Historical Foundations

Historical Foundations of Education

B.C.
In ancient Athens, the social critic Socrates had attracted a circle of
students, one of whom was Plato. Socrates philosophy embraced an ethic that
asserted that human beings should seek to live lives that were morally excellent.
Like Socrates, Plato rejected claims that ethical behavior was situationally
determined and that education could be reduced to specialized vocational or
professional training. He asserted that human beings were good and honorable
when their conduct conformed to the ideal and universal concepts of truth,
goodness, and beauty. In his famous Allegory of the Cave, Plato asserted that
the information that comes to us through our senses was not reality but merely a
shadow or an imperfect copy of it. Sense impressions gave us a reflected, but
distorted, view of reality. This philosophy of Idealism proclaimed the spiritual
nature of the human being and the universe and asserted that the good, true,
and beautiful are permanently part of the structure of a related, coherent, orderly,
and unchanging universe.
Unlike Idealists, Realists assert that objects exist regardless of our
perception of them. Realism can be defined as a philosophical position that
asserts the existence of an objective order of reality and the possibility of human
beings gaining knowledge about that reality. It further prescribes that we should
order our behavior in conformity with this knowledge. Drawing from its
Aristotelian origins, it argues that the primary goal of education is to contribute to
the discovery, transmission, and use of knowledge. Aristotle, a student of Plato,
is known as the founder of Realism.
1000-1099
The 11th century was a dark era for education. Few people in Western
Europe were receiving any kind of schooling. The knowledge of the ancient
Romans was preserved in cathedrals and monasteries. Culture, which was
centered around the church, began to flourish again as the 1100s approached.
Across the globe, contributions were being made to the future of
education. In China, printing by movable type was invented in 1045, and proved
to be one of the most powerful inventions of this era. With future educational
systems focusing on the written word, the invention of type printing set the path
for future publications. In Salerno Italy, the earliest Italian medical school opened
in 1050.

Historical Foundations
1100-1199
An enlightened educational policy allows serfs to receive vocational
training. They also receive religious instruction so they can participate in the
church.
Several universities were founded across Europe in the 12 th Century. In 1108,
Bologna University was founded in Italy. It is known to be the most ancient in the
world. The university was established mainly for the study of Roman law. In
1150, Paris University was founded in France, and said to be the greatest
university in the Middle Ages. Undergraduate study followed, but had no
prescribed hours or credit units. In 1167, Oxford University in England was
founded.
1200-1299
In the 13th century, Latin was phased out as the language of the
university. For the first time, students were taught in their common language.
Thomas Aquinas was born in 1225, and is known as a founder of Theistic
Realism. Thomas Aquinas came up with a "triangle of education." The base of
the triangle consists of the seven liberal arts; the middle section is "dialectic"
(Plato's style of debate by question and answer, and Aristotle's reasoning with
syllogisms). The top of the triangle is divided into the study of law and philosophy.
Thomistic education rests upon premises that are found in Artistotelian
philosophy and Christian Scriptures. It asserts that education should aid human
beings to merit supernatural life, and that it should also facilitate every persons
active participation in his or her own culture and history. Theistic Realism has
sought to reconcile faith and reason, or religion and science, in a comprehensive
synthesis.
1300-1399
The Renaissance introduced new ideas and leaders that influenced
education. Francis Petrach was born in 1304. He is known as the first modern
scholar because he focused on classical Greek literature instead of medieval
literature in his search for examples of human perfection. This interest in
classical antiquity is the defining feature of Renaissance artists and thinkers.
The first paper mill was built in France in 1338. Paper was a Chinese
invention (c. 600 AD), brought to Europe by the Arabs in the 11th century. There
was a gradual shift from use of papyrus to paper, beginning in Spain, then Italy,
then France. The Book of the Knight of La Tour-Landry (1370), was written for
the instruction of the nobleman's daughters. Education for women was otherwise
limited to those in religious orders.
1400-1499

Historical Foundations
Education in the Renaissance was a very selective affair. Women and the
lower classes were still being excluded from education. At the same time, the
first secondary schools appeared in Italy.
Desiderius Erasmus, in 1450, wrote about the need for play and games
in children's schoolwork. He believed it was a teacher's role to encourage
children to think, instead of to display his own learning and have the child learn it
verbatim.
In 1456, the Gutenberg bible was printed. Approximately 40,000 copies
were printed between 1450 and 1500. In 1492, the profession of book publisher
emerged.
1500-1599
During the 16th century, women started focusing less on needlepoint, and
more on liberal arts education. In 1529, Juan Luis Vives published his Instruction
for a Christian Woman. Erasmus, and Sir Thomas More played a key role in
introducing the new humanist learning into the great households. Some of the
women of royal and noble families benefited from the humanist view that girls
should receive an education in the liberal arts, as well as in the more usual fields
of manners, housekeeping and basic religious knowledge.
Other pieces of literature published during this time period influenced
schools of thought and general instructional philosophies. The first complete
edition of Aristotle's works published by Erasmus in 1531.
The English Schoole-Maister was published in 1596. This book, by
Edmund Coote, was one of the first about teaching the English language.
In 1597, Francis Bacon published his Essays of Counsels, Civil and Moral.
Topics included parenting, marriage and single life, friendship, and the role of
custom in education.
1600-1699
Europeans settled in various regions, and influenced the creation and lack
of educational systems. French settled from Canada down the Mississippi River
Valley to Louisiana. The Jesuit priests journeyed with the settlers and educated
the Indians and children of the settlers. The defeat of the French by the British in
1763 brought an end to French dreams of an empire and their educational efforts
also diminished. The Spanish influence was heaviest in California where a
number of missions were established and the Franciscan priests taught the
Indians. The Dutch were influential in New Amsterdam, which became New York
when the British took over. It was the English, however, who had the greatest
influence on American education.

Historical Foundations
Colonists came to America and set up schools exactly like the ones they
knew in Europe. They were run and supported by the church. The curriculum
was centered on the learning of letters, numbers, and prayers. The strict learning
environment did not allow for crafts nor recess breaks, and only one out of ten
children attended school. There were common characteristics shared by the 13
colonies:
1. Education was religious; its major aim was personal salvation;
2. Education was centered on social class: dual system, 2-tract, or class
system. The children of workers should have minimal primary education
in vernacular schools where they learned the 4 Rs (reading, writing,
arithmetic, and religion);
3. The well-educated person would know the classical languages--Latin and
Greek;
4. With the exception of Dame Schools (Kindergarten), education was only
for boys; and
5. Most children in colonial times received their education through informal
means such as the family, the farm, and the shop (where many boys were
apprenticed). The family was the most important social and economic unit,
and frequently the most important source of education as well.
The New England Colonies (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island,
Vermont, and New Hampshire) were settled by the intensely- religious Puritans
who followed the theology of John Calvin. They believed that the righteous
would be saved and sinners would be damned. Puritans were supposed to be
especially favored by God because they were hardworking, frugal, law-abiding,
obedient to religious and civil authority, and literate (referred to as the Puritan or
Protestant ethic). There was no separation between Church and State. In fact,
church, state, and schools were closely related and were frequently governed by
the same men.
Children were born in sin, and were seen as little savages that needed
strong measures to keep them in line. They were expected to act like adults, and
corporal punishment was frequently used both at home and at school to control
Children behavior.
Schooling was very important as a means of educating children in religion
and obedience to the laws of the colony. As early as 1642, the Massachusetts
General Court required parents and masters of apprentices to see that their
children could read and understand religious principles and laws of the colony. In
1647, the General Court enacted the Old Deluder Satan Law which required
every township of 50 households to appoint and pay for an elementary teacher,
and every township of 100 households to hire a Latin (secondary) teacher.
These laws of 1642 and 1647 were significant in that they demonstrated that the
colonial government was concerned about the education of its citizens, gave civil
authorities some control of the schools, and indicated that taxation was to be
used to support the school.

Historical Foundations
.
There were four types of colonial schools in New England:
Dame Schools were the equivalent of kindergarten. Classes were taught
in a lady's kitchen while she did the chores. Both boys and girls learned
the alphabet and numbers. Girls also learned cooking and sewing and
household domestic duties;
2. Town Schools were the equivalent of elementary school. They were taught
in the vernacular (mother tongue) and offered a basic curriculum of the 4
R's. Memorization and recitation were common teaching strategies found
in town schools. Materials most commonly used were the Hornbook and
the New England Primer. The teachers were all men and the students
were all boys;
3. Latin grammar schools were secondary schools whose curriculum was
mainly Latin and Greek grammar. A few boys who would go to Harvard
attended them. The first Latin grammar school was established in Boston
in 1635. Boston helped support the school with the income from a land
sale, marking the beginning of public education in America; and
4. Colonial colleges prepared young men for the ministry and government
service. In 1636, Massachusetts founded Harvard College, the first
institution of higher learning in the colonies. The college had an average
enrollment of about 20 male students.
1.

5. The Southern Colonies (Maryland, Virginia, Georgia and the Carolinas)

were made up of settlers who considered themselves descendants of the
Cavaliers, the English aristocrats who had supported the Stuart Kings
against Cromwell. These landed gentry, unlike the Puritans, did not come
to the colonies because they were persecuted. They came for economic
reasons--to improve their family fortunes.
Southern Colonists established the plantation system and a
hierarchical social system. Plantation owners hired tutors to teach their
sons and daughters. However, the children of poor rarely had any
opportunity for formal education. Some were able to attend schools run
by the SPG (Society for the Propagation of the Gospel) for paupers. Many
were apprenticed. Generally, however, Southern colonies left the
responsibility of education to parents and churches.
The Middle Atlantic Colonies (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
and Delaware) had a great diversity of settlers with no common language,
religion, or cultural heritage. Many parochial (denominational) schools
were established, while private venture school prepared students for
commercial trades.
In 1637, French philosopher Ren Descartes proposed
mathematics as the perfect model for reasoning and invented analytic

Historical Foundations
geometry. In 1658, John Amos Comenius published the first-ever
children's picture book, Orbis Pictus (The World Illustrated). The book
became a best seller in every major European language. Comenius was a
kind teacher, who thought that children were born with a natural goodness
and craving for knowledge. He is now known by many as the father of
modern education.
1700-1799
Schools in the colonies began to teach more practical subjects, like
bookkeeping, navigation, and algebra. After the Revolutionary war and toward
the end of the century, church control over schools declined in the U.S. and in
most other western countries.
Between 1776 and 1830, a number of new trends and patterns emerged
in American education. Education became a state responsibility: the U.S.
Constitution, ratified in 1788, did not mention education; consequently, the states
became responsible. However, the federal government showed an interest in the
development of state educational systems by passing the Northwest Ordinances
of 1785 and 1787. The Ordinance of 1785 required each territory to set aside the
income from the 16th section of each township for the support of education (a
township was 6 square miles, subdivided into 36 sections). The Ordinance of
1787 included a statement of the federal governments philosophy of education,
saying that it was "necessary to good government and the happiness of
mankind."
Education for citizenship became more important than education for
personal salvation. Men like Franklin, Webster, and Jefferson, realized that for
the new Republic to survive, the citizens had to have an education in order to
become intelligent voters. The concepts of republicanism, science, and
nationalism
became
key
elements
in
American
education:
1) Republicanism: John Lockes assertion that government arises from the
consent of the governed. Education for republican citizenship implied imparting
those skill, knowledge, and attitudes that would help the new republic endure and
flourish.
2) Science: An Enlightenment concept based on the belief that individuals could
discover the laws of the universe. The scientific outlook called for
experimentation
and
reexamination
of
accepted
beliefs.
3) Nationalism: This concept stressed a sense of American identity and loyalty.
There were many important contributors to educational thought during the
th
18 century. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), was the founder of the American
Philosophical Society. His Poor Richard's Almanac emphasized values such as
frugality, hard work, and inventiveness. In 1731, he founded the first public
library in America, and chartered it as the Philadelphia Library in 1742. Franklin
advocated a utilitarian and scientific education, and founded the Philadelphia
Academy in 1749. This was significant because it presented an alternative to the
Latin Grammar School and anticipated the rise of academies and high schools.
The school offered a religion-based curriculum, like its Latin School counterpart,

Historical Foundations
but it also taught courses that applied to everyday life, such as history, merchant
accounts, algebra, surveying, modern languages, and navigation. In 1779, the
academy became the University of Pennsylvania.
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), was president of the American
Philosophical Association. He was also author of the "Bill for the More General
Diffusion of Knowledge," 1779 which was based on the following assumptions:
a) Schools should produce a literate citizenry; b) State was responsible for
providing schools; c) Schools should be secular rather than religious; and d)
Schools
should
identify
the
academically
talented
Noah Webster (1758-1843) was an important influence on the
development of American English and American culture. He wrote the American
Spelling Book, also known as the blue-back speller, which simplified and
standardized the language, and imparted "American" values. He also wrote the
American
Dictionary,
which
we
know
as
Webster's.
Interest in state control of education was on the rise. An ordinance passed
in 1785, declaring that the income gained from the sale of the land at the center
of each township was to be used for public elementary schools.
In 1787, another ordinance confirmed this land policy, insuring the establishment
of elementary schools in the Northwest Territory. It set a new standard of federal
aid to education.
In France, Jean Jacques Rousseau was publishing literary works
reflecting his school of thought, Naturalism. Central to his political and
educational philosophy was his belief that human character should be formed
according to nature. In Emile, Rousseaus didactic novel, a boy, in experiencing
a natural education, has his character develop naturally, in a country estate,
away from corrupting social institutions and conventions. In the novel, he
identified stages of human growth and development, and organized education
according to Emiles stages of development. According to Rousseau, the child is
a noble savage, a primitive unspoiled by the nices of a corrupting society. The
childs needs, instincts and impulses are to be trusted and relied upon as the raw
ingredients of further education. When these impulses are acted upon, they lead
to sensory experience that provide a direct relationship with the environment
thus, leading to clear ideas and reflection.
1800-1899
The industrial revolution took hold, changing both the U.S. economy and
its educational system. Public schools, kindergarten, and teacher training were
all
introduced
in
this
century.
American society changed from a rural-agricultural society to an urbanindustrial society, which required workers with at least basic literacy skills.
Educational responses to this need included: 1) Industrial schools based on the
ideas of William Maclure (1763-1840) which taught basic science and its
industrial and agricultural applications. He supported Pestalozzian methods, and
believed that schools should be used to bring about social change (philosophy of
Social Reconstructionism);

Historical Foundations
2) Monitorial schools based on the ideas of Joseph Lancaster (Lancasterian
Schools) who claimed it was possible to educate large numbers of children
effectively and cheaply. Essentially, a master teacher would train aids or
monitors who, in turn, would teach the other students; 3) Sunday schools:
Children who worked 6-day weeks in the factories were taught the basics of
reading, writing, and religion on Sundays; 4) Infant schools were a prototype of
the modern day-care center, devised by Scottish industrialist, Robert Owen, for
the young mothers who worked in his factories.
These efforts were not sufficient to meet the needs of American society.
Consequently, the Common School, the forerunner of the American public school
came into existence between 1830 and 1850. The Common School idea grew
out of New England's locally controlled schools. Supporters of the common
school included political and educational reformers like Horace Mann, James
Carter, Thaddeus Stevens, Henry Barnard, and Wm. T. Harris. These men were
believers in the Jeffersonian ideal in education (the concept that the republic
could not survive and thrive without an educated citizenry); advocates of public
education as a means of social and economic advancement for their children;
and nationalists who wanted the schools to cultivate common values, loyalties,
and a sense of Americanness in children from different ethnic backgrounds.
Opponents of the common school included owners of factories, mines,
and plantations who did not want to lose cheap child labor; pluralistic groups who
wanted their children taught in their own language, religion, and traditions; and
those who did not want to raise taxes (legislators), as well as those who did not
want
to
pay
taxes
for
the
support
of
education.
The common school included grades 1-8, eventually each in its own
classroom with its own teacher. It was free, because it was supported by taxes.
Eventually, the common school was compulsory, universal, non-sectarian, and
staffed by trained teachers. The movement was first successful in the New
England states, with Massachusetts leading the way. The Middle Atlantic states
were slower, with Lancasterianism holding on. The Southern states did not have
public
school
systems
until
after
the
Civil
War.
After 1850, the common school was found in 2 major versions: the urban
public school found in large cities like Boston and New York, and the country
school, commonly referred to as the "one-room school house." The locallyelected school boards established and ran virtually every aspect of the school.
One simply-furnished room held all the children in the school district, each
working at his or her own level (ungraded) with one teacher in charge. Both
males and females, with varying degrees of professional education were
teachers. The standard curriculum included the 3 Rs, Spelling and perhaps
history, geography, or elocution (public speaking). The standard methods were
memorization
and
recitation.
Henry Barnard (1811-1900) was one of the founders of the common
school movement, along with Horace Mann. He worked both in Connecticut and
Rhode Island to establish a public school system, and then went on to head the
University of Wisconsin and to serve as the first U.S. Commissioner of Education
(1867-1870). He edited 2 of the first journals related to education-The

Historical Foundations
Connecticut Common School Journal and the American Journal of Education. He
proposed that the common school teach the basic skill, civic values, the
principles of health and diet, and careful observation and reflection (thinking
skills). He supported the establishment of normal schools for teacher education
and
higher
pay
for
teachers.
William Torrey Harris (1835-1909) was a major educational leader after
the Civil War as superintendent of schools in St. Louis, and then as U.S.
Commissioner of Education (1889-1906). He advocated that schools transmit the
cultural heritage to the young through a carefully designed curriculum, stressing
such values as self-discipline, obedience, respect for property, and good
citizenship. Under Harris, St. Louis established the first successful public
kindergarten
program
in
1873.
In the early 19th century, the colonial Latin grammar school declined and
was largely replaced by the academy, a private secondary institution that taught
more varied and practical courses. After the Kalamazoo case of 1874, in which
the Supreme Court of Michigan ruled that school districts could support high
schools with taxes, high schools became more and more popular (because they
were free and because they trained students for jobs in an increasingly industrial
society). High schools evolved from one-track academic institutions to
comprehensive schools in the early 20th century.
In 1821, Boston opens the nation's first public high school, and in 1827,
Massachusetts passes a law that requires towns of 500 families or more to
establish high schools. Other states soon followed. By mid-century, public high
schools absorbed their Latin grammar school predecessors. Towns begin to
establish separate secondary schools for girls.
The first state board of education is established in Massachusetts in 1837,
and Horace Mann is its first secretary. In 1839, Horace Mann begins the nation's
first teacher-training school in Massachusetts. Friedrich Froebel founds the first
kindergarten in Blakenburg, Germany. It uses stories, play, crafts, and songs to
stimulate children's imaginations and help develop motor skills (Our nation's first
public kindergarten opens in St. Louis later in 1873).
By 1850, the Industrial Revolution is in full swing. One-room schools in
urban areas are on the decline as new schools begin to follow the assembly-line
model, where students move from class to class, teacher to teacher.
Massachusetts passes the first compulsory school-attendance law in the
U.S. in 1852. By 1918, every state has a similar law. In 1862, Congress passes
the Morrill Act, or "Land Grant" Act, which gives vast areas of federal land to
states. It requires them to sell the land and use the money to establish
agricultural and technical colleges. In 1874, A Michigan Supreme Court decision
rules that local governments can use tax money to support elementary and
secondary schools. Congress passes the second Morrill Act in 1890, which
withholds grants from states that deny admission to land grant schools based on
race. A state can still receive money if it establishes a separate school for blacks,
as many Southern states do.
1900-1999

Historical Foundations
The civil rights movement and technology change the face of the 20th
century classroom. In the 1950s, the U.S. Supreme Court bans segregation in
public schools. In the 1990s, schools "log on" and computers invade the
classroom.
Changes in educational philosophy and curriculum came about in this era
as well. In 1901, John Dewey wrote The Child and the Curriculum, and later
Democracy and Education, in which he shows concern for the relationship
between society and education. Dewey was a philosopher, psychologist, and
educator. His philosophy of education focused on learning by doing rather than
rote memorization. He criticized education that emphasizes amusing and keeping
students busy. From Deweys educational philosophy came the emphasis on
experience, activity, and problem-solving that helped to reshape our thinking
about education and schooling.
Progressive education, which was part of a larger Progressive Movement in U.S.
history from about 1900-1920, was an antidote to traditional, conservative
education. It was based on John Deweys philosophy of pragmatism and his work
at the Laboratory School at the University of Chicago. (Earlier progressive
educators include Europeans such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and
Montessori). Rather than stressing the old strategies of memorization and
recitation, progressive educators advocated: problem-solving skills, learning
through sense perception (learning by doing or hands-on learning), using a
child's interests as the basis for developing a curriculum, self-discipline, and
flexible methods (small group learning, independent research, field trips, etc.).
Racial integration and school desegregation was another major event in
American education in the 20th century. It all began with Brown v. Board of
Education of Topeka in 1954 in which the Supreme Court unanimously struck
down the "separate but equal" doctrine in American education. This was followed
by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which protected voting rights, and guaranteed civil
rights in employment and education. In education, the law empowered the
federal government to file desegregation suits and to withhold federal funds from
districts that practiced discrimination in federal programs.
Maria Montessori opened her first school in 1907. Maria Montessori was
credited with developing a classroom without walls, manipulative learning
materials, teaching toys, and programmed instruction. Many considered her to
be the 20th century's leading advocate for early childhood education. Anna
Freud, Jean Piaget, Alfred Adler, and Erik Erikson studied under Montessori and
made their own contributions to education and child psychology.
Educational policies and mandates make their presence in public schools.
School attendance becomes compulsory in every U.S. state in 1918, and in
1921, foreign language becomes part of the U.S. curriculum. "Superior" children
in Cleveland's elementary schools study French.
The debate between evolution and creation peaks with the Scopes Monkey Trial
in 1925. John Scopes, a high-school science teacher in Dayton, Tennessee, is
tried for teaching the theory of evolution. This is illegal under the Butler Statute,
which states that any theory that denies creationism can't be taught in publicly

Historical Foundations
funded schools. Scopes is convicted and fined $100. His conviction is later
overturned on a technicality.
The Soviet Union launches Sputnik, the world's first artificial satellite in
1957. Fearing that the Soviets will surpass the U.S. in science and technology,
many schools adopt a more rigorous curriculum-based education.
In court rulings of Engel v. Vitale in 1962, the U.S. Supreme Court finds
that the state does not have the right to enforce prayer in public schools.
Proposition 13 is passed in California (Proposition 2-1/2 in Massachusetts) in the
1970s. This freezes property taxes, a major source of funding for public schools.
California drops from first in the nation in per-student spending in 1978 to number
43 in 1998.
In 1989, U.S. governors create the National Education Goals, which focus
on increased standards, teaching salaries, graduation requirements, and state
assessment. The Clinton administration later recasts these as Goals 2000,
calling for a restructuring to focus on results over process and regulation.
Proposition 187 passes in California in 1994, making it illegal for the children of
undocumented immigrants to attend public school. Federal courts later hold
Proposition 187 to be unconstitutional. In 1996, the same state, California,
passes Proposition 209, outlawing affirmative action in public education. In
1998, bilingual education is outlawed in California.
By the end of the millennium, nearly eight of every ten public schools in
the nation have access to the Internet, more than double the proportion in 1994.
There is debate on best-suited software, and hardware organization in
educational settings. However, state and federal funds are allocated for the
support and integration of technology into the curriculum.
Websites
History of Public Education in Texas
http://www.tea.state.tx.us/tea/history.html
History
of
Education
Timeline
http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~daniel_schugurensky/assignment1/index.html
Colonial Web
http://www.msu.edu/user/patter90/colonial.htm
Links to the World of John Dewey
http://www.cisnet.com/teacher-ed/dewey.html
Center for Dewey Studies
http://www.siu.edu/~deweyctr/
John Dewey
http://www.epistemelinks.com/Main/MainPers.asp
Maria Montessori
http://webdev.loyola.edu/dmarco/education/Montessori/maria.html
Philosophers and Education

Historical Foundations
http://www.ais.msstate.edu/AEE/8593/phil_ed/outline.html
Essentialism
http://www.soe.purdue.edu/fac/georgeoff/400/ESSENTIALISM.html
Test your knowledge with online practice quizzes:
Foundations
of
Education,
Chapters
2-5
http://cwabacon.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/mcnergney_ab/chapt
er2/deluxe.html

Bibliography
Gutek, Gerald. (1988).
Education.
Needham

Philosphical and Ideological Perspectives in

Heights,
MA:
Allyn
&
Bacon.

Gutek, Gerald. (1992). Education and schooling in America (3rd ed.).

Needham
Heights,
MA:
Allyn
&
Bacon.
McNergney, Robert F. and Herbert, Joanne M. (2001). Foundations of
Education: The Challenge of Professional Practice (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.