

Thus, the error probability, conditioned on the transmission of
m , is given by
P (e | m )
[ n
o

= P
P (n )f (y | n ) > P (m )f (y | m ) m
n6=m
where represents the union of events.
98

c

Error probability

The above expression of the error probability is too complex
to calculate analytically, whereas the pairwise error
probabilities (PEPs)
Pairwise Error Probability
P (m n )

, P P (n )f (y | n ) > P (m )f (y | m )m
can be calculated very simply!

Thus, lower and upper bounds are used to approximate
P (e|m ).
99

c

Error probability

Applying the bounds (1) to the conditional probabilities
P (e|m ), we obtain
Error probability lower and upper bounds
M
X
m=1
P (m ) max P (m n ) P (e)
n6=m
M
X
m=1
P (m )
P (m n )
n6=m
(16)
100

c

Error probability
Assuming the MAP decision rule over the AWGN channel, and
letting A = 1, the PEPs are given by
Pairwise error probability

P (m n ) = Q
km n k2 + N0 ln[P (m )/P (n )]
2N0 km n k

.
(17)
Equation (17) is based on the Q-function (2) and will be

derived in detail in a problem.
101

c

Error probability
Error probability of binary modulations
The inequalities (16) yield the exact error probability in the

case of for binary modulations (M = 2):
P (e) = P (1 )P (1 2 ) + P (2 )P (2 1 )

k1 2 k2 + N0 ln[P (1 )/P (2 )]
= P (1 )Q
2N0 k1 2 k

2
k1 2 k N0 ln[P (1 )/P (2 )]
+ P (2 )Q
.
2N0 k1 2 k
102

c

Error probability
Error probability of binary modulations (cont.)
With equiprobable signals, i.e., P (m ) = 1/M , inequalities

(16) yield:
M
1 X
max P (m n ) P (e)
n6=m
M
m=1
M
1 X X
P (m n )
M
m=1 n6=m
Here, P (m n ) = Q(km n k/ 2N0 ).
103

c

Error probability
High SNR approximation

In most situations, one is mostly interested to the high SNR
(and then low N0 ) case.
Since the Q function decreases very quickly, we can keep in
the bounds only the terms with minimum distance:
dmin , min km n k
m6=n
(18)
and disregard the others which are very small.

To be conservative, we use the upper bound to P (e) and
obtain this approximation:

dmin
P (e) Nmin Q
(19)
2N0
1 P P
where Nmin = M
m
n 1km n k=dmin .
104

c

Error probability
Standard plots of P (e)
In most cases, the error probability is plotted in log-log

graphics where
the abscissa is the energy ratio Eb /N0 expressed in dB on a
linear scale;
the ordinate is the error probability in logarithmic scale.
Eb is the energy per information bit. For the uncoded

modulations considered, we have:
Eb =
Es
log2 M
Es =
P (m )km k2 ,
and Es is called the energy per symbol.
105

c

Error probability
Bit error probability

In some applications, it is better considering the bit error
probability Pb (e) than the symbol error probability P (e).
Typically, modulation symbols are assigned to bit vectors (bit
mapping), so that a symbol error corresponds to having a
received bit vector different from the transmitted one.
The bit error probability is the average number of errors in the
received bit vector divided by the vector size:
Pb (e) =
E[Nb ]
,
log2 M
where Nb denotes the number of bit errors.

Of course, Pb (e) depends on the bit mapping.
Assuming high SNR, most errors occur between minimum
distance symbols.
106

c

Error probability
Bit error probability (cont.)

For some modulations it is possible to select a bit mapping
such that all minimum distance symbols differ in their
corresponding bit vectors at only one position (Gray
encoding). For example,
00
01
11
10
+3
In this case, with high probability, every symbol error

corresponds to 1 bit error (out of log2 M transmitted bits).
In general, we have Nb = 0 with probability 1 P (e) and
Nb 1 with probability P (e). If the probability that Nb > 1 is
very small, then
Pb (e)
107
0 (1 P (e)) + 1 P (e)
P (e)
=
.
log2 M
log2 M

c

PAM = Pulse Amplitude Modulation

The alphabet of M -PAM is A = {(2m M 1)}M
m=1 .
For example, the constellation of 8-PAM is as follows:
7 5 3 + +3 +5 +7
The error probability of M -PAM is:
r

6 log2 M Eb
M 1
P (e) = 2
Q
.
M
M 2 1 N0
108

c

(20)
QAM = Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

The alphabet of M -QAM is
M
A = {(2m M 1) + j (2n M 1)}m,n=1
.
For example, the constellation of 16-QAM is as follows:
109

c

QAM = Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (cont.)
The error probability of M -QAM is:
r

M 1
3 log2 M Eb
P (e) 4
Q
.
M 1 N0
M
110

c

(21)
PSK = Phase Shift Keying
The alphabet of M -PSK is A = { Es e j (2m1)/M }M

m=1 .
For example, the constellation of 8-PSK is as follows:
111

c

PSK = Phase Shift Keying (cont.)
The error probability of M -PSK is:

r

Eb
2
P (e) 2 Q
2 sin
log2 M
.
M
N0
In the special case of M = 4 we have:
r

Eb
P (e) 2 Q
2
.
N0
112

c

(22)
Orthogonal modulations
The alphabet of an orthogonal modulation consists of M
vectors in RM with a single nonzero coordinate equal to Es .
For example, a quaternary orthogonal modulation is
represented by the following four signals:
p
p
1 = ( Es , 0, 0, 0), 2 = (0, Es , 0, 0),
3 = (0, 0,
p
Es , 0),
4 = (0, 0, 0,
p
Es ).
The error probability of an M -ary orthogonal modulation is:

r

Eb
P (e) (M 1)Q
log2 M
.
(23)
N0
113

c

Orthogonal modulations (cont.)

Two examples of orthogonal modulations are given as follows.
1
Pulse position modulation (M -PPM): Given the signal pulse

(t), the modulated signals are:
(24)
xm (t) = M (M t (m 1)T ),
i.e., (t) is contracted in time to (0, T /M ) and shifted by

(m 1)T /M .
2 Frequency shift keying (M -FSK):
xm (t) = 2 cos[2(fc + mf )t]

(25)
where fc T and f T are integer numbers.
114

c

Asymptotic comparison of digital modulations

Consider two digital modulation schemes with approximate
union bounds to the error probability

r
Eb
i
P (e) i Q
N0
for i = 1, 2.
The asymptotic behavior of the error probability (when Eb /N0
is very large) is dominated by the Q-function term and can be
approximated by
P (e) e (i /2)Eb /N0
for i = 1, 2 (we used Q(x) exp(x2 /2)).
If 1 > 2 , the first modulation is better than the second
since its error probability is smaller at the same Eb /N0 .
115

c

Asymptotic comparison of digital modulations (cont.)

The same asymptotic error probability is obtained when

Eb
Eb
1
= 2
,
N0 1
N0 2
disregarding the i .
Hence, we define the asymptotic gain of the first modulation
with respect to the second one as the dB-difference between
(Eb /N0 )2 and (Eb /N0 )1 , which are the Eb /N0 ratios required
to have the same asymptotic error probability:

Eb
Eb
1
G = 10 log10
10 log10
= 10 log10
N0 2
N0 1
2
116

c

Problem set 3
Problem set 3
1
Derive the PEP (17).
Derive the union bound approximation (19) along with the

expression of Nmin by keeping only those terms from the
upper bound
M
1 X X
P (m n )
M
m=1 n6=m
corresponding to minimum distance errors, i.e., such that

km n k = dmin .
117
Derive the error probability in (20).
Check the orthogonality of the signals in (24) and (25).

c

Problem set 3

7
Calculate the error probability of the 32-QAM modulation

characterized by the following signal set:
+5
+3
+1
+1
+3
5
5
118

c

+5
Problem set 3

9
Find the error probability of the binary modulation whose

signals are
s1 (t) = 10<t<0.8 ,
s2 (t) = 10.4<t<1 ,
T = 1.
Hint: it is not necessary to represent the signals in a

normalized signal space, only the average energy and the
distance are required.
119

c

Problem set 3

10
Consider the quaternary modulation obtained by using the

following four signals:
s1 (t) = A[u(t) u(t T )]
s2 (t) = A[u(t) u(t T /4) + u(t T /2) u(t 3T /4)]
s3 (t) = A[u(t) u(t T /4) u(t T /2) + u(t 3T /4)]
s4 (t) = A[u(t) 2u(t T /2) + u(t T )]
Calculate i) the average energy per bit Eb , ii) the minimum
distance d2min , and iii) the average symbol p
error probability
(high-SNR approximation) in the form Q( Eb /N0 ).
120

c

Problem set 3

11
Calculate the error probability of a 4-PSK signal set assuming

that the receiver has a constant phase offset that rotates the
decision regions by an angle .
12
Calculate the error probability of an octonary signal set whose

signals
are
located over two concentric circles with rays 1 and

0.5 + 1.5. The signals are equally spaced over each circle
and have a phase offset of /4 radians between the
corresponding signals over different circles.
13
Calculate the error probability of the digital modulation based

on the following four signals:

5
T
sm (t) = sin
t (m 1)
1|tmT /5|T /5
2T
5
for m = 1, 2, 3, 4.
121

c

Power density spectrum of digital modulations

P
The power density spectrum of x(t) = n an (t nT ),
where an is a wide-sense stationary sequence with
autocorrelation function Ra (p) = E[an+p an ], can be expressed
as the product of two terms:
Power density spectrum: Gx (f ) = Sa (f ) G (f )
X
Ra (p)e j 2pf T (data spectrum)

Sa (f ) ,
p
G (f ) ,
1
|(f )|2
T
(pulse spectrum)
In many circumstances, the bandwidth of a digital signal is

approximated by an expression depending only on the
signalling interval T .
122

c

Shannon bandwidth
A common approximation to the bandwidth of a digital signal
is the Shannon bandwidth:
Wsh , Nd
1
2T
where Nd is the signal space dimension and T is the symbol

interval.
It can be shown that this approximation is very good when
the number of dimensions is large.
However, even with Nd = 1, the bandwidth overhead is
limited for suitably chosen pulses, as illustrated in the
following example.
123

c

Bandwidth of antipodal signals

Consider a binary PAM signal with iid equiprobable symbols
an {1}. The shaping pulse, (t), is one of the following:

1t(0,T ) square pulse
(t) =
2 sin(t/T )1t(0,T ) sinusoidal pulse
The power density spectrum is given by Gx (f ) = |(f )|2 /T ,
and (check as homework):
(f ) =
124
T sinc(f T )e j f T
e j f T cos(f T )
2
2T (f 2 1/(2T )2 )

c

square pulse
sinusoidal pulse
Bandwidth of antipodal signals (cont.)

The following diagram plots the fractional power content
Z
Gx (f )df
(W ) = ZW
Gx (f )df
versus the normalized bandwidth W T (normalized with

respect to the signalling rate 1/T ).
This quantity represents the fraction of power of the digital
modulation signal contained in the bandwidth W with respect
to the total power.
125

c


1
0.8
(W)
0.6
0.4
0.2
square
sine
0
0
126
0.5

c

1
WT
1.5

One way to limit the bandwidth occupation of a digital
modulation signal consists of extending the duration of the
modulation pulse beyond the signalling interval (0, T ).
When the signalling pulse is limited to the signalling interval,
the modulation signal is called full response. When its
duration exceeds T , it is called partial response.
Stretching in time the signalling pulse by a factor
corresponds to an equivalent stretching in the frequency
domain by the inverse of :
(t) 7 (t/) (f ) 7 (f ) (W ) 7 (W ).
The price to be payed is related to the generation of

intersymbol interference.
127

c

Key parameters
The performance of different modulation schemes is described
by three system parameters:
Error probability (symbol or bit).
Spectral efficiency, i.e., the ratio between the bit rate Rb and
the occupied bandwidth W .
3 The signal-to-noise ratio Eb /N0 .
1
2
For Nd -dimensional signal sets, the occupied bandwidth is

approximately equal to the Shannon bandwidth
Wsh = Nd
Nd Rb
1
=
2T
2 log2 M
Hence, the spectral efficiency is given by

b ,
128
2 log2 M
Rb
=
.
Wsh
Nd

c

Spectral efficiency
The spectral efficiency b grows slowly (logarithmically) with

the constellation size M and decreases rapidly (linearly) with
the number of dimensions Nd .
For a fixed M , PAM modulations have higher spectral
efficiency than orthogonal modulations. Therefore,
PAM modulations are used in channels with limited bandwidth
(bandwidth limited channels) and high power.
Orthogonal modulations are used in channels with limited
power (power limited channels) and large bandwidth.
129

c

Shannons bound
Shannons theorem yields the maximum bit rate that can be

sustained with arbitrarily low error probability by an
Nd -dimensional digital modulation with symbol interval T
over an AWGN channel:

Nd
S
log2 1 +
.
(26)
Rb =
2T
N
Here, S is the received power, N is the noise power, and S/N
is called signal-to-noise ratio.
We assume that the signal bandwidth is Wsh = Nd /(2T ).
130

c

Shannons bound (cont.)

Since the noise power is N = N0 Wsh and the signal power is
S = Eb /Tb = Rb Eb , (26) can be written as:

Rb Eb
.
Rb Wsh log2 1 +
Wsh N0
Since the spectral efficiency is b = Rb /Wsh , we obtain:

Eb
b log2 1 + b
N0
2b 1
Eb
.
N0
b
Finally, for b 0, we have

Eb
Eb
ln 2
10 log10 (ln 2) 1.6 dB.
N0
N0 dB
131

c

Shannons bound (cont.)

60
Shannon's bound
Pb(e)=1e-4
50
1024-PAM
Pb(e)=1e-6
Pb(e)=1e-8
40
Bandwidth-limited
region
Eb/N0 [dB]
Power-limited
region
30
20
2-PAM
4-PPM
10
1024-PPM
-1.6 dB
0
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
Rb/W [bit/s/Hz]
132

c

Problem set 4
Problem set 4
1
Derive the power density spectrum formula

Gx (f ) = Sa (f ) G (f ) for the signal
x(t) =
an (t nT ),
(27)
where
an is a wide-sense stationary sequence with autocorrelation
function Ra (p) = E[an+p an ];
P
Sa (f ) , p Ra (p)e j 2pf T is the data spectrum;
G (f ) , T1 |(f )|2 is the pulse spectrum.
Hint: Consider the (randomly delayed and stationary) signal

x(t ), with uniformly distributed in (0, T ), and calculate
the Fourier transform of its autocorrelation function to obtain
the power density spectrum.
133

c

Problem set 4
134
Calculate the power density spectrum of the signal (27)

assuming that the symbols an are uncorrelated with mean a
and variance a2 .
Calculate the power density spectrum of the signal (27)

assuming that the transmitted symbols an have zero mean
and correlation Ra (m) = |m| (where (0, 1)), (t) has
unit energy, and the average signal power is P .
Calculate the power density spectrum of (27) assuming that

the transmitted symbols are iid and taken from a 4-PSK
signal set with probabilities (0.7, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1).

c


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WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

lecture notes (part 1)

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

All material in this course is the property of the Author. Copyright

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Digital modulations over the AWGN channel

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c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Reference books in Wireless Communications

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Reference books in Wireless Communications

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Model of a digital communication system

Model of a digital communication system

The user section

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Model of a digital communication system

Model of a digital communication system

The user section

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Model of a digital communication system

Model of a digital communication system

The user section

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Model of a digital communication system

Model of a digital communication system

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Model of a digital communication system

Model of a digital communication system

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Model of a digital communication system

Model of a digital communication system

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Model of a digital communication system

Model of a digital communication system

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Model of a digital communication system

Model of a digital communication system

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Model of a digital communication system

Model of a digital communication system

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Model of a digital communication system

Model of a digital communication system

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Model of a digital communication system

Model of a digital communication system

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

It is often convenient to represent band-pass signals as

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

The analytic signal

The indicator function 1A = 1 if A is true, 0 otherwise.

The basic properties of the analytic signal derive from the

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

The analytic signal (cont.)

If x(t) is a real signal, then its Fourier transform is a

Therefore, the spectrum is completely determined by its

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

Hilbert transform (cont.)

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco

c Prof. Giorgio Taricco