Metrology NOTE

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DMM 2412
METROLOGY

Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s
CHAPTER 1
Fundamentals Of Metrology
1.1
2.1
3.1
4.1
CHAPTER 2
WHAT IS METROLOGY
NEEDS AND FUNCTIONS OF INSPECTION
OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY
PRINCIPLES OF METROLOGY
Basic Inspection and Procedures

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION
TESTING AND ITS PROCEDURES
TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS
FACTORS IN SELECTING TESTING INSTRUMENT
CALIBRATION
CARE OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Measurement Errors
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF A MEASURING SYSTEM
TYPES OF ERRORS
SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS
Vernier Caliper
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
CHAPTER 5
INTRODUCTION
PARTS OF A VERNIER CALIPER
MEASURING ACCURACY
READING THE SCALE
DIAL CALIPER
DIGITAL CALIPER
DEPTH VERNIER CALIPER
APPLICATIONS OF VERNIER CALIPER
Micrometer
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION
EXTERNAL MICROMETER
DEPTH MICROMETER
INTERNAL MICROMETER
SPECIAL TYPES OF MICROMETERS
Mechanical Dial Indicator

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
INTRODUCTION
PRINCIPLE OF A DIAL INDICATOR (PLUNGER TYPE)
PARTS OF A DIAL INDICATOR
HOW DOES A DIAL INDICATOR WORK
MEASURING ACCURACY
READING THE SCALE
GUIDELINES WHEN USING DIAL INDICATOR
SOURCES OF ERRORS
APPLICATIONS OF DIAL INDICATOR

CHAPTER 7
Gauge Block
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
CHAPTER 8
INTRODUCTION
TYPES AND GRADES
STANDARD SET OF GAUGE BLOCKS
TO DETERMINE THE GAUGE BLOCKS COMBINATION
CHECKING SURFACE FLATNESS OF GAUGE BLOCKS
GAUGE BLOCK APPLICATIONS
MAINTENANCE AND CARE OF GAUGE BLOCKS
Surface Plate Inspection

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
CHAPTER 9
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS A SURFACE PLATE
ADVANTAGES OF GRANITE SURFACE PLATE
CARE OF SURFACE PLATE
SOURCES OF ERRORS
SURFACE PLATE ACCESSORIES OR HOLDING DEVICES
PRINCIPLES OF SURFACE PLATE INSPECTION
EXAMPLES OF HOLDING DEVICES USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH A
SURFACE PLATE
Instruments for Testing Angles

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
CHAPTER 10
INTRODUCTION
TESTING ANGLES
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION
CALCULATION METHOD
Gauges
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
CHAPTER 11
INTRODUCTION
ADVANTAGES OF GAUGES
DISADVANTAGES OF GAUGES
FACTORS IN SELECTING MATERIALS FOR GAUGES
MATERIALS FOR GAUGES
TYPES OF GAUGES
Profile Projector
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
CHAPTER 12
INTRODUCTION
APPLICATION
TEST PROCEDURES
DIFFERENT STANDARD OVERLAY CHARTS
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
MAINTENANCE OF OPTICAL COMPONENTS
Surface Roughness Measurement

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
INTRODUCTION
SURFACE TEXTURE MEASUREMENT
DEFINITIONS OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS TERMS
WAVE LENGTH LIMIT C
BASIC TERMS OF SURFACE TEXTURE
EFFECTS OF VARIOUS CUT-OFF VALUES
DEFINITION OF SURFACE PARAMETERS
ADDITIONS TO THE SURFACE SYMBOL

12.9
12.10
CHOICE OF THE WAVELENGTH LIMIT C

INSTRUMENTS FOR TESTING ROUGHNESS

CHAPTER 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF METROLOGY

1.1
1.2
WHAT IS METROLOGY
Metrology is the science of measurement. However, we have to go one step ahead
and must also deal with the correctness of measurement. We have to observe whether
the measuring result is given with the sufficient correctness and accuracy for the
particular need or not. Thus, in industrial terms metrology is primarily concerned with
methods and techniques of measurement based on agreed units and standards. The
practice of metrology involves precise measurement, which requires the use of
apparatus and equipment to permit the degree of accuracy required to be obtained.
In a broader sense, metrology is not limited to length measurement. It is also
concerned with the industrial inspection and its various techniques from the raw
material to the finished product or even assembled parts.
NEEDS AND FUNCTIONS OF INSPECTION

a. To determine good or bad parts
Our five senses are basically instruments, which are used to inspect certain
objects based on observation, curiosity or enjoyment. We can use our nose to smell (i.e.
to check) whether there is a gas leak. We can use our tongue to taste whether the food is
good or bad. In industrial terms, inspection basically is defined as the function of
comparing or determining the conformance of a product to specifications or
requirements. In other words, the function of inspection is to inspect a product in order
to determine whether it is good or bad, and whether it can be accepted or whether it
has to be rejected. More specifically, inspection refers to the measurement, visual
assessment or testing of a product, process or the act of making a product.
b. To achieve interchangeability
Nowadays many new production techniques have been developed and products
are being manufactured in large scale due to low-cost methods of mass production. It is
very essential that products must be fit and mate if any product is chosen at random for
interchangeability purposes. Thus, to achieve interchangeability of products, inspection
has to be performed sufficiently and this can be done either by measuring or gauging.
The gauging method is very economical for mass production.
c. To improve and develop precision measuring instruments
Inspection also led to the development of precision measuring instruments and
improvements of inspection methods due to demands of high accuracy and precision
works or products. Inspection has also created a spirit of competition and led to the
production of quality products on a large scale basis by eliminating variations, thus
improving processing techniques.
d. To support the manufacturing department
Inspection also supports the manufacturing department by designing and
maintaining a system that assesses the quality levels of the work that is done, and the
products that are made, according to objectified standards of measurement criteria.

1.3
OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY
a. To ensure the products designed are within the process and measuring instrument
capabilities available in the plant.
b. To determine the process capabilities and ensure that these are better than the
relevant parts tolerances.
c. To determine the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that these are
adequate for their respective measurements.
d. To minimize the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of available
facilities, and to reduce the cost of rejects and rework through application of
Statistical Process Control Techniques.
e. Standardization of measuring methods: This is achieved by laying down the
inspection methods for any product right at the time when the production
technology is prepared.
f. Maintenance of the accuracy of measurement: This is achieved by periodical
calibration of all measuring instruments used in the plant.
1.4
PRINCIPLES OF METROLOGY
a.
Fundamental Units and Standards

To determine whether the parts meet the requirements or specifications, we
need to perform measurement to collect the data or information. Of course, we need
both measuring unit and measuring instrument according to standards before we can
start to take any measurement.
Units are defined and expressed in standards. Units are the language of
measurement and must be constant. The measuring unit of length is Meter. Originally,
in 1889 a meter is defined as the distance between two lines on a specific bar which is
made of platinum-iridium rod to represent the length of a meter. Thirty of these bars are
manufactured. One was kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in
Paris as the international standard. The others were sent to laboratories around the
world. However, this standard bar has its limitation. It is not stable and constant due to
the effect of temperature and environmental factors.
Thus, in 1960 a Meter was redefined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of a
particular orange light emitted by the gas krypton 86. Again, in 1983 the meter was
redefined in terms of speed of light. The new definition says: The meter is defined as
the length of path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458
of a second.
b.
Units used in Metrology

The units used are laid down in the International Units System (S.l = System
International) as shown in the table in the following page.
Quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Thermodynamic Temperature
Electric Current
Table 1.1
Units
meter
kilogram
second
Kelvin
Ampere
List of Basic SI Quantities, Units and Symbols
Symbols
m
kg
s
K
A

Prefixes
Giga
Mega
kilo
Hekta
Deka
deci
centi
milli
micro
Symbol
G
M
k
H
Da
d
c
m
Table 1.2
Multiplier
1000000000
1000000
1000
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000001
10
106
103
102
101
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
Meaning
billion
million
thousand
hundred
ten
tenth
hundredth
thousandth
millionth
List of Prefixes
c.
Derived Units and Conversions

The units derived from the basic unit of meter are kilometer,
decimeter, centimeter, millimeter, micrometer, and nanometer.
1 km
1m
1 dm
1 cm
1 mm
=
=
=
=
=
1000 m
10 dm
10 cm
10 mm
1000 m
=
=
100 cm =
100 mm
Convert the following for length into values in mm.
0.05m
0.88 dm
300 =
=
0.05 x 1000
=
0.88 x 100
300 x 0.001
=
=
50 mm
=
88 mm
0.3 mm
1000 mm

CHAPTER 2
BASIC INSPECTION AND

PROCEDURES

2.1
INTRODUCTION
In the machine shop work, every piece must be made accurately to size and
shape specified by the designer. Accurate workmanship also depends primarily on
accurate inspection or measurement and layout work. To ensure the quality of a
product has been achieved, the inspections or measurements must be taken to see if the
design and manufacturing standards have been achieved.
2.2
TESTING AND ITS PROCEDURES

The main purpose of testing or inspection is to determine whether the products
conform to the specification. For example; length, angle, surface quality, shape, and
color. Testing can be carried out by two methods:
a.
Measuring
b.
Gauging
a. Measuring
It is a method of inspection by means of comparing the length or angle with the
scale of a measuring instrument. It is done with suitable measuring instruments such as
venire caliper, micrometer, dial gauge, etc. The measured value is read off directly
from these instruments. Measuring instruments are graduated calibrated instruments,
which are used to determine the actual dimensions of the part for comparison with the
desired size. These instruments provide actual size information and this can be useful in
spotting the needs for adjustments. But generally, it takes more time and is more
expensive than the gauge inspection.
VERNIER CALIPER
Measuring

b. Gauging
It is a method of inspection by means of comparing a part against a gauge such
as plug gauge, to determine whether or not the part is within the specified limits. In
gauging method, suitable gauges are used to determine if the work piece has a good or
bad result without providing the actual dimensions. One of the widely used gauges is
the plug gauge. Generally, it consists of 'Go' member and 'No Go' member. Gauges are
used for quick verification, but it will not tell you how good or bad a part is.
SNAP GAUGE
Gauging
Measuring
Characteristics
Gauging
more
information
less
difficult
ease of use
easy
slow
time
fast
expensive
cost/process
cheap
high skill required
worker
less skill required
Table 2.1
2.3
a. Direct Measurement:
The length of the work piece is compared directly against the line of measuring
instrument such as vernier caliper of micrometer.
Work piece
Depth Vernier Caliper

b. Indirect Measurement:
The measuring value is obtained by using an intermediary (transfer) measuring device
such as caliper, then comparing the measurement obtained against a scale of measuring
instrument such as steel ruler.
Measurement is taken by
means of caliper.
Then, it is transferred and

compared with a scale of
measuring instrument.
c. Comparative measurement:
It is comparison between the standard such as gauge blocks and the work piece. The
gauge blocks are first set to nominal size of the work piece. Then the measuring value
is obtained from the dial gauge which shows the difference between the gauge blocks
and the work piece. This method is the best and very accurate measurement can be
achieved.
Dial Gauge
Gauge Blocks
Dial Gauge
Workpiece

2.4
FACTORS IN SELECTING TESTING INSTRUMENT

In general, several factors should be considered when selecting the measuring
instrument so that variation in the product can be minimized at lower cost.
a. The rule of 10 : The measuring instrument should be 10 times or percent more
precise than the tolerance to be measured. The application of the rule greatly
reduces the chances of rejecting good parts or accepting bad parts and performing
additional work on them.
b. Repeat accuracy : How repeatable is the instrument in taking the same reading
over and over again on a given standard.
c. Stability : How well does this instrument retain its calibration over a period of
time. As the instrument become more accurate, they often lose stability and become
more sensitive to small changes in temperature and humidity.
d. Magnification :
The amplification of the output portion of the instrument over
the actual input dimension. The accurate the instrument, the greatest must be its
magnification factor, so that the required measurement can be read out clearly
compare with the desire standard.
e. Resolution :
This is sometimes called sensitivity and refers to the smallest
unit of scale or dimensional input that the instrument can detect. The greater the
resolution of the instrument, the smaller will be the things it can resolve and the
greater will be the magnification required to expand these measurements up to the
point where they can be observed the naked eye.
f. Inspection cost : This is included cost of instruments used, cost of maintaining
and installing the instruments. Always select the measuring instruments and
methods of inspection at minimum cost.
2.5
CALIBRATION
A measuring instrument may lose its accuracy (or precision) during use or after
a period of time. To maintain its accuracy, it requires a continuing system of calibration
control, and this can only be carried out by trained staff in a calibration room. To put an
instrument into a state of accuracy requires it to be tested first to see if it is within its
calibration limits. If the instrument is found to be out of calibration, then a rectification
or adjustment must be made. This adjustment is commonly called 'calibration',
'recalibration' or 'reconditioning'. Thus, calibration may be defined as a comparison of
two testing instruments - one of which is a standard of known accuracy traceable to
national standards - to detect any discrepancy in accuracy and adjust it to bring it within
its tolerances for accuracy.
Inventory and Classification
A systematic approach to calibration control starts with a physical inventory of
all standards, instruments, gauges, and test equipment. If instruments are used for
product inspection they should be included within the list of items to be systematically
controlled for accuracy. For each item which enters the inventory system, a record card
is prepared. This card shows the historical origin of the item, its assigned serial number,
checking schedule and related information. The card also provides space to record the
results of checks and the repairs needed. The physical test equipment is also marked
with the assigned serial number for identification and trace ability in the system.

Function of Calibration Room
Measuring instruments are calibrated in the calibration room with a room
temperature of 20 +1c and a humidity of 55% +3. The functions of the calibration room
are:
a. To detect deteriorations of instruments beyond the tolerable level of accuracy and
to provide services for the rectification or adjustment of instruments.
b. To ensure that newly purchased instruments are within the specified limits.
c. To provide a location where instruments are kept in proper condition to maintain
accuracy.
d. To provide a centralized location for issuing and keeping production gauges.
e. To provide a common place for the development and verification of test methods.
f. First piece acceptance inspection prior to production.
2.6
CARE OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Calibrate the instrument periodically before you use it.

Do not use the instruments as a tool.
Protect the instrument from dust, rust, shock and wear.
Store the instruments in a proper place.
Do not store the instruments with other tools.
Avoid rough handling and dropping the instruments.

CHAPTER 3
MEASUREMENT ERRORS

3.1
INTRODUCTION
When making the measurements, there should be one goal in mind to be as
accurate as possible. But due to many variations, no measurement in the workshop is
ever perfectly accurate. The result of the process (the measured value) will always
differ from the actual size. If the same work piece is successively measured with a
calliper, micrometer and a coordinate measuring machine (CMM), each successive
measurement will show differences in dimension. In measuring technology, this
difference between the unknown actual size of the work piece and measured value
obtained is known as the inaccuracy of measurement or measurement error.
3.2
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF A MEASURING

SYSTEM
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3.3
Standard
It may be affected by internal and external influences (thermal expansion), stability
with time, elastic properties, trace ability and manipulation.
Work piece
It may be affected by internal and external influences, cleanliness, surface
condition, elastic properties, geometric truth, establishment of the work piece
reference, etc.
Instrument
It may be affected by hysteresis, backlash, friction, dents or wear, errors in
amplification device, calibration errors, etc.
Personal
can be many and mainly due to improper training and handling, skill, lack of
concentration, attitude towards and realization of personal accuracy achievement,
improper selection of instruments, etc.
Environment
It may be affected by temperature, heat radiation, heating components, vibrations,
people, surrounding and many other factors.
TYPES OF ERRORS
Generally, the errors which exist in any measurement can be considered to be of two
distinct types:
a)
Systematic error:
It occurs constantly under the same measurement condition and can be detected.
Thus, it can be largely eliminated.
For example: Thermal expansion of metal is affected by the temperature.

b)
Random error:
It occurs naturally and is inherent in the measuring process. It is the result of
random situations and is difficult to detect and eliminate.
For example: The workpiece is located wrongly when being held in the fixture.

3.4
SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS

a. Effects of heat
Because of expansion due to heat, the length of a body is different at different
temperatures. For this reason, a standard temperature of 20C has been fixed for the
measurement.
b. Parallax error
The parallax error is the change in the apparent relative positions of objects when
viewed from different positions. It causes measurement errors when there is a height
difference between two graduated faces as shown below. In this case, the apparent
alignment of the graduation lines differs depending on the eye position. To avoid this
error you have to observe vertically against the measuring.
c. Positioning or alignment errors

It may be caused if the measuring surface of the instrument is misaligned (or tilted at an
angle) with respect to surfaces of the workpiece. To avoid this error, always ensure that
the instrument is positioned vertical to the workpiece.
d. Reading errors
How accurately can a scale be read? This depends upon the thickness of the line scale,
the spacing of the scale divisions and the thickness of the datum of pointer used to give
the reading.
e. Instrument errors
Pitch errors in the instrument such as micrometer, errors of scale division, play, wear
and friction in the movable parts; etc. give rise to instrument errors.
f. Abbes Law
It states that maximum accuracy may be obtained when the standard is in line with the
axis of the workpiece to be measured. For example, take a vernier calliper to measure
the workpiece. In this case, the contact point or measuring surfaces may not move in
parallel with or keeping squareness to the line of standard, causing error. So when
measuring with a vernier calliper, care must be taken, not to apply excessive force on
the workpiece for fear of error by out-of-squareness of measuring surfaces.

g. Error caused by force

The measuring surfaces of the instrument must be in contact against the workpiece. If
this measuring pressure is too high, then the measuring instrument will bend and the
workpiece might also become dented or flattened at the point of contact area. Thus,
some instruments are provided with a mechanical means (such as a ratchet like in
micrometer) to prevent from excessive pressure.
h. Airy points
When a long bar is resting on two points (called airy points), errors may arise from
sagging. To minimize these errors, the airy points of a long bar of uniform crosssection has to be supported at suitable point from each of the end surfaces. Gauge
blocks should be supported at airy points so that both ends of the long bar are kept
parallel.

CHAPTER 4
VERNIER CALIPER

4.1
INTRODUCTION
The Vernier Caliper is a common measuring instrument which is widely used in the
workshop. It comes in various types of design and accuracy. It is made up of a
graduated beam (main body) with a fixed measuring jaw and a movable jaw which
carries a vernier scale. It is especially suitable for quick and relatively accurate
measurements. It is capable of making both outside and inside measurements. In
addition, it is also provided with a depth measuring rod which is used for depth
measurement. Generally it has a measuring accuracy of 0.02 - 0.05mm and
measuring range of 0 - 300mm.
4.2
PARTS OF A VERNIER CALIPER
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
4.3
Fixed measuring jaw

Measuring surfaces
Movable measuring jaw
Metric vernier scale
Main graduation scale
Depth measuring rod
Blade measuring surfaces
Graduated beam
MEASURING ACCURACY
Basically, there are three types of the standard vernier scale available. They are
1/10mm, 1/20mm, and 1/50mm.
a.
Measuring accuracy of the Tenth Value Vernier

On the main scale, a distance of 10mm is divided into 10 equal parts, thus the
distance between markings = 1 mm.
On the vernier scale, 9mm is divided into 10 parts, thus the distance between
markings = 0.9mm.
Therefore, measuring accuracy (graduation difference) = 1mm - 0.9mm =
0.1mm

b.
Measuring accuracy of the Twentieth Value Vernier
On the main scale, a distance of 20mm is divided into 20 equal parts, thus the
distance between marking = 1mm.
On the vernier scale, 19mm is divided into 20 parts, thus the distance between
marking = 0.95.
Therefore, measuring accuracy = 1mm - 0.95mm = 0.05mm
4.4
READING THE SCALE

Example of read-off ;
1. tenth value vernier,
One division is represented as 1mm on the main scale and for the vernier scale,
one division is represented as 0.1mm.
The mark 0 on the vernier scale shows that the distance measured is more than 21
mm. Reading the graduation on the vernier scale which coincides exactly with the main
scale is 0.6mm.
Measurement result:
21mm + 0.6mm = 21.6mm
2.
Twentieth value vernier
Measurement result:
73mm + 0.6mm + 0.05mm = 73.65mm

3.
1/128 inches vernier
On the main scale, 16 divisions = 1 inch
Therefore, on the main scale, 1 division
On the vernier scale, 8 divisions
Therefore, 1 division on vernier scale
1
inches
16
1
=
inches
16
1
=
8
16
1
=
inches
128
Refer to the diagram below:

On the main scale : the zero line is fall between 2
1 4
1 3
and 2
inches
1 6
1 6
1 3
inches
1 6
On the vernier scale:
The 7 divisions coincide with one of the division on the main
scale.
7
1
Hence, reading = 7 x
=
inches
128
128
Hence, reading = 2
Therefore, measurement
=2
13 7
+
16 128
= 2
111
128

4.5
DIAL CALIPER
The Dial Caliper is very useful for accurate,
reliable, and quick measurements.
It is much easier to handle than measuring
instruments with vemier reading and it has a
measuring accuracy of 0.02mm. The dial face itself
is represented by the vemier scale, so that we do not
have to find the coincidence line. The movement of
the pointer is amplified by means of a rack-pinion
mechanism. Zero setting can be easily reset by
rotating the dial face. The application of dial caliper
is the same as vernier caliper. The measured value
can be obtained by simply reading the value of the
main scale and add the value found in the dial face.
Example of read off:
On the main scale, it shows that the distance is more than 10mm and the pointer is at
0.4mm on the dial face. Thus, the measured value = 10mm + 0.4mm = 10.40mm
4.6
DIGITAL CALIPER
The Digital Caliper is an electronic measuring instrument which is precise,

accurate, reliable, sensitive, and gives quicker measurement than the dial caliper. The
advantage of using this instrument is that the reading can be read off directly on the
display indicator and thus misreading can be avoided. It has measuring accuracy of
0.01mm. The application of the digital vemier is the same as that of the vemier caliper.
Guidelines when using vernier calipers
a. The measuring surfaces should be clean and free from burrs.
b. Open the measuring jaw clear of the workpiece and push the movable jaw slowly to
the workpiece.
c. Always ensure that the vernier caliper is not tilted or twisted.
d. Use gentle pressure when measuring.

e. When taking a reading make sure your view point is vertical to the scale.
f. Before you lift the calipers off the workpiece, realize the slide, otherwise the
measuring surfaces will get worn.
g. Check vernier caliper for accuracy at frequent intervals.
Clean the entire measuring surfaces.
When the jaws are pushed together there should be no light gap between them.
The zero markings of main and vernier scales must be positioned exactly,
coinciding or opposite to each other when the jaws are closed.
The movable jaw must be able to slide along the beam without any play.
Sources Of Errors
a. Workpiece not inserted far enough into the measuring jaws. Errors will become more
when too much force is applied during measurement.
b. Vernier caliper tilted during use, especially when taking the depth.
c. Dirty measuring surfaces.

d. Too little or too much force applied during measurement.
e. Damage and worn out of the measuring surfaces.
4.7
DEPTH VERNIER CALIPER
The Depth Vernier Caliper is used to check the depth of holes, recesses, slots,
counterbores, etc. It is carefully made so that the beam (main body) is perpendicular to
the base in both directions. Generally, the base has a larger area for better stability

which is rested on the reference surfaces of the workpiece. To read off the measured
value is the same as that of the vernier caliper.
Guidelines when using depth vernier caliper:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Ensure it is at vertical position when it is resting on the reference surface.

Press the base of the instrument firmly against the reference surface.
Apply light measuring pressure when sliding the beam until it touches the
surface.
View at vertical when taking the reading to avoid parallax error
Sources of errors
The measuring surfaces do not rest perpendicular to the reference (tilted) as shown.

4.8
APPLICATIONS OF VERNIER CALIPER

CHAPTER 5
MICROMETER

5.1
INTRODUCTION
One of the most widely used measuring instrument in the workshop is the
Micrometer. It is very useful for accurate, reliable, precise, and quick
measurements. It comes in different designs, shapes, ranges, and accuracies,
depending on its applications. However, one thing that they have in common is
the way they are read off. Generally, it consists of a "C" shape frame with an
anvil which comes in different shapes (flat, point, ball, disk, etc.) and a movable
spindle. The movement of the spindle is carried out by means of very accurate
screw threads principle. Micrometers have a measuring accuracy of 0.001 0.010mm.
5.2
EXTERNAL MICROMETER
It is used to check external dimensions such as the diameter of a shaft and
thickness of a work piece. It consists of a fixed anvil and a movable spindle. The
anvil can be made of carbide which has a very flat surface. The object to be
measured is positioned between the fixed anvil and the measuring surfaces. Both
measuring surfaces are very accurately ground.
Parts of an external micrometer
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Anvil
Measuring Surfaces
Movable spindle
Ratchet
Thimble
Sleeve
U-shaped frame with insulator plate
(to prevent heat transfer from hands)
Measuring range
The length of the threads on the measuring spindle is usually 25mm. This means
that the measuring ranges of the external micrometer are stepped at every
25mm. The measuring ranges of the micrometer are divided into:
Measuring accuracy
There are 50 graduations on the thimble for the micrometer with 0.5mm pitch on
the spindle. If the thimble is rotated one complete revolution, the spindle will
move 0.5mm. Thus, one graduation on the thimble scale represents 0.01 mm.
Measuring accuracy = 0.5 spindle pitch
50 graduations
= 0.01 mm

Reading the scale
One graduation on the thimble represents 0.01mm. The upper scale on the sleeve
represents whole numbers such as 1, 2 3, 4mm and so on. One graduation on the lower
scale of the sleeve represents 0.5mm.
Measurement result:-
Guidelines when using external micrometer

a. Check the micrometer for accuracy at frequent intervals.
b. Measuring surface should be clean and free from burrs.
c. Hold in the right hand with one of the smaller fingers hooked through the frame
eaving the thumb and forefinger free to turn the spindle.
d. Advance the spindle gradually towards the workpiece.
e. Use a ratchet to avoid excessive pressure when rotating the spindle. When
hecking the outside diameter, ensure that the measuring surfaces touch the
highest point of the workpiece.

f.
When it is not used, wipe it clean and ensure that it is free from dirt. Do not close
the measuring surfaces together, otherwise it will be damaged due to expansion of
the spindle during the changing of temperature.
g. Apply oil to protect it from rust and keep it in the proper place.
Sources of errors
a. Misreading - most common misreading is by 0.5mm, incorrectly counting sleeve
graduations.
b. Dirt, nicks, durrs, oil, etc., on the anvil and spindle will prevent proper contact
and cause inaccurate reading.
c. Wear and damage on the anvil and spindle.
d. Pitch errors - the screw of the spindle is worn out.
e. Miscalibrate - the zero setting is set wrongly.
f. Applied too much force when measuring.
5.3
DEPTH MICROMETER
It is used to check the depth of holes, recesses, slots, counterbores, etc. It

consists of a large flat base and an interchangeable measuring rod with measuring
range 0 -300mm. The large base provides stability and stands vertically when it rests
on the reference surfaces. To read off the measured value is the same as the external
micrometer, but watch it because the thimble hides the scale on the sleeve. Basically,
it has a measuring accuracy of 0.01mm.

Guidelines when using depth Micrometer
a. Clean the instrument free from dust, dirt, oil, etc.

b. Insert the measuring rod to check within the desired depth range an securely
tighten the locking cap.
c. Always calibrate when changing the rod by using gauge blocks.
d. Hold the base firmly when it rests on the reference surface and carefully turn the
thimble until the measuring rod makes contact with the surface to be measured.
e. Clean entirely when it is not used and keep it in the proper place.
Sources of errors
a. Bend and worn out of measuring rod.
b. Damaged and worn out of screw thread on the spindle.
c. Dent, burr, dirt and rust on measuring surfaces.
d. Instrument does not stand vertically to the reference surface.
5.4
INTERNAL MICROMETER
It is used to check internal dimensions such as diameter of a hole and width
of a slot. It comes with different designs, ranges, and shapes depending on its
applications.
Internal Micrometer with central locking device
It consists of a single micrometer head and series of extension measuring rods

to provide a large measurement range (35 - 1 25mm). It has round measuring surfaces
to provide better contact point on the round wall. Generally it has a measuring
accuracy of 0.01mm. To read off the measured value is the same as the external
micrometer.
Guidelines when using Internal. Micrometer
Calibrate the instrument by means of a ring gauge. Hold the instrument against the
hole wall and move the measuring surfaces about while locking the instrument to

locate the center of the hole. Ensure the instrument is located perpendicular to the
hole center line. Apply only light pressure to ensure good contact.
Sources of errors
Bend and worn out measuring rod. Improperly assembled extension measuring rod.
Instrument is not located perpendicular to the hole center line (common error).
Internal Micrometer with measuring jaws
Generally, it consists of two different pairs of jaws. One has a smaller measuring
range (5 - 30mm) located on the upper jaw side and the larger measuring range (30 55mm) is located on the lower jaw side. It is commonly used to check the width of
the slots. It has a measuring accuracy of 0.01mm. Calibration of this instrument can
be carried out by using a ring gauge.
Sources of errors
a. Bending and worn out measuring jaws.
b. Measuring jaws are not positioned perpendicular to reference surfaces.
Internal Micrometer with self centering pin

It consists of three movable measuring pins. It is suitable to check large hole

diameters. It has a measuring accuracy of 0.005mm and measuring range of 6 300mm. It has better advantages since the three measuring pins serve to locate it
exactly perpendicular to the hole center line.
Guidelines when using internal micrometer
a. The measuring pins are contracted enough to allow the instrument to enter the
part.
b. The thimble is rotated to tighten the contacts against the hole wall.
c. Give slightly jiggling action while tightening it will help to ensure proper
alignment.
d. Apply light pressure to ensure good contact.
e. To read off the measured value is the same as the external micrometer.
f. Clean the instrument from burrs, dirt, oil etc if it is not in use.
g. Calibrate the instrument for accuracy at frequent intervals by using a ring
gauge.
5.5
SPECIAL TYPES OF MICROMETERS

a. Micrometer with spheres measuring surfaces
Application :
Accuracy
:
Range
:
To check thickness of pipe wall.

.01mm
0 -25mm

b. Micrometer with dish measuring surfaces
Application :
Accuracy
:
Range
:
To check gear tooth thickness, steps, grooves, recesses.

0.01mm
0 - 25mm
c. Micrometer with cone points
Application :
Accuracy
:
Range
:
To check steps, key shafts, grooves, recesses, core dias.

0.01mm, 0.001mm
0 - 25mm, 25 - 50mm
d. Micrometer with blade measuring surfaces
Application :
Accuracy
:
Range
:
To check small steps, grooves recesses

0.01mm, 0.001mm
0 - 25mm, 25 - 50mm

CHAPTER 6
MECHANICAL DIAL INDICATOR

6.1
INTRODUCTION
The mechanical dial indicator is a precision measuring instrument which
is designed to provide more flexibility and increased accuracy in the
measurement processes. Such instruments are often used in conjunction with
surface plates, height gauges, gauge blocks and measuring holding devices to
check length measurement by using the so-called comparative method and to
inspect geometric features such as roundness. The dial indicator has a
measuring accuracy of 0.001 - 0.01mm and a measuring range of 0 - 10mm.
6.2
PRINCIPLE OF A DIAL INDICATOR (PLUNGER TYPE)

The principle of the dial indicator is to amplify the movement of the
plunger with a small displacement to give a large deflection of the pointer by
means of toothed rack and gears. The transmission ratio is usually 100 : 1. Thus,
a small value of displacement by the plunger can be read directly or detected
very accurately as it is amplified on the measuring scale.
Amplification =
=
=
6.3
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
movement of the pointer on scale

movement of plunger
80mm
0.8mm
100 : 1
PARTS OF A DIAL INDICATOR

Measuring insert
Plunger
Clamping shank
Small dial face (1 div = 1mm)
Rotating scale (1 div = 0.01mm)
Setting ring

6.4
6.5
HOW DOES A DIAL INDICATOR WORK?

It operates based on gears and the rack principle. A rack with a pitch of
0.625mm is cut on the plunger which is than meshed with a pinion (small gear)
with 16 teeth. On a pinion, a small pointer and a large gear with 100 teeth is
connected to it in which they share a common shaft. Another small gear with 10
teeth - which carries a long pointer - is meshed with a large gear which has 100
teeth at the center of the dial indicator. Thus, any movement of the plunger is
amplified to the pointer in which it will show the measurement value on a
graduated scale.
MEASURING ACCURACY
One completed turn on pinion = One completed turn on large gear

Thus, one completed turn on pinion , the plunger will move = 16 teeth x 0.625
= 10mm
One completed turn on large gear
= 10 turns on the small gear (10 teeth)
10 turns on the small gear
= 10mm
Thus, one complete turn on the small gear
= 10mm divided by 10 teeth
= 1mm
However, there are 100 divisions on the rotating scale;
Therefore, 1 division on rotating scale = 1mm divided by 100 divisions
= 0.01mm

6.6
READING THE SCALE

On a small dial face, 1 division represents 1mm
On a rotating scale, 1 division represents
0.01mm Refer to the diagram:
Small pointer is just before 2;
Reading = 1mm
Large pointer is at 0.89mm
Thus, measurement result = 1.89mm
6.7
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
GUIDELINES WHEN USING DIAL INDICATOR

Calibrate it at frequent intervals for accuracy by using gauge blocks.
Clamp the dial indicator securely on holder of measuring stand.
Keep the measuring insert clean and free from dirt.
Ensure that it stands vertically to surface of workpiece.
Avoid excessive pressure when applying the measuring insert to the surface of
workpiece.
Avoid dropping it and store it at a proper place when it is not used.

6.8
SOURCES OF ERRORS
a. Damage on the measuring insert and worn out of the gear teeth.
b. Dial indicator is not positioned perpendicular to the surface of the workpiece cosine error.
c. Misreading - a person using a dial gauge that makes more than one revolution
must be aware of how many revolutions the pointer has made when taking the
measurement.
d. The dial indicator is not clamped and secured properly. This will cause
vibrations.
6.9
APPLICATIONS OF DIAL INDICATOR

a. To measure the thickness of a workpiece by using comparative method.
b. To measure flatness of workpiece surface.
c. To measure roundness of a shaft.

d. To measure straightness of a shaft.
e. To measure parallelism of a work piece.

CHAPTER 7
GAUGE BLOCK

7.1
INTRODUCTION
The need for standardization of measurement is vital in order to meet

interchangeability and functionbility. Today's widespread manufacturing can
function only if machinist everywhere are able to check and adjust their
measuring instruments to the same standards. Gauge blocks are the most
accurate form of representing size by means of its two parallel surfaces
which are very flat. They permit a comparison between the working
measuring instruments of manufacturing and recognized international
standards of measurement. They are one of the most important measuring
tools which served as a standard for comparison
in
achieving
the
standardization of measurements. They are the most accurate form of
representing size.
Gauge blocks are commonly used in metrology laboratories for
calibration of measuring instruments in tool rooms and machine shops
for measurement of components and the establishment of precise angles
such as sine-bar.
7.2
TYPES AND GRADES

Gauge blocks are commonly available individually or in a set. They usually
come in three standard shapes: round, square, and rectangular. They are made of
hardened tool or ceramic in which the measuring surfaces are well finished by lapping.
The measuring surfaces of the gauge blocks are so smooth, flat, and even, that
they
can be attached together by wringing method to obtain the length required for
measurement.
7.3
STANDARD SET OF GAUGE BLOCKS

Gauge blocks are made with 3 different grades of accuracy, depending on the purpose
Table 7.1
for which they are used. a.

Grade 00 : used in laboratories as a master set for calibration
: accuracy = O.OOOO5mm
b.
Grade 0 : used for setting or calibrating measuring instruments or gauges
: accuracy= O.OOO15mm
c.
Grade 1 :used in the workshop to test the components
:accuracy = 0.00025 m

7.4
TO DETERMINE THE GAUGE BLOCKS COMBINATION

When composing gauge block combinations, start with the last figure of the
dimension required and eliminate the last place of decimal first. Then continue to build
up the dimension working from the right hand side:. The gauge blocks combination
should comprise as few as possible so that the total error (size deviation) is kept to a
minimum.
Example:
Required length
1st gauge block
2ndgaugeblock
3rd gauge block
4th gauge block
5th gauge blocks
=
=
=
=
=
=
50.255mm
1.005mm
1.050mm
1.200 mm
7.000 mm
40.000mm
50.255mm
Subtraction
49.250
48.200
47.000
40.000
00.000
Wringing gauge blocks

Gauge blocks should be wrung immediately after cleaning. To wring gauge
blocks, the following procedures should be used:
a. Clean gauge blocks entirely by means of solvent and chamois cloth or clean tissue
after cleaning, do not touch the measuring surfaces.
b. Slide the blocks together while lightly pressing together. During the sliding process,
you should feel an increasing resistance. This resistance should then level off.
c. Then position the blocks so that they are in line
d. Make sure that the blocks are wrung by- holding one block and releasing the other.
Hold your hand under the stack in case the blocks should fall.
e. If, during the wring process, the blocks tend to slide freely, slip them apart
immediately and recheck clean and try again.
7.5
CHECKING SURFACE FLATNESS OF GAUGE BLOCKS

The flatness of gauge blocks can be checked by using an optical flat. An optical
flat is an extremely flat piece of quartz. It uses the principles of light interferometer to
make measurements. When it is placed onto the surface of blocks, a series of
interference bands are produced. These bands will detem1ine whether the surfaces are
flat or not. If the bands show straight and parallel lines, its indicated the surfaces are
flat. If the bands are curved, its indicated the surfaces are not flat.
7.6
a.
b.
c.
e.
7.7
a.
b.
c.
d.
GAUGE BLOCK APPLICATIONS

Used to set up length dimension in comparative measurements
To set or calibrate the measuring instruments and gauges.
Used in setting sine for angle measurements
Used to set-up tool height or spacing at required length in the staddle milling
cutters
MAINTENANCE AND CARE OF GAUGE BLOCKS

Clean the gauge with solvent and chamois before or after use
A combination of gauge blocks should not be wrung together for a long time,
otherwise the cold-welding on the measuring surfaces will be formed.
After used, gauge blocks should be greased with non-acidic parafin jelly
Gauge blocks should be handled with clean tissue and must protected from
heat.

e.
f.
Any- burns on a gauge blocks can prevent a proper wring and possibly damage
the surfaces. Deburring is carried out with a special deburring stone.
Partly flat -falling off to or sloping to hump

CHAPTER 8
SURFACE PLATE INSPECTION

8.1
INTRODUCTION
Part dimensions can be checked very precisely and accurately by means
of the surface plate method in conjunction with many types of height gauges,
measuring instruments and holding devices. However, accurate measurements
can only be maintained when the reference surfaces of the parts are established
with respect to the surface plate which acts as a simulated datum or reference.
Thus, surface plates provide a true, flat reference surface for any types of
dimensional measurements.
8.2
WHAT IS A SURFACE PLATE?

Surface plates are truly flat surfaces which are available in many sizes and
difference accuracy. Their surfaces are very accurately machined and well-polished.
They are supported by means of a steel table which rests on a 3-point stopper.
It is used as a means to establish a reference plane or datum surface from
which measuring and marking-out activities of all kinds may be performed. Generally
they are made of 2 types of
materials:
a.
b.
8.3
cast iron
granite stone
ADVANTAGES OF GRANITE SURFACE PLATE

Granite surface plates have many advantages over cast iron:
a. They are twice as hard as cast iron.
b. There are minimal changes in dimension due to temperature changes.
c. They are free from burrs because of the fine grain structure which ensures a high
degree of flatness over a long service life.
d. They are free from wringing, so there is no interruption of work.
e. Damaged wares do not produce raised material or build-up edges.
f. They have a long life and are rust-free,
8.4
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
CARE OF SURFACE PLATE

Do not abuse surface plates; they are precision tools.
Clean entirely the surface plate before and after use with soap and water
or alcohol.
Part should be deburred and clean before they are placed onto the
surface plate.
Do not allow unnecessary objects or tools to be placed on the surface
plate.
Do not drop any objects onto the surface plate.
Keep the surface plate covered when it is not used.

8.5
SOURCES OF ERRORS
a. Eventually wear may cause loss of accuracy, but this takes quite some time.
b. A workpiece which has burrs and dirt will cause poor readings as well as
increasing unnecessary wear.
8.6
SURFACE PLATE ACCESSORIES OR HOLDING DEVICES

A Surface Plate must always be used in conjunction with numerous
measuring instruments, accessories and holding devices. The commonly and
widely used accessories or holding devices to the surface plate are vernier
height gauge, dial gauge, gauge blocks, parallel bars, V-block, angle plate,
sine-bar, precision vice, precision try-square, cylindrical pin, and etc.
These holding devices come in many shapes or designs to enable
holding parts in horizontal, vertical, and angular planes. They must be kept
clean and free from burrs and nicks. When necessary a fine stone can be
used to clean and remove burrs. The prime concern is their flatness,
squareness and parallelism.
Types of Height Gauges
Generally, height gauges may be classified into three types:
a.
vernier height gauge
b.
dial height gauge
c.
digital height gauge
a)
Vernier Height Gauge
The vernier height gauge is a self-supporting measuring instrument

which consists of a heavy base with a vertical vernier scale similar to that on a
vernier caliper. It is easily adjustable over a large range. To read-off the measured
value is the same as a vernier caliper.
It is mainly used in conjunction with a surface plate for marking or lay-out the
workpiece when the scriber is attached. It can also be used to measure the height of the
workpiece. A dial gauge may be attached to the height gauge to provide greater
accuracy in measurement by means of comparative method with the help of a Master
Height Gauge.

Sources of errors
a. The slide arm is not parallel with the base.
b. An unclean and damaged base causes inaccuracy.
c. The scriber is worn-out.
d. The height gauge is not calibrated properly. When you check for accuracy
always ensure that the zero mark of the vernier and main scale coincide
when the base of the scriber makes contact flat with the surface plate.
Alternatively we can use a gauge block and compare it with the scale of the
height gauge.
e. Avoid parallax errors. When you read the measured value, always look
vertical to the scale.
Guidelines for using a Vernier Height Gauge
a. Always ensure that the height gauge had been calibrated.
b. Clean the height gauge and surface plate entirely before use.
c. Hold the base firmly to the surface plate to avoid tipping. Always lock the
main scale when in use.
d. Move the height gauge slowly and gently. Do not slam it around.
e. Clamp the scriber as near as possible to the column. This will increase
accuracy and less vibration.
f. A dial gauge may be attached to provide greater accuracy.
Application of the Vernier Height Gauge
It is always used in conjunction with a surface plate and it can be used for marking
the workpiece with a scriber attached to it.
Normally, a dial gauge is attached to it to provide better accuracy.

8.7
PRINCIPLES OF SURFACE PLATE INSPECTION

The basic intention of surface plate inspection is to secure the workpiece
in the propoer position to enable measurement in a plane vertical or horizontal to
the surface plate. It is desirable to hold the workpiece in such manner that it can
be turned and remained held in the position 90 from the original plane. The
accuracy of this inspection is dependant upon our ability to secure the part in the
proper position.
Always locate the surface which are parallel to or perpendicular to the
features being checked. If possible, position the workpiece so that you are able
to look at it the same way it appears on the drawing.
To inspect the height or length of the workpiece
Case I
a. Position and hold the part at perpendicular to the surface plate by help of
angle plate.
b. Determine how you will find feature dimension wanted. In this case, a = c
-b
Case II
a. Position and hold the part at parallel to the surface plate by help of parallel
bar.
b. Determine how you will find feature dimension wanted. In this case, a = c
- b.

To inspect hole location of the part
Case I
a. Position the part vertically in such a way that the reference surface is placed
directly on the surface plate.
b. Determine how to find dimension a (i.e. center line of the hole to the
reference surface.)
c. In this case, a = (b + c) divided by 2.
To inspect a workpiece using vernier height gauge and dial gauge
Case I
a. Attach a dial gauge to the height gauge by means of locking screw.

b. Slide down the dial gauge until the tip touches the surface plate and set to
zero the dial gauge.
c. Record down the reading of height gauge (for example:5.6)
d. Raise the dial gauge and make the tip of the dial gauge touch the surface of
the workpiece to be measured at zero mark of the dial gauge.
e. Record down the reading of the height gauge, (For example; 9.8)
f. Now, the actual dimension of the part is simply the difference between the
highest and lowest readings you have taken.
g. Reading = 9.8 - 5.6 = 4.2
To inspect the part using transfer method (comparative)
Case 1
a. Set up the gauge blocks to the nominal size of the part (20.00)
b. Set zero to the dial gauge when It touches the gauge block

c.
d.
e.
f.
8.8
Then, transfer the dial gauge to the surface of workpiece to be measured.

Watch the movement of the pointer and record the reading (e.g. + 0.05)
Then, the actual measurement is; 20 + 0.05 = 20.05
Compare the reading with the tolerance of the part. In this case the part is
accepted because it is within the tolerance zone.
EXAMPLES OF HOLDING DEVICES USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH

A SURFACE PLATE
1.
Parallel bar
It is made of harden tool steel and rectangular in shape which come in diffrent sizes.
They are machined very accurately in such a way that the surfaces are parallel, straight
and squared to each other. Generally, they are used in conjunction with a surface plate
for stack-up or supporting the workpiece to establish the reference the reference
surfaces.
2.
Angle block
They are used to hold and locate the workpiece vertical to the surface plate. They are
made of cast iron and machined very accurately to maintain the squareness and
flatness. They can also be used to check the squareness of the workpiece by means of
light gap.

3.
Vee block
They are made of harden tool steel and precisely ground. They have to Vee-grooves.
They are used hold and locate the round workpieces to establish the centerline or axis
of a round workpiece with respect to the surface plate. Commonly, they can be used
to check the roundness of the workpiece.

CHAPTER 9
INSTRUMENTS FOR TESTING ANGLE

9.1
INTRODUCTION
a)
Units for angles
The unit used for measuring angle is the degree or radian. In SI unit, the magnitude of
a plane angle is defined in terms of a circle with the apex of the angle as its center.
The magnitude of the angle is the ratio of the arc enclosed (subtended) by its side to the
radius of the circle is known as the radian.
b)
Relationship Between Radians and Degrees
There are 360 in a circle. One degree is subdivided into 60 minutes and each minute is
divided into 60 seconds.
360 0 2rad
180 0 rad
2rad rad
10
360 0
180 0
180 0
1rad
57.2 0
1 degree = 60 minutes = 3600 seconds.
Radian and Degree
9.2
TESTING ANGLES
Angle may be tested with :
a.
Fixed angle gauges
i.
steel square
ii.
knife-edge square
iii.
back square
iv.
angular end blocks
b.
i.
ii.
iii.
c.
i.
ii.
Angle measuring instruments

universal protractor
profile projector
dividing head
Calculation method
using gauge blocks and sine bar
using gauge blocks and cylindrical pins

a.
Fixed Angle Gauges (Solid steel square, back square and knife-edge square)
Steel squares with angles of 90, 60, 45 and 120 are used in industry as fixed
angle gauges. Steel squares are differentiated into :
a. solid steel square
b. back square
c. knife-edge square
The positions of the work piece edges and surfaces, with respect to each other,
are tested with these instruments in conjunction with the light-gap method. It can detect
angle errors of as little as 1 minute and detect evenness errors of up to 5 micron. The
back square is used to check lines marked-out as bending edges for correctness of
measurements and angles. The distance on the scribed line from the reference edge of
the work piece is checked with a measuring ruler.
The knife-edge square is used to check angularity and surface finish by lightgap method. If the surface of the work piece and the testing edge of the angle gauge are
pressed together and held against the light, a light slit will appear. The more uniform
this light slit along both the testing edges of the angle gauge, the more exact the
angularity.
9.3
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION
Angle too small

Solid steel square
Angle correct
Reference surface
Back square

.
Knife-edge square
a.
Angular End Blocks

Angular end blocks are made of steel and can be combined together like
parallel gauge blocks to set the required angles. They are used to check :
a. gauges
b. tools and work pieces
c. to set machine and attachments
d. in marking and dividing
A complete set of angular end blocks consists of :
a. 6 end blocks of 1, 3, 5, 15, 30, 45 degrees.
b. 5 end blocks of 1, 3, 5, 20, 30 minutes.
c. 5 end blocks of 1, 3, 5, 20, 30 seconds
Examples of application
To set 20 30 35 = 15+ 5+ 30 + 30+ 5

Addition
To set 25 17 = 30- 5 + 20 - 3
Subtraction
Note : The combination of angular end blocks should comprise as few as possible so
that the total error is kept to a minimum.
b.
Angle Measuring Instruments
Angles can also be checked by using measuring instruments; such as, a simple
protractor and a universal bevel protractor. These are display instruments for direct
measuring of any angle within a given measuring range.

c.
Simple Protractor
In a simple protractor, the pointer-like arm can be set against a circular degrees scale
from 0 to 180 (measuring range). Only whole degrees can be measured using this
protractor. Intermediate values can only be estimated. The measuring accuracy is one
degree.
d.
Universal Bevel Protractor
This protractor makes it possible to measure any angle with a reading accuracy of 5
minutes. It consists of a fixed and a movable measuring edge. The circular main scale is
divided into 4 sections of 90 and serves to read the complete angular degrees. The
angle nonius (vernier) consists of an arc of 23, divided into 12 equal intervals.
e.
Angle Vernier
The graduation of the vernier from 0 to 60 represents 23 exactly and is divided into 12
equal parts. This means the distance between graduated marks is 23/12 = 155 the
difference at 2 produces a reading accuracy of 5.

Read-off Procedure
The whole degrees are shown on the main scale with the zero marker on the vernier
scale. To get the minute values, read off which graduated marking on the vernier scale is
positioned next to obtain the complete reading.
Depending upon the setting, one counts the full degrees from 0 to 90 up to the zero
mark of the nonius (angle vernier). Then one proceeds along the same direction on the
nonius scale to the point where a mark on the main scale coincides with a mark on the
nonius scale. This tells us how many units of 5 have to be added to the number of full
degrees.
a. Read-off result from 0o = 52o 15

b. Read-off result from 90o = 37o 45
Advantages of Universal Bevel Protractor
a. More positioning possibilities
b. More accurate reading
c. Angles with more than 1800 can be measured.
Examples of Application

9.4
CALCULATION METHOD
a)
Sine Bar
A sine bar may be used to check accurate angle measurement. It consists of an
accurately ground bar on which two accurately ground pins (or rollers) of the same
diameter are mounted in an exact distance. The fixed distance between two pins are
usually 100 mm or 200 mm.
Measurements are made by using the principle base of trigonometry, i.e. sine rule
sin
opposite
hypotenuse
The workpiece being measured is placed on the sine bar and the inclination of the sine
bar is raised by stacking-up gauge blocks until the top surface is exactly parallel with
the surface plate.
The sine-bar itself forms the hypotenuse and gauge blocks form the opposite side to
the angle being measured. The dial gauge is used to measure the angle required by
moving it along the surface of the workpiece.
Example of application
Given : Angle = 9 30
L = 100 mm
a.To find H
Sine rule : H = Sine x L
= 0.1651 X 100
= 16.51 mm
b.
Combination of gauge blocks
H = 16.51
1.01
1.5
4.00
10.00
16.51

Testing Angles With Cylindrical Pin (Roller) And Gauge Block
Angles also may be checked by calculation method with the help of cylindrical
pins and gauge blocks. By using this application many problems in measurements
can be solved.
Example 1
Calculate the outer taper , as shown in the diagram. Given : d1 = 47.25, d2 =

35.70, L = 30, of rollers = 10 mm.
Solution
Half of taper angle =
2
Refer to ABC :
AB = d1 - d2
2
= 47.25 - 35.70
2
= 5.78
ABC = 90
BC = L = 30
Then, tan = AB
2
BC
= 5.78
30
= 0.193
= 10.9
2
Hence, outer taper, = 10.90 x 2
= 21.8

Example 2
Using two balls of 25.00 and 20.00 mm diameter respectively inspect the tapered hole
as shown. The measurements indicated in the diagram below were obtained. Find :
a. the included tapered angle
b. the top diameter d of the hole
Solution
a. A and B are the centres of the balls and D and E are points where the balls just
touch the sides of the hole.
ADE = BED = 90
Draw BC parallel to DE, then in ABC
AC = 12.5 - 10 = 2.50 mm
AB = 35.36 + 4.65 -12.5 +10 = 37.51mm
Now ACB = 90 and ABC = /2
Sin = AC = 2.5
2 AB 37.51
= 3 49
2
Included tapered angle = 2 x 3 49 = 7 38
b. To find d, draw AF horizontal and FG vertical.
In AFD :
AD = 12,5
FAD = , ADF = 90
2
AF = 12.5
cos 3 49
= 12.53 mm
In GFH :
GF = 12.5 - 4.65 = 7.86 mm, FGH = 90, GFH =
2
GH = Tan x GF = Tan 3 49 x 7.86 = 0.52 mm
2
Thus d = 2 (AF + GH) = 2 x (12.53 + 0.52) = 26.10 mm

Example 3
Find the checking dimension M for the symmetrical dovetail slide shown in
diagram below.
Solution
Draw AC from the centre of the roller.
In ABC :
ABC = 90
ACB = 60 (bisect by AC)
2
= 30
BC = AB
tan 30
=
7.5
tan 30
= 12.99
Thus, M = 64 + 2 (12.99 + 7.5)
= 104.98 mm
Example 4
In the diagram shown below, a vee block is being checked by means of cylindrical
pin of 25.00.
What is the dimension x ?
Solution
Draw AB from the centre of the pin. Then in ABC :
BAC = 90 (angle bet. radius and tangent)
BCA = 45 (bisect by BC)
AB
= 12.5 = 17.68 mm
sin 45
0.7071

Draw a line XY, then in XYZ
CY = 25
XY =
25
= 25 mm
tan 45
X
= (17.68 + 12.5) - 25
= 5.18m

CHAPTER 10
GAUGES

10.1
INTRODUCTION
Gauges are commonly used as testing instruments in mass production.
They come in different shapes / sizes and are rigid in design. However, they do not
have a measuring scale. Therefore, they do not indicate or record the actual value
(dimensions) of the work pieces form or shape.
They can only be used for determining whether the inspected parts are made
within he specified limits, shapes or forms or whether they meet functional
requirements.
10.2
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
10.3
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
ADVANTAGES OF GAUGES
Tests can be done quickly which helps to save time of checking.
They can be used by less skilled workers.
The process of inspection is very cheap.
They help to decide whether the part is inside the tolerance or not.
They are portable and independent from power supply.
DISADVANTAGES OF GAUGES
They provide no actual reading of measurements.
They give less information regarding the condition of the inspected parts.
They cannot be manufactured entirely without errors.
They are subjected to loss of accuracy from wear.
The manufacturing cost of gauges may not be recovered from a small
quantity of parts.
10.4
FACTORS IN SELECTING MATERIALS FOR GAUGES
Materials for gauges should fulfill most of the following requirements:
a. Hardness to resist wear is the most important aspect (min 65RC).
b. Stability to preserve size and form.
c. Corrosion resistance.
d. Machinability for obtaining the required degree of accuracy.
e. Low coefficient of linear expansion to avoid temperature effect.
10.5
MATERIALS FOR GAUGES

a. High Carbon Steel:
It is relatively inexpensive and a suitable material for gauges. There is a
risk of cracking during hardening.
b. Chromium Plating:
It increases wear resistance and reduces friction. It is used for restoring
worn gauges to the original sizes.
c. Tungsten Carbide:
It increases stability and wear resistance. It is very expensive but
sensitivity to chipping is limited.

d. Ceramic:
It provides stability and has the greatest degree of wear resistance. It also
has a low coefficient of linear expansion
10.6
TYPES OF GAUGES
Some gauges like testing gauges are used to test whether the work piece
conforms to the specified size of the shape, form or profile. Some gauges like limit
gauges is used to test whether the work piece dimensions lie between the specified
limits or tolerance ranges. It represents the minimum and maximum dimensions of the
work piece. Generally, it consists of Go and No Go members. The No Go member
is marked in red for easy identification. Generally, the Go member becomes worn-out
faster than the No Go member because it used very often.
a)
Hole gauges
A hole gauge is a metal plate which consist of various sizes of holes diameter and has
a measuring range of 0.1 to 10 mm, with an increase of 0.1 mm per hole.
It is use for quick determination of twist drill diameter, wire, or steel rod. When it is
use, never force the test piece into the hole gauge, otherwise there will be deformation
or it will wear out the gauge.
b)
Feeler gauges
A feeler gauge mainly consists of steel blades of different thickness and has a
measuring range of 0.05 to 0.5 mm.
They are used for determining the clearance or gap between two mating parts such as
guideways, bearings, or slideways. Sometimes, they can be used to set-up the
machine tool onto the surface of the workpiece for the zero-setting.

c)
Knife edged or straight edge gauge
It is a straight hardened steel blade and has a wedge shaped cross-section with an angle
of 30 degrees. The measuring edge is hardened and lapped. It is used to check the
straightness and flatness of the work surfaces. The light-gap method is used for this
test.
When the knife edge is placed onto the work surface and held against the light, a series
of light beams will penetrate through tiny uneven surfaces and appear to the eyes as a
wide beam of light. If there is no light gap or the light beam appearance is uniform, it
tells you that the work surfaces are flat or straight.
d)
Radius gauge
It consists of a series of hardened steel blades with a measuring range of 1-7, 7.5-15 and
15.5-25 mm. They can be used to check the internal and external radius by means of
light-gap method.

Comment on the sketches a, b and c:

a.
radius of testpiece is too small (undersize).
b.
radius of testpiece coincides with the gauge (acceptable).
c.
radius of testpiece is too big (oversize).
e)
Thread cutting gauge
It is a template which consists of V-grooves with angles of 60 for the metric thread. It is
used to check the profile and flank angle of a thread cutting tool by means of light gap
method. The angle is corrected if there is no light gaps.
It can be also used for setting-up and alignment of thread cutting tools with respect to
the work piece
f)
Thread pitch gauge
It is a template which consists of numerous V-grooves at 600 for the metric thread.
Generally, it comes in a set of different pitches with a measuring range of 0.25- 6.00
mm pitch. It is used to check the flank angles and pitches of the threads by means of
light gap method. If the angle and pitch are correct, no light gaps should be seen
between the gauge and the surface of the workpiece.

h)
Twist drill gauge
It is a template with a point angle of 118 and used to check the wedge angle of twist
drill. The graduated scale serves to check the length of cutting edges of the drill.
i)
Limit Plug Gauge
It is used to check the diameter of a straight hole and the width of a slot. It generally
consists of Go and No Go members. The selection of limit plug gauge is dependent
on the diameter and tolerances of the hole.
a.
Go end:
It represents the minimum dimension and checks the lower limit of the hole.
b.
No Go end:
It represents the maximum dimension and checks the upper limit of the hole. It is
marked in red and is shorter than Go member for easy identification.
Test Procedure
It is very important to use proper procedures when checking the hole with the plug
gauge if we want to get precise measurement. Hold the plug gauge very gently and let
it slide into the hole under its own weight. The Go member should easily enter the
hole without forcing it. The No Go member should not enter the hole. However, if the
Go member does not enter the hole, it indicates that the hole is undersized And if the
No Go member enters the hole, it indicates that the hole is oversized.

Limitation of Plug Gauges
Remember, a plug gauge is not able to detect out-of-round, tapered, and bellmouthed holes.
j)
Limit Ring Gauge
It is used to check the diameter of a cylindrical part or a shaft. Generally it comes

in a set of two ring gauges. The selection of ring gauge is dependent on the
diameter and tolerances of the shaft.
a.
'Go' ring:
It represents the maximum dimension and serves to check the upper limit of the shaft.
b.
'No Go' ring:
It represents the minimum dimension and serves to check the lower limit of the shaft.
It has a groove which is marked in red for easy identification.
Test Procedure
Hold the ring gauge very gently and let it slide into the shaft under its own weight.
The Go ring gauge should be able to enter the shaft without force it while the 'No Go'
ring gauge must not enter into the shaft.
If the 'Go' ring gauge cannot enter the shaft, it indicates that the shaft is oversized.
If the 'No Go' ring gauge enters the shaft, it indicates that the shaft is undersized.
a.
b.
c.
Limitations of ring gauges

They are not able to detect out-of-roundness.
Workpiece needs to be deburred before an effective check can be made.
Workpiece must be taken out of the machine when it needs to be checked.

k)
Snap Gauges
Snap Gauges are used to check the outside diameter of a shaft and thickness of a flat
workpiece or the external width of a step. Generally, it comes with Go and No Go
members.
a.
Go member:
It represents maximum dimensions and serves to check the upper limit of the
workpiece.
b.
No Go member:
It represents minimum dimension and serves to check the lower limit of the workpiece.
Basically, they consist of three types:
i.
Single snap gauge
It has a C-shape frame and Go and No Go members are behind each other.
ii.
Double snap gauge
Go and No Go members are opposite to each other.

iii.
Adjustable snap gauge

It can be adjusted and preset by using gauge blocks.

Test Procedures
Apply the snap gauge onto the shaft. The Go member must slide or go over the shaft
on its own weight without forcing it.The No Go member must not go over onto the
shaft.
If the Go member cannot slide over onto the shaft, it indicates that the shaft is
oversized.
If the No Go member can be inserted onto the shaft, it indicates that the shaft is
undersized.
Advantages of Snap Gauges compared with Ring Gauges
a.
Part is not necessary to be deburred.
b.
Part can be checked directly onto the machine.
c.
Time is saved.
l)
Thread Gauges
Basically, they are used to check the flank diameter of threads. There are three
types of thread gauges.
i.
Thread plug gauges

They are used to check the flank diameter of internal threads of a workpiece.
Basically, a thread plug gauge consists of Go and No Go members. The No Go
member is marked in red and has less thread for easy identification.
a) Go member: Used to check the lower limit of flank diameter of internal threads.
b) No Go member: Used to check the upper limit of flank diameter of internal threads.
ii.
Thread ring gauges
The thread ring gauge used to check flank diameter of external threads of a
workpiece. Basically, they come together with a Go thread ring gauge and No
Go thread ring gauge.
a) Go thread ring gauge: Used to check the upper limit of flank diameter of threads.
b) No Go thread ring gauge: Used to check the lower limit of flank diameter of
threads.
iii.
Thread roller gauges
There are two types of thread roller gauges:

1. Fixed thread roller gauges
2. Adjustable thread roller gauges

They consist of two pairs of free-turning rollers:
Go roller: To check upper limit of flank diameter.
No Go roller: To check lower limit of flank diameter.
Both are used to check the flank diameter of external threads. Adjustable thread
roller gauges can be adjusted or preset to required thread sizes by means of thread
adjusting limit gauges.
Advantages of Adjustable Thread Gauges compared with Ring Gauges
a. Time is saved by not having to screw the gauge along the workpiece.
b. Minimal of wear through rolling friction, therefore longer life.
c. All tolerance classes can be set by means of thread adjusting limit gauge.
d. They can check the part without taking out from the machine.
e. Using the same thread gauge, both right and left hand threads can be checked.
f. It can be checked at any parts or areas of the workpiece.
m)
Taper Gauges
Generally they are used to check standard internal and external tapers and to test
the diameter and slope of the taper. When testing with a taper plug gauge, the
workpiece edge should lie within the tolerance marks. If both marks are exceeded,
the workpiece is rejected.
a.
Taper plug gauges
b.
Taper sleeve gauges
Testing for wear in a tapered hole

a. Thoroughly clean the hole to be tested and the taper plug gauge.
b. Mark the taper gauge on the surface with a fine chalk or pencil.
c. Insert the taper plug gauge into the hole with light pressure (without turning).
d. Turn the taper plug gauge slightly, then remove it without turning.
e. Observe whether the mark is rubbed off or not.
i. If the mark is rubbed off, it tell that the two surfaces are touched.
ii. If the mark is still visible, it tell that the two surfaces are not touched (worn
out).

Taylors Theory of Gauging
This theory is very useful for the inspection of the workpiece by using the
gauging method, so that the good parts are not rejected and the bad parts are not
accepted. Taylors theory states that:
a. The Go member checks the minimum size of the holes and should check as
many dimensions as possible.
b. The No Go member checks the maximum size of the holes and should only
check one dimension at a time.
Thus a separate No Go gauge is required for each individual dimension. To
explain this theory very clearly, let us consider checking the rectangular hole as shown
in the diagram beside:
If the breadth of the hole is within the specific limits but the length is
oversized, and the No Go gauge is used to check both the maximum sizes of the
rectangular hole, it is observed that the gauge will not enter the hole and therefore
the work is accepted although the length of the rectangular hole is outside the
specified limits.
To overcome this situation, two separate No Go are always used. One is to check
the breadth and the other to check the length of the rectangular hole.
Gauge Tolerances and Wear Allowances
Gauges cannot be manufactured entirely without error. They are subjected
to loss of accuracy from wear. Thus the tolerances and wear allowances are
needed for the manufactured of gauges. The gauge tolerances and permissible
wear allowances depend upon the nominal size of the workpiece and the quality
class.
Work piece
Tolerance
Tolerance for Go
and No Go gauge
0.009-0.018
0.001
0.018-0.032
0.002
Wear allowance for

Go gauge only
Plug gauge
Ring gauge
Go
No
Go
Go
No Go
0.001
+0.002
+0.001
+0
0.001
0.001
0.002
+0.001
-0
0.001
+0.003
+0.001
-0
0.002
0.001
0.003
+0.002
-0

0.032-0.058
0.003
0.002
+0.005
+0.002
+0
0.003
0.002
0.050
+0.003
-0
0.058-0.100
0.004
0.004
+0.008
+0.004
+0
+0.0
04
0.004
0.008
+0.004
-0
0.100-0.180
0.006
0.007
+0.0.1
3
+0.007
+0
0.006
0.007
0.013
+0.006
-0
0.180-0.320
0.009
0.012
+0.021
+0.012
+0
0.009
0.012
0.021
+0.009
-0
0.320-0.580
0.014
0.025
+0.039
+0.025
+0
0.014
0.025
0.039
+0.014
-0
0.580-1.00
0.025
0.048
+0.073
+0.048
+0
0.025
0.048
0.073
+0.025
-0
1.00-1.800
0.040
0.080
+0.120
+0.048
+0
0.040
0.080
0.120
+0.040
-0
1.800-3.200
0.050
0.155
+0.205
+0.155
+0
0.050
0.155
0.205
+0.050
-0
Table 10.1: Gauge Size Limits AT 20C for Ranges of Workpiece Tolerance
Example;
A plug gauge is to be manufactured to inspect a hole size of 50 25
0 . Determine the total
tolerance of the gauge.
Solution:
Minimum value = 50.00 and maximum value = 50.025 mm
Tolerance of hole = 0.025 mm
From the table:
At 0.018 - 0.032 mm; gauge tolerance = 0.002 and wear allowance = 0.001.
Hence, total tolerance of gauge is:
For Go gauge 50 00..003
001
For No Go gauge 50 00..025
023

CHAPTER 11
PROFILE PROJECTOR

11.1
INTRODUCTION
Profile projector is a large optical instrument which projects a workpiece
surface or contour on a screen for dimensional measurements (linear and angular
measurements) and observation.
The part to be measured is mounted on a table that can be moves in X and Y
directions by accurate micrometer screws. The profile projector projects the image of
the part on a screen, magnifying it from 5 to more than 100 times. Measurements can
be made directly, either by means of the micrometer dials, digital readouts or on the
magnified image on the screen by means of a n accurate scale or template (chart)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Control panel
Focusing knob
Table fine feed knob
Table core feed knob
Projection lens
Screen rotation knob
Projection screen
Table elevation wheel
Contour illuminator
Table
Surface illuminator
Angle counter
11.2
APPLICATION
Profile projector is a multi-purpose measuring instrument used for checking length,
angle, radius, diameter, thread pitch and gear profiles.
11.3
TEST PROCEDURES
There are three methods of testing :
a. Projection by contour illumination
b. Projection by surface illumination
c. Projection by both the contour and surface illumination

a.
Projection by contour illumination
The surface image of the workpiece is projected onto the screen. Be sure to use the
condenser lens, which corresponds to the magnification of the projection lens to be used
OPERATION
DESCRIPTION
PROJECTION
SCREEN
Position the work piece so it intersects

the optical axis of the projection lens
(which is collinear with the axis of the
contour illuminator)
b.
Projection by surface illumination
With the use of a half-reflecting mirror, it is possible to project the workpiece surface
image on the screen. (The surface illuminator is optional for PH350)
When the 5X or 10X projection is used :
OPERATION
DESCRIPTION
PROJECTION
SCREEN
Position the work piece so it intersects the

optical axis of the projection lens. (The
optical axis is collinear with the axis of a
beam that comes from the surface
illuminator and reflects on the half
mirror). When the 5X or 10X projection
lens is mounted, this half-reflection
mirror is attached to the front of the
projection lens.
c.
Projection by both the contour and surface illumination
Both contour and surface images of a workpiece are projected onto the screen
OPERATION
DESCRIPTION
Position the work piece so it intersects the
optical axis of the projection lens. (The
optical axis is collinear with the axis of a
beam that comes from the surface
illuminator and reflects on the half mirror)
PROJECTION
SCREEN

11.4
DIFFERENT STANDARD OVERLAY CHARTS
In addition to the ordinary measuring functions where the workpiece dimensions are
measured by fitting scale on the projection screen, the workpieces can be compared
with a reference overlay chart to inspect the dimension of form deviation.
a. Overlay chart radial index and concentric circles
b. Overlay chart Metric and Whit worth threads
11.5
Basically there are two types of measurement that can be operated on a profile
projector.
a.
Length measurement
b.
Angle measurement

a.
Length measurement
PROCEDURE
OPERATION
Step 1
Position the work

piece
Step 2
Press the X-axis zero

set button of the A
counter to zero-set the
X axis counter
Step 3
Move the microstage

(or micrometer head)
by using the
microstage feed knobs
so that the other edge
of the workpiece
image aligns with the
same cross-hair line on
the screen. Dimension
L1 can be counted as
an X-axis displacement
and displayed on the
counter.
Step 4
Press the Y-axis zero

set button of the A
counter to zero-set the
Y-axis counter
Step 5
Move the microstage

(or micrometer head)
by using the table
elevation wheel so that
the other edge of the
workpiece image
aligns with the same
crosshair line on the
screen. Dimension L2
can be constructed as a
Y-axis displaced on
the counter.
SCREEN
COUNTER
OPERATION/DISPLAY

b.
PROCEDURE
Step 1
Step 2
11.6
Angle measurement
OPERATION
SCREEN
COUNTER
OPERATION/DISPLAY
Align the vertex of the

angle to be measured
with the intersection of
the cross-hair lines, then
rotate the protractor
screen to align one edge
of the angle with a crosshair line. Set the angle
counter to ABS mode
and establish a datum on
the edge by setting the
counter to zero
Rotate the protractor
screen to align the other
edge of the angle with the
same cross-hair line used
in step 1. The measured
angle is displayed on the
angle counter
MAINTENANCE OF OPTICAL COMPONENTS
a.
Projection lens and condenser lens
Compared with ordinary hard glass, the optical glass of the projection lens used for the
projection lens or condenser lens are soft and subject to scratches. In order to remove
dust do not use a cloth to wipe the lens, but use a blower brush instead. To remove oil
or fingerprints, dampen a clean gauze with high-grade alcohol and wipe gently using a
circular motion. For lens storage, replace the lens cap and store it in its case.
Replace the lens cap when the projector is not in use, although the lens does not have to
be removed from the projector.
b.
Half-reflecting mirror for surface illuminator
The half mirror for 5X and 10X is coated with a plastic film which, tends to collect
dust. Since the mirror surface is subjected to scratches, take sufficient care when
handling it. Use a blower brush to remove any dust from the mirror.
c.
Mirror {surface reflection mirror}
The mirrors inside the machine are delicate and should never be touched by your hands
or anything else. Take care not to allow dust or oil mist inside the machine. Should the
mirror have to be cleaned, dust must be blown away with a blower, instead of being
wiped off.
d.
Screen glass
Use a soft cloth soaked with dilute neutral detergent and wipe the glass when removing
oil and fingerprints. After wiping, remove the detergent by wiping with a sot' cloth
soaked with water.

CHAPTER 12
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
MEASUREMENT

12.1
INTRODUCTION
Most component parts today require high quality of surface finish,

depending on how they are to be used. For example, the sliding bearing
surfaces need high quality surface finish in order to achieve higher load-carrying
capacity and good wear resistance. In the old days, the surface finish was
commonly referred to as coarse or fine. Today, the surface finish of a
component part is more stringently controlled in many applications and requires
more specific classifications than simply coarse or fine.
12.2
SURFACE TEXTURE MEASUREMENT
Purpose of controlling surface texture is to;
a. reduce wear, such as guide ways or piston
b. increase lubricating ability
c. allow fine geometrical and dimensional tolerances to be controlled
d. reduce corrosion, chipping, crack
e. prevent leakage
f. improve fit ability
12.3
DEFINITIONS OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS TERMS

a. Roughness
Roughness are closely (finely) spaced irregularities on the surface. Roughness
results from machining operations in case of machined surfaces.
b. Waviness
Waviness is widely spaced irregularities on the surface. Waviness may be the
result of warping, vibration or the work being deflected during machining.
c. Lay
Lay is the term used to designate the direction of the predominant surface pattern
produced by the machining processes. Surface finish measurements should be
made in a direction that is perpendicular to the lay of the surface pattern.
d. Peak and valley
In the mountains, a peak is considered to be the highest point and a valley is
considered to be the lowest point. It is the same for surface texture. The surface
textures take the shape of several peaks and valleys. The measurement of the
surface roughness is generally the average height of these combined peaks and
valleys.
e. Cut-off
The electrical response characteristic of the instrument that is selected to limit the
spacing of the surface irregularities to be included in the roughness measurement.

12.4
WAVE LENGTH LIMIT C
Only the surface waves with a wavelength = < c add to the roughness with the
amplitude as shown below.
In general:
lm = 5 c otherwise it must be stated with the roughness value.
12.5
BASIC TERMS OF SURFACE TEXTURE

i.
Unfiltered profile (P-profile)
Unfiltered profile (P-profile) is a profile resulting from the intersection of a surface by a

plane normal (perpendicular) to the surface. The intersection must be in the direction in
which the profile represents the maximum value of the surface roughness. Generally, it
is in the direction normal to the surface lay.
ii.
Roughness profile (R-profile)
Roughness profile (R-profile) is a profile determined by a measuring method which

removes irregularities of low frequency components from the unfiltered profile.

iii.
Sampling length and evaluation length
a.
lc
Sampling length and evaluation length is a sampling length used for determining the
surface roughness from a roughness from profile. Generally, the sampling length is
equal to the cut-off value of the filter c. Given that
c = 0.25, 0.8, 2.5, 8 mm
b.
L
Sampling length and evaluation length is a sampling length used for determining the
surface roughness from an unfiltered profile and is equal to the evaluation length lm.
Given that L = 0.25, 0.8, 2.5, 8 mm.
c.
lm
Sampling length and evaluation length is an evaluation length used for evaluation of
surface roughness and includes several sampling lengths.
Given that lm = n x lc
(For evaluation from roughness profile)
Given that lm = n x L
(For evaluation from unfiltered profile, where n = 1)
12.6
EFFECTS OF VARIOUS CUT-OFF VALUES
The cut-off value is important in roughness measurement because it affects the
roughness profile, as clearly shown in the diagram below.
Actual profile curve.
Increasing the sampling length would include more of the roughness.

Roughness profile with cut-off value of 0.8 mm
Roughness profile with cut-off value of 0.25 mm

12.7
DEFINITION OF SURFACE PARAMETERS

i.
Lines and lengths
lv = start up length
lm = total sampling length
ln = run out length
a.
Roughness length
It is the length of the test surface used for measurement.
b.
Reference line
It is the line running through the highest point of the roughness profile.
c.
Base line
It is the line running through the lowest point of the roughness profile.
d.
Mean line
It is the line that divides up the roughness profile in such a way that the total area of the
parts of the reference profile is equal to those of the base profile.
ii.
Roughness Average, Ra
Ra is the arithmetic average of all the distances between the roughness profile and the
mean profile. All the raised surfaces above this mean line are calculated together with
valley surfaces lying below it, (that is considered as a rectangular surface) and divided
it by the length, the roughness average is obtained. The determination of the mean line
and the calculation of Ra are carried out by the measuring instrument.

iii.
Maximum roughness depth, Rt
Rt is the maximum (vertical) distance between the highest point and the deepest cut or
the vertical distance between base profile and reference profile. This does not say
enough for us to evaluate the surface finish, since a single freak value within the
roughness length 1 could destroy what was otherwise a good surface.
iv.
Maximum single roughness depth, Rmax
Rmax is the maximum individual roughness depth occurring over the total measurement
section lm. In our case Rt5 is equal to Rmax
v.
Average roughness depth, Rz
This is the arithmetic average of the roughness depths of 5 adjacent part sections, equal
in length, of the total measurement section lm.
Example:
R z Rt 1 Rt 2 Rt 3 Rt 4 Rt 5
5m 3m 6 m 4 m 8m
5
R z 5 .2 m
Rz
12.8
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
12.9
ADDITIONS TO THE SURFACE SYMBOL

a Average roughness value Ra in m or roughness class N1-N2
(withdrawn DIN ISO 1302)
f Average peak to valley height Rz in m
b Explanation word, for example, reaming
c Wavelength limit c in mm (for Ra, Rz) or total sampling length lm in mm
(for Rt)
d Symbol for lay (surface characters)
e Allowances for final machining in mm
CHOICE OF THE WAVELENGTH LIMIT C
a. Find out if the surface has a periodic or non-periodic profile
b. Estimate the approximate value of Rz or Ra
c. Set the appropriate wavelength limit c
12.10
INSTRUMENTS FOR TESTING ROUGHNESS
There are a variety of instruments and methods available for measuring surface
roughness and surface profiles. However, two methods which are commonly used are
a. Finger nail comparator or surface roughness standard plate
b. Electronic instrument such as profilometer, perthometer or surface roughness
tester

a.
Checking of surface roughness using standard plate
In those situations where surface finish is widely toleranced, the fingernail comparator
is usually used. These comparators come in a variety of different patterns. But
generally, they provide several sheets of metal that have a variety of surface roughness
samples (standard). Each sample is identified with a surface finish designation, for
example N6 = 0.8 microns. They are commonly called fingernail comparators because
you run your fingernail across the comparator, then across the surface of the part.
b.
Procedures
Run your fingernail across the comparator (perpendicular to the lay) and you feel the
roughness. Then run your fingernail across the surface of the part (also perpendicular to
the lay) and decide which surface is rougher. If the comparator feels rougher than the
part, it is likely that the part is acceptable. Fingernail comparators are widely used
because they are simple and cheap.
c.
Measuring surface roughness with electronic instruments
There are several different types of electronic instruments used to measure the surface
finish. The common ones are profilometer, perthometer or surface roughness tester.
These instruments can measure surface parameters such as Ra, Rt and Rmax.
d.
Surface roughness tester (Surftest SJ-400 from Mitutoyo)
The surftest is a stylus type surface roughness-measuring instrument capable of
evaluating surface textures including waviness with a variety of parameters according
to national and international standards. The stylus detector unit will trace the minute
irregularities of the work piece surface. During the traversing of the stylus detector
over the surface irregularities, it will experience a vertical displacement, which will be
converted to electrical signals. These electrical signals will pass through various
calculation processes and the results will be displayed digitally/graphically on the touch
panel. The instrument has a maximum measuring range of 800m.
The instrument basically consists of
a. A display unit
b. A height/tilt adjustment unit
c. Adrive/unit
d. A detector unit

e. A standard stylus
f.
A skidless nosepiece
g. A skid-attached nosepiece
Surface roughness tester for measuring surface roughness and profile

Surface roughness tester for measuring surface roughness and profile

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FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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Basic Inspection and Procedures

Mechanical Dial Indicator

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Surface Plate Inspection

Instruments for Testing Angles

Surface Roughness Measurement

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CHOICE OF THE WAVELENGTH LIMIT C

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NEEDS AND FUNCTIONS OF INSPECTION

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Fundamental Units and Standards

Units used in Metrology

List of Basic SI Quantities, Units and Symbols

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Derived Units and Conversions

Convert the following for length into values in mm.

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BASIC INSPECTION AND

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TESTING AND ITS PROCEDURES

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high skill required

less skill required

Depth Vernier Caliper

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Then, it is transferred and

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FACTORS IN SELECTING TESTING INSTRUMENT

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CARE OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Calibrate the instrument periodically before you use it.

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FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCURACY OF A MEASURING

For example: Thermal expansion of metal is affected by the temperature.

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SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS

c. Positioning or alignment errors

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g. Error caused by force

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PARTS OF A VERNIER CALIPER

Fixed measuring jaw

Measuring accuracy of the Tenth Value Vernier

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Measuring accuracy of the Twentieth Value Vernier

READING THE SCALE

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Refer to the diagram below:

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The Digital Caliper is an electronic measuring instrument which is precise,

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c. Dirty measuring surfaces.

DEPTH VERNIER CALIPER

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Ensure it is at vertical position when it is resting on the reference surface.

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APPLICATIONS OF VERNIER CALIPER