IntroductionTo Embedded System

1.1 Introduction
Microcontroller are widely used in Embedded System products. An Embedded
product uses the microprocessor(or microcontroller) to do one task & one
task only. A printer is an example of Embedded system since the processor
inside it perform one task only namely getting the data and printing it.
Although microcontroller are preferred choice for many Embedded systems,
There are times that a microcontroller is inadequate for the task. For this
reason

in

recent

years

many

manufactures

of

general

purpose

microprocessors such as INTEL, Motorolla, AMD & Cyrix have targeted their
microprocessors for the high end of Embedded market.One of the most
critical needs of the embedded system is to decrease power consumptions
and space. This can be achieved by integrating more functions into the CPU
chips. All the embedded processors have low power consumptions in
additions to some forms of I/O,ROM all on a single chip. In higher
performance Embedded system the trend is to integrate more & more
function on the CPU chip & let the designer decide which feature he/she
wants to use.

1.2 Embedded System

An Embedded System employs a combination of hardware & software to
perform a specific function. Software is used for providing features and
flexibility hardware(Processors, Memory...) is used for performance &
sometimes security.An embedded system is a special purpose system in
which the computer is completely encapsulated by the device it controls.
Unlike a general purpose computer, such as a PC, an embedded system
performs predefined tasks usually with very specific tasks design engineers
can optimize it reducing the size and cost of the product. Embedded systems
are often mass produced, so the cost savings may be multiplied by millions
of items.The core of any embedded system is formed by one or several
microprocessor or micro controller programmed to perform a small number

of tasks. In contrast to a general purpose computer, which can run any

software application, the user chooses, the software on an embedded system
is semi-permanent, so it is often called firmware.

1.3 Examples of Embedded System

1. Automated tiller machines (ATMS).
2. Integrated system in aircraft and missile.
3.Cellular telephones and telephonic switches.
4. Computer network equipment, including routers timeservers and firewalls
5. Computer printers, Copiers.
6. Disk drives (floppy disk drive and hard disk drive)
7. Engine controllers and antilock brake controllers for automobiles.
8. Home automation products like thermostat, air conditioners sprinkles and
security monitoring system.
9. House hold appliances including microwave ovens, washing machines, TV
sets DVD players/recorders.
10. Medical equipment.
11. Measurement equipment such as digital storage oscilloscopes, logic
analyzers and spectrum analyzers.
12. Multimedia appliances: internet radio receivers, TV set top boxes.
13. Small hand held computer with P1M5 and other applications.
14. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) for industrial automation and
monitoring.
15. Stationary video game controllers.

1.4 Microprocessor (MPU)

A microprocessor is a general-purpose digital computer central processing
unit(CPU). Although popularly known as a computer on a chip is in no
sense a complete digital computer. The block diagram of a microprocessor
CPU is shown, which contains an arithmetic and logical unit (ALU), a
program counter (PC), a stack pointer (SP),some working registers, a clock
timing circuit, and interrupt circuits.

CPU
General
MICROCON
TROLLERS
(MCU)Purpose

RAM

ROM

I/O Port

Timer

Serial
COM
Port

Figure1.1:Block Diagram Of a Microprocessor

1.5 Microcontroller (MCU)

Figure shows the block diagram of a typical microcontroller. The design
incorporates all of the features found in micro-processor CPU: ALU, PC, SP,
and registers. It also added the other features needed to make a complete
computer: ROM, RAM, parallel I/O, serial I/O, counters, and clock circuit.

Figure1.2:Block Diagram Ofa Microcontroller

1.6 Comparision Between Microprocessor And Microcontroller

The microprocessor must have many additional parts to be operational as a

computer whereas microcontroller requires no additional external digital
parts.
1. The prime use of microprocessor is to read data, perform extensive
calculations on that data and store them in the mass storage device or
display it. The prime functions of microcontroller is to read data, perform
limited calculations on it, control its environment based on these data. Thus
the microprocessor is said to be general-purpose digital computers whereas
the microcontroller are intend to be special purpose digital controller.
2. Microprocessor need many opcodes for moving data from the external
memory to the CPU, microcontroller may require just one or two, also
microprocessor may have one or two types of bit handling instructions
whereas microcontrollers have many.
3. Thus microprocessor is concerned with the rapid movement of the code
and data from the external addresses to the chip, microcontroller is
concerned with the rapid movement of the bits within the chip.
4. Lastly, the microprocessor design accomplishes the goal of flexibility in
the hardware configuration by enabling large amounts of memory and I/O
that could be connected to the address and data pins on the IC package. The
microcontroller design uses much more limited.

THE 8051 ARCHITECTURE

2.1About the 8051
The Intel 8051 is an 8-bit microcontroller which means that most available operations are limited
to 8 bits. There are 3 basic "sizes" of the 8051: Short, Standard, and Extended. The Short and
Standard chips are often available in DIP (dual in-line package) form, but the Extended 8051
models often have a different form factor, and are not "drop-in compatible".

2.2Block Diagram

Figure 2.1: Block Diagram of 8051

All these things are called 8051 because they can all be programmed using 8051 assembly
language, and they all share certain features (although the different models all have their own
special features).Some of the features that have made the 8051 popular are:

4 KB on chip program memory.

128 bytes on chip data memory (RAM).

4 register banks.

8-bit data bus

16-bit address bus

32 general purpose registers each of 8 bits

16 bit timers (usually 2, but may have more, or less).

3 internal and 2 external interrupts.

Bit as well as byte addressable RAM area of 16 bytes.

Four 8-bit ports, (short models have two 8-bit ports).

16-bit program counter and data pointer.

1 Microsecond instruction cycle with 12 MHz Crystal.

8051 models may also have a number of special, model-specific features, such as UARTs,
ADC, OpAmps, etc...

2.3Typical applications
8051 chips are used in a wide variety of control systems, telecom applications, and robotics as
well as in the automotive industry. By some estimation, 8051 family chips make up over 50% of
the embedded chip market. The 8051 has been in use in a wide number of devices, mainly
because it is easy to integrate into a project or build a device around. The following are the main
areas of focus:
1 .Energy Management: Efficient metering systems help in controlling energy usage in homes
and industrial applications. These metering systems are made capable by incorporating
microcontrollers.
2. Touch screens: A high number of microcontroller providers incorporate touch-sensing
capabilities in their designs. Portable electronics such as cell phones, media players and gaming
devices are examples of microcontroller-based touch screens.
3. Automobiles: The 8051 finds wide acceptance in providing automobile solutions. They are
widely used in hybrid vehicles to manage engine variants. Additionally, functions such as cruise
control and anti-brake system have been made more efficient with the use of microcontrollers. So
the microcontroller 8051 has great advantage in the field of the automobiles.
4. Medical Devices: Portable medical devices such as blood pressure and glucose monitors
use microcontrollers will to display data, thus providing higher reliability in providing medical
results.

2.4Pinout Description
Pin 1-8(Port 1): Each of these pins can be configured as an input or an output.
Pin 9(RST): A logic one on this pin disables the microcontroller and clears the contents of most
registers. In other words, the positive voltage on this pin resets the microcontroller. By

Figure 2.2: Pin diagram of the 8051 DIP

applying logic zero to this pin, the program starts execution from the beginning. Pin 9 is the
RESET pin. It is an input and is active high. Upon applying a high pulse to this pin the
microcontroller well reset and terminate all activities. This is often referred to as a power on reset
.Activating a power on reset will cause all values the registers to be lost. It will set program
counter to all 0s.In order for the RESET input to be effective it must have a minimum duration of
two machine cycles. In other words the high pulse must be high for a minimum of two machine
cycles before it is allowed to go low.
Pin 10-17(Port 3): Similar to port 1, each of these pins can serve as general input or output.
Besides, all of them have alternative functions:
Pin 10(RXD): Serial asynchronous communication input or Serial synchronous communication
output.
Pin 11(TXD): Serial asynchronous communication output or Serial synchronous communication
clock output.
Pin 12(INT0): Interrupt 0 input.
Pin 13(INT1): Interrupt 1 input.
Pin 14(T0): Counter 0 clock input.

Pin 15(T1): Counter 1 clock input.

Pin 16(WR): Write to external (additional) RAM.
Pin 17(RD): Read from external RAM.
Pin 18, 19(X2,X1):Internal oscillator input and output. The 8051 has an on chip oscillator but
requires an external clock to run it. Most often a quartz crystal oscillator is connected to inputs
XTAL1 (pin 19) and XTAL2 (pin 18). The quartz crystal oscillator connected to XTAL1 and
XTAL2 also needs two capacitors of 30 pf value. One side of each capacitor is connected to the
ground. Speed refers to the maximum oscillator frequency connected to XTAL

Figure2.3: Oscillator

Circuit and Timing

Pin 20(GND) : Ground.

Pin 21-28(Port 2) :If there is no intention to use external memory then these port pins are
configured as general inputs/outputs. In case external memory is used, the higher address byte,
i.e. addresses A8-A15 will appear on this port. Even though memory with capacity of 64Kb is
not used, which means that not all eight port bits are used for its addressing, the rest of them are
not available as inputs/outputs.
Pin 29(PSEN): This is an output pin. PSEN stands for program store enable. If external ROM
is used for storing program then a logic zero (0) appears on it every time the microcontroller
reads a byte from memory.
Pin 30(ALE): ALE stands for address latch enable. It is an output pin and is active high. When
connecting an 8031 to external memory, port 0 provides both address and data. In other words

the 8031 multiplexes address and data through port 0 to save pins. The ALE pin is used for demultiplexing the address and data.
Prior to reading from external memory, the microcontroller puts the lower address byte (A0-A7)
on P0. In other words, this port is used for both data and address transmission.
Pin 31(EA):EA which stands for external access is pin number 31 in the DIP packages. It is an
input pin and must be connected to either Vcc or GND. In other words it cannot be unconnected.
By applying logic zero to this pin, P2 and P3 are used for data and address transmission with no
regard to whether there is internal memory or not. It means that even there is a program written
to the microcontroller, it will not be executed. Instead, the program
written to external ROM will be executed. By applying logic one to the EA pin, the
microcontroller will use both memories, first internal then external (if exists).
Pin 32-39(Port 0): Similar to P2, if external memory is not used, these pins can be used as
general inputs/outputs. Otherwise, P0 is configured as address output (A0-A7) when the ALE pin
is driven high (1) or as data output (Data Bus) when the ALE pin is driven low (0).
Pin 40(Vcc):+5V power supply.

2.5PORTS 0,1,2,3:
All the ports upon RESET are configured as input, since P0-P3 have value FFH on them. The
following is a summary of features of P0-P3.
PORT 0:
Port 0 is also designated as AD0-AD7 allowing it to be used for both address and data. When
connecting an 8051/31 to an external memory, port 0 provides both address and data. The 8051
multiplexes address and data through port 0 to save pins. ALE indicates if p0 has address A0A7.in the 8051 based systems where there is no external memory connection the pins of P0 must
be connected externally to 10k-ohm pull-up resistor. This is due to the fact that P0 is an open
drain, unlike P1, P2 and P3. Open drain is a term used for MOS chips in the same way that open
collector is used for TTL chips. In many systems using the 8751, 89c51 or DS89c4*0 chips we
normally connect P0 to pull up resistors.
PORT 1, PORT 2:
In 8051 based systems with no external memory connection both P1 and P2 are used as simple
I/O. however in 8031/51 based systems with external memory connections P2 must be used
along with P0 to provide the 16-bit address for the external memory. P2 is also designated as

A8-A15 indicating its dual function. Since an 8031/51 is capable of accessing 64k bytes of
external memory it needs a path for the 16 bits of address. While P0 provides the lower 8 bits via
A0-a7 it is the job P2 to provide bits A8-A15 of the address. In other words when the 8031/51 is
connected to external memory P2 is used for the upper 8 bits of the 16 bit address and it cannot
be used for I/O.
PORT 3:
Port 3 occupies a total of 8 pins 10 through 17. It can be used as input or output. P3 does not
need any pull-up resistors the same as P1 and P2 did not. Although port 3 is configured as input
port upon reset this is not the way it is most commonly used. Port 3 has the additional function of
providing some extremely important signals such as interrupts.

P3 BitFunction

Pin
P3.0

RXD

10

P3.1

TXD

11

P3.2

INT0

12

P3.3

INT1

13

P3.4

T0

14

P3.5

T1

15

P3.6

WR

16

P3.7

RD

17

Table 2.1:Port 3 Alternate function

2.6 Programming Model Of 8051

In programming model of 8051 we have different types of registers are available and these
registers are used to store temporarily data is then the information could be a byte of data to be
processed or an address pointing to the data to be fetched the majority of registers is 8051 are 8bikt registers.

2.7 Accumulator (Register A)

Accumulator is a mathematical register where all the arithmetic and logical operations are done
is this register and after execution of instructions the outpour data is stored in the register is bit
addressable near. We can access any of the single bit of this register.A register is a generalpurpose register used for storing intermediate results obtained during operation. Prior to
executing an instruction upon any number or operand it is necessary to store it in the accumulator
first. All results obtained from arithmetical operations performed by the ALU are stored in the
accumulator. Data to be moved from one register to another must go through the accumulator. In
other words, the A register is the most commonly used register and it is impossible to imagine a
microcontroller without it. More than half instructions used by the 8051 microcontroller use
somehow the accumulator.

Figure2.4:Accumulator Register

2.8 B Register:
B register is same as that of accumulator of. It is also an 8 bit register and every bit of this is
accessible. This is also a mathematical register B which is used mostly for multiplication and
division.

Figure2.5:B register

2.9PSW (Program Status Word) Register

Program status word register is an 8 bit register. It is also referred to as the flag register. Although
the PSW register is 8 bits wide, only 6 bits of it are used by the 8051. The unused bits are userdefinable flags. Four of the flags are called conditional flags, meaning that they
Indicate some conditions that result after an instruction is executed. These four are CY (carry),
AC (auxiliary carry), P (parity) and OV (overflow).
CY

PSW.7

Carry Flag

AC

PSW.6

Auxiliary Carry Flag

F0

PSW.5

Available to the user for

General Purpose

RS1

PSW.4

Register Bank Selector Bit 1

RS0

PSW.3

Register Bank Selector

Bit 0

OV

PSW.2

Overflow Flag

--

PSW.1

User Definable Bit

PSW.0

Parity Flag.

Figure2.6: Program Status Word Register

PSW register is one of the most important SFRs. It contains several status bits that reflect the
current state of the CPU. Besides, this register contains Carry bit, Auxiliary Carry, two register
bank select bits, Overflow flag,

parity bit and user-definable status flag.

RS1 (PSW.4)

RS0 (PSW.3)

Bank 0

Bank 1

Bank 2

Bank 3

Table 2.2: PSW Bit Bank selection

P (Parity bit): If a number stored in the accumulator is even then this bit will be automatically set
(1), otherwise it will be cleared (0). It is mainly used during data transmit and receive via serial
communication.
Bit 1: This bit is intended to be used in the future versions of microcontrollers.

OV( Overflow): Occurs when the result of an arithmetical operation is larger than 255 and
cannot be stored in one register. Overflow condition causes the OV bit to be set (1). Otherwise, it
will be cleared (0).
1RS0, RS1 (Register bank select bits): These two bits are used to select one of four register
banks of RAM. By setting and clearing these bits, registers R0-R7 are stored in one of four banks
of RAM.
F0 (Flag 0): This is a general-purpose bit available for use.
AC (Auxiliary Carry Flag):This is used for BCD operations only.
CY (Carry Flag):This is the (ninth) auxiliary bit used for all arithmetical operations and shift
instructions.

2.10 Data Pointer Register (DPTR)

DPTR register is not a true one because it doesn't physically exist. It consists of two separate
registers: DPH (Data Pointer High) and (Data Pointer Low). For this reason it may be treated as a
16-bit register or as two independent 8-bit registers. Their 16 bits are primarly used for external
memory addressing. Besides, the DPTR Register is usually used for storing data and
intermediate results.

Figure 2.7:Data Pointer Register

2.11 Stack Pointer (SP) Register

Figure2.8:Stack Pointer Register

A value stored in the Stack Pointer points to the first free stack address and permits stack
availability. Stack pushes increment the value in the Stack Pointer by 1. Likewise, stack pops
decrement its value by 1. Upon any reset and power-on, the value 7 is stored in the Stack Pointer,
which means that the space of RAM reserved for the stack starts at this location. If another value
is written to this register, the entire Stack is moved to the new memory location.

2.12Internal Memory
The 8051 has two types of memory and these are Program Memory and Data Memory. Program
Memory (ROM) is used to permanently save the program being executed, while Data Memory
(RAM) is used for temporarily storing data and intermediate results created and used during the
operation of the microcontroller. 128 or 256 bytes of RAM is used.
2.12.1 Internal RAM
As already mentioned, Data Memory is used for temporarily storing data and intermediate results
created and used during the operation of the microcontroller. Besides, RAM memory built in the
8051 family includes many registers such as hardware counters and timers, input/output ports,
serial data buffers etc. The previous models had 256 RAM locations, while for the later models
this number was incremented by additional 128 registers. However, the first 256 memory
locations (addresses 0-FFh) are the heart of memory common to all the models belonging to the
8051 family. Locations available to the user occupy memory space with addresses 0-7Fh, i.e.
first 128 registers. This part of RAM is divided in several blocks.
The first block consists of 4 banks each including 8 registers denoted by R0-R7. Prior to
accessing any of these registers, it is necessary to select the bank containing it. The next memory
block (address 20h-2Fh) is bit- addressable, which means that each bit has its own address (07Fh). Since there are 16 such registers, this block contains in total of 128 bits with separate
addresses (address of bit 0 of the 20h byte is 0, while address of bit 7 of the 2Fh byte is 7Fh).
The third group of registers occupy addresses 2Fh-7Fh, i.e. 80 locations, and does not have any
special functions or features.

Figure2.9: RAM Memory Space Allocation

2.12.2 Additional RAM

In order to satisfy the programmers constant hunger for Data Memory, the manufacturers
decided to embed an additional memory block of 128 locations into the latest versions of the
8051 microcontrollers. However, its not as simple as it seems to be The problem is that
electronics performing addressing has 1 byte (8 bits) on disposal and is capable of reaching only
the first 256 locations, therefore. In order to keep already existing 8-bit architecture and
compatibility with other existing models a small trick was done.What does it mean? It means that
additional memory block shares the same addresses with locations intended for the SFRs (80hFFh). In order to differentiate between these two physically separated memory spaces, different
ways of addressing are used. The SFRs memory locations are accessed by direct addressing,
while additional RAM memory locations are accessed by indirect addressing.
2.12.3 Internal ROM
The first models of the 8051 microcontroller family did not have internal program memory. It
was added as an external separate chip. These models are recognizable by their label beginning
with 803 (for example 8031 or 8032). All later models have a few Kbyte ROM embedded. Even
though such an amount of memory is sufficient for writing most of the programs, there are
situations when it is necessary to use additional memory as well. A typical example are so called
lookup tables. They are used in cases when equations describing some processes are too
complicated or when there is no time for solving them. In such cases all necessary estimates and

approximates are executed in advance and the final results are put in the tables (similar to
logarithmic tables).EA=0In this case, the microcontroller completely ignores internal program
memory and executes only the program stored in external memory.EA=1In this case, the
microcontroller executes first the program from built-in ROM, then the program stored in
external memory.In both cases, P0 and P2 are not available for use since being used for data and
address transmission. Besides, the ALE and PSEN pins are also used.
2.12.4 Memory Expansion
In case memory (RAM or ROM) built in the microcontroller is not sufficient, it is possible to add
two external memory chips with capacity of 64Kb each. P2 and P3 I/O ports are used for their
addressing and data transmission.From the users point of view, everything works quite simply
when properly connected because most operations are performed by the microcontroller itself.
The 8051 microcontroller has two pins for data read RD(P3.7) and PSEN. The first one is used
for reading data from external data memory (RAM), while the other is used for reading data from
external program memory (ROM). Both pins are active low.Even though additional memory is
rarely used with the latest versions of the microcontrollers, we will describe in short what
happens when memory chips are connected according to the previous schematic. The whole
process described below is performed automatically.Similar occurs when it is necessary to read
location from external RAM. Addressing is performed in the same way, while read and write are
performed via signals appearing on the control outputs RD (is short for read) or WR (is short for
write).

2.13 Special Function Registers (SFRs)

Special Function Registers (SFRs) are a sort of control table used for running and monitoring the
operation of the microcontroller. Each of these registers as well as each bit they include, has its
name, address in the scope of RAM and precisely defined purpose such as timer control,
interrupt control, serial communication control etc. Even though there are 128 memory locations
intended to be occupied by them, the basic core, shared by all types of 8051 microcontrollers,
has only 21 such registers. Rests of locations are intentionally left unoccupied in order to enable
the manufacturers to further develop microcontrollers keeping them compatible with the
previous versions.

Counters and Timers

As you already know, the microcontroller oscillator uses quartz crystal for its operation. As the
frequency of this oscillator is precisely defined and very stable, pulses it generates are always of
the same width, which makes them ideal for time measurement. Such crystals are also used in
quartz watches. In order to measure time between two events it is sufficient to count up pulses
coming from this oscillator. That is exactly what the timer does. If the timer is properly
programmed, the value stored in its register will be incremented (or decremented) with each
coming pulse, i.e. once per each machine cycle. A single machine-cycle instruction lasts for 12
quartz oscillator periods, which means that by embedding quartz with oscillator frequency of
12MHz, a number stored in the timer register will be changed million times per second, i.e. each
microsecond. The 8051 microcontroller has 2 timers/counters called T0 and T1. As their names
suggest, their main purpose is to measure time and count external events. Besides, they can be
used for generating clock pulses to be used in serial communication, called Baud Rate.

3.1Timer T0
As seen in figure below, the timer T0 consists of two registers TH0 and TL0 representing a low
and a high byte of one 16-digit binary number. Accordingly, if the content of the timer T0 is
equal to 0 (T0=0) then both registers it consists of will contain 0. If the timer contains for
example number 1000 (decimal), then the TH0 register (high byte) will contain the number 3,
while the TL0 register (low byte) will contain decimal number 232.

Figure 3.1: Timer 0

Since the timer T0 is virtually 16-bit register, the largest value it can store is 65 535. In case

Of exceeding this value, the timer will be automatically cleared and counting starts from 0. This
condition is called an overflow. Two registers TMOD and TCON are closely connected
to this timer and control its operation.
3.1.1 TMOD Register (Timer Mode)
The TMOD register selects the operational mode of the timers T0 and T1. As seen in figure
below, the low 4 bits (bit0 - bit3) refer to the timer 0, while the high 4 bits (bit4 - bit7) refer to
the timer 1. There are 4 operational modes and each of them is described herein.
GATE

C/T

M1

M0

GATE

TIMER 1

C/T

M1

M0

TIMER 0
Figure3.2-TMOD register

Bits of this register have the following function:

GATE1: enables and disables Timer 1 by means of a signal brought to the INT1 pin (P3.3):
1: Timer 1 operates only if the INT1 bit is set.
0:Timer 1 operates regardless of the logic state of the INT1 bit.
C/T1: selects pulses to be counted up by the timer/counter 1:
1: Timer counts pulses brought to the T1 pin (P3.5).
0 1:Timer counts pulses from internal oscillator.
T1M1, T1M0: These two bits select the operational mode of the Timer 1.
GATE0: enables and disables Timer 1 using a signal brought to the INT0 pin (P3.2).
1 :Timer 0 operates only if the INT0 bit is set.
T1M1

T1M0

Mode

Description

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
1
2
3

13-bit timer
16-bit timer
8-bit auto reload
Split mode

Table 3.1: Timer 1

0: Timer 0 operates regardless of the logic state of the INT0 bit.

C/T0: selects pulses to be counted up by the timer/counter 0:
1: Timer counts pulses brought to the T0 pin (P3.4).
0: Timer counts pulses from internal oscillator.

Tom1

T0m0

Mode

Description

13-Bit Timer

16-Bit Timer

1
1

0
1

2
3

8-Bitauto Reload
Split Mode

Table 3.2:Timer 0

T0M1, T0M0: These two bits select the operational mode of the Timer 0.
Timer 0 in mode 0 (13-bit timer)
This is one of the rarities being kept only for the purpose of compatibility with the previuos
versions of microcontrollers. This mode configures timer 0 as a 13-bit timer which consists of all
8 bits of TH0 and the lower 5 bits of TL0. As a result, the Timer 0 uses only 13 of 16 bits. How
does it operate? Each coming pulse causes the lower register bits to change their states. After
receiving 32 pulses, this register is loaded and automatically cleared, while the higher byte (TH0)
is incremented by 1. This process is repeated until registers count up 8192 pulses. After that, both
registers are cleared and counting starts from 0.
Timer 0 in mode 1 (16-bit timer)
Mode 1 configures timer 0 as a 16-bit timer comprising all the bits of both registers TH0 and
TL0. That's why this is one of the most commonly used modes. Timer operates in the same way
as in mode 0, with difference that the registers count up to 65 536 as allowable by the 16 bits.
Timer 0 in mode 2 (Auto-Reload Timer)
Mode 2 configures timer 0 as an 8-bit timer. Actually, timer 0 uses only one 8-bit register for
counting and never counts from 0, but from an arbitrary value (0-255) stored in another (TH0)
register.If mode 1 or mode 0 is used, It is necessary to write the number 200 to the timer registers
and constantly check whether an overflow has occured, i.e. whether they reached the value 255.
When it happens, it is necessary to rewrite the number 200 and repeat the whole procedure. The
same procedure is automatically performed by the microcontroller if set in mode 2. In fact, only
the TL0 register operates as a timer, while another (TH0) register stores the value from which the
counting starts. When the TL0 register is loaded, instead of being cleared, the contents of TH0
will be reloaded to it. Referring to the previous example, in order to register each 55th pulse, the

best solution is to write the number 200 to the TH0 register and configure the timer to operate in
mode 2.
Timer 0 in Mode 3 (Split Timer)
Mode 3 configures timer 0 so that registers TL0 and TH0 operate as separate 8-bit timers. In
other words, the 16-bit timer consisting of two registers TH0 and TL0 is split into two
independent 8-bit timers. This mode is provided for applications requiring an additional 8-bit
timer or counter. The TL0 timer turns into timer 0, while the TH0 timer turns into timer 1. In
addition, all the control bits of 16-bit Timer 1 (consisting of the TH1 and TL1 register), now
control the 8-bit Timer 1. Even though the 16-bit Timer 1 can still be configured to operate in
any of modes (mode 1, 2 or 3), it is no longer possible to disable it as there is no control bit to do
it. Thus, its operation is restricted when timer 0 is in mode 3.
3.1.2 Timer Control (TCON) Register:
TCON register is also one of the registers whose bits are directly in control of timer operation.
Only 4 bits of this register are used for this purpose, while rest of them is used for interrupt
control to be discussed later.

Figure 3.3:Timer1 and Timer0 Operation Modes

TF1: bit is automatically set on the Timer 1 overflow.

TR1: bit enables the Timer 1.
1:Timer 1 is enabled.

Figure 3.4: TCON Register

0:Timer 1 is disabled.

TF0: bit is automatically set on the Timer 0 overflow.

TR0: bit enables the timer 0.
1:Timer 0 is enabled.

0:Timer 0 is disabled.
3.2 Timer 1
Timer 1 is identical to timer 0, except for mode 3 which is a hold-count mode. It means that they
have the same function, their operation is controlled by the same registers TMOD and TCON
and both of them can operate in one out of 4 different modes.

Figure 3.5:Timer 1

Figure 3.6: TH1 and TL1

3.2.1UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter)

One of the microcontroller features making it so powerful is an integrated UART, better known
as a serial port. It is a full-duplex port, thus being able to transmit and receive data
simultaneously and at different baud rates. Without it, serial data send and receive would be an

enormously complicated part of the program in which the pin state is constantly changed and
checked at regular intervals. When using UART, all the programmer has to do is to simply select
serial port mode and baud rate. When its done, serial data transmit is nothing but writing to the
SBUF register, while data receive represents reading the same register. The microcontroller takes
care of not making any error during data transmission. In other words,
Figure 3.7: SBUF Register

it is necessary to determine how many bits is contained in one serial word, baud rate and
synchronization clock source. The whole process is in control of the bits of the SCON register
(Serial Control).
3.2.2 Serial Port Control (SCON) Register

Figure 3.8:SCON Register

SM0:Serial port mode bit 0 is used for serial port mode selection.
SM1: Serial port mode bit 1.
SM2:Serial port mode 2 bit, also known as multiprocessor communication enable bit. When set,
it enables multiprocessor communication in mode 2 and 3, and eventually mode 1. It should be
cleared in mode 0.
REN: Reception Enable bit enables serial reception when set. When cleared, serial reception
is disabled.
TB8: Transmitter bit 8. Since all registers are 8-bit wide, this bit solves the problem of
transmitting the 9th bit in modes 2 and 3. It is set to transmit a logic 1 in the 9th bit.

RB8: Receiver bit 8 or the 9th bit received in modes 2 and 3. Cleared by hardware if 9th bit
received is logic 0. Set by hardware if 9th bit received is a logic 1.
TI: Transmit Interrupt flag is automatically set at the moment the last bit of one byte is sent. It's
a signal to the processor that the line is available for a new byte transmite. It must be cleared
from within the software.
RI:Receive Interrupt flag is automatically set upon one byte receive. It signals that byte is
received and should be read quickly prior to being replaced by a new data. This bit is also cleared
from within the software.
As seen, serial port mode is selected by combining the SM0 and SM2 bits:
SM0

SM1

MODE

Description

8-bit

0
1

1
0

1
2

Baud Rate
shift 1/12

the

register

quartz

8-bit UART

frequency
Determined

9-bit UART

by timer 1
1/32
the
quartz

9-bit UART

frequency
Determined
by timer 1

Table 3.3:SCON Register

In mode 0, serial data are transmitted and received through the RXD pin, while the TXD pin
output clocks. The bout rate is fixed at 1/12 the oscillator frequency. On transmit, the least
significant bit (LSB bit) is sent/received first.
Transmit - Data transmit is initiated by writing data to the SBUF register. In fact, this process
starts after any instruction being performed upon this register. When all 8 bits have been sent, the
TI bit of the SCON register is automatically set.
Receive - Data receive through the RXD pin starts upon the two following conditions are met: bit
REN=1 and RI=0 (both of them are stored in the SCON register). When all 8 bits have been
received, the RI bit of the SCON register is automatically set indicating that one byte receive is
complete.
3.2.3 Baud Rate

Baud Rate is a number of sent/received bits per second. In case the UART is used, baud rate
depends on: selected mode, oscillator frequency and in some cases on the state of the SMOD bit
of the SCON register. All the necessary formulas are specified in the table:
BAUD RATE

BIT SMOD

Mode 0

Fosc/12

Mode 1

256-TH1

Bit SMOD

Mode 2

Fosc/32

Fosc/64

256-TH1

Mode 3

Table 3.4:Timer 1 as a clock generator

8051 Microcontroller Interrupts

There are five interrupt sources for the 8051, which means that they can recognize 5 different
events that can interrupt regular program execution. Each interrupt can be enabled or disabled by
setting bits of the IE register.
1. INT0
2. INT1
3. TF0
4. TF1
5. RI/TI
Now, it is necessary to explain a few details referring to external interrupts- INT0 and INT1. If
the IT0 and IT1 bits of the TCON register are set, an interrupt will be generated on high to low
transition, i.e. on the falling pulse edge (only in that moment). If these bits are cleared, an
interrupt will be continuously executed as far as the pins are held low.

4.1 IE Register (Interrupt Enable)

7
EA

ET2

ES

ET1

EX1

1
ET0

0
EX0

Figure 4.1: IE Register (Interrupt Enable)

EA: global interrupt enable/disable:
0: disables all interrupt requests.
1: enables all individual interrupt requests.
ES:enables or disables serial interrupt:

Figure 4.2:8051 Interrupt Details

0: UART system cannot generate an interrupt.

1: UART system enables an interrupt.
ET1: bit enables or disables Timer 1 interrupt:
0: Timer 1 cannot generate an interrupt.
1: Timer 1 enables an interrupt.
EX1: bit enables or disables external 1 interrupt:
0: change of the pin INT0 logic state cannot generate an interrupt.
1: enables an external interrupt on the pin INT0 state change.
ET0:bit enables or disables timer 0 interrupt:
0:Timer 0 cannot generate an interrupt.
1: enables timer 0 interrupt.

EX0: bit enables or disables external 0 interrupt:

0:change of the INT1 pin logic state cannot generate an interrupt.
1: enables an external interrupt on the pin INT1 state change.
4.1.1 Interrupt Priorities
If several interrupts are enabled, it may happen that while one of them is in progress, another one
is requested. In order that the microcontroller knows whether to continue operation or meet a
new interrupt request, there is a priority list instructing it what to do.
The priority list offers 3 levels of interrupt priority:
1. Reset the absolute master. When a reset request arrives, everything is stopped and the microcontroller
restarts.
2. Interrupt priority 1 can be disabled by Reset only.
3. Interrupt priority 0 can be disabled by both Reset and interrupt priority 1.
The IP Register (Interrupt Priority Register) specifies which one of existing interrupt sources
have higher and which one has lower priority. Interrupt priority is usually specified at the
beginning of the program. According to that, there are several possibilities: If an interrupt of
higher priority arrives while an interrupt is in progress, it will be immediately stopped and the
higher priority interrupt will be executed first. If two interrupt requests, at different priority
levels, arrive at the same time then the higher priority interrupt is serviced first. If the both
interrupt requests, at the same priority level, occur one after another, the one which came later
has to wait until routine being in progress ends. If two interrupt requests of equal priority arrive
at the same time then the interrupt to be serviced is selected according to the following priority
list:
1.External interrupt INT0
2.Timer 0 interrupt
3.External Interrupt INT1
4.Timer 1 interrupt
5.Serial Communication Interrupt

4.2 IP Register (Interrupt Priority)

The IP register bits specify the priority level of each interrupt (high or low priority).
7

5
PT2

4
PS

3
PT1

2
PX1

1
PT0

0
PX0

Figure 4.3: IP Register (Interrupt Priority)

PS: Serial Port Interrupt priority bit

(Priority 0,Priority 1)
PT1: Timer 1 interrupts priority
(Priority 0,Priority 1)
PX1:External Interrupt INT1 priority
(Priority 0,Priority 1)
PT0: Timer 0 Interrupt Priority
(Priority 0,Priority 1)
PX0: External Interrupt INT0 Priority
(Priority 0,Priority 1)

4.3 Handling Interrupt

When an interrupt request arrives the following occurs:
1.Instruction in progress is ended.
2.The address of the next instruction to execute is pushed on the stack.
3.These addresses store appropriate subroutines processing interrupts. Instead of them, there are usually
jump instructions specifying locations on which these subroutines reside.
4.When an interrupt routine is executed, the address of the next instruction to execute is poped from the
stack to the program counter and interrupted program resumes operation from where it left off.

Table 4.1: All Address Are In Hexadecimal Form

4.4 Reset
Reset occurs when the RS pin is supplied with a positive pulse in duration of at least 2 machine
cycles (24 clock cycles of crystal oscillator). After that, the microcontroller generates an internal
reset signal which clears all SFRs, except SBUF registers, Stack Pointer and ports (the state of
the first two ports is not defined, while FF value is written to the ports configuring all their pins
as inputs). Depending on surrounding and purpose of device, the RS pin is usually connected to a

power-on reset push button or circuit or to both of them. Figure below illustrates one of the
simplest circuits providing safe power-on reset.

Interfacing:
5.1 LED interfacing
Like a normal diode, an LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or
doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the
p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers
electrons and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an
electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a
photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap
energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons
and holes recombine by a non- radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because
these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for an LED have a direct band gap with
energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began
with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have
made possible the production of devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, producing light in a
variety of colors. Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor
materials, producing the following colors:
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) red and infrared
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) green
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) high-brightness
orange-red, orange, yellow, and green
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
Gallium phosphide (GaP) red, yellow and green

Gallium nitride (GaN) green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue
also white (if it has an AlGaN Quantum Barrier)
/* PROGRAM TO GLOW LED*/
#include<reg51.h>
void delay()
{
int a;
for(a=0;a<=30000;a++);
}
void main()
{
while(1)
{
P2=0x00;
delay();
P2=0xFF;
delay();
}

5.2 Seven segment display interfacing

Seven Segment
The seven-segment LED display has four individual digits, each with a decimal point. Each of
the seven segments (and the decimal point) in a given digit contains an individual LED. When a
suitable voltage is applied to a given segment LED, current flows through and illuminates that
segment LED. By choosing which segments to illuminate, any of the nine digits can be shown.
For example, as shown in the figure below, a 2 can be displayed by illuminating segments a, b, d,
e, and g. seven segment displays come in two varieties - common anode (CA) and common
cathode (CC). In a CA display, the anodes for the seven segments and the decimal point are
joined into a single circuit node. To illuminate a segment in a CA display, the voltage on a
cathode must be at a suitably lower voltage (about .7V) than the anode. In a CC display, the
cathodes are joined together, and the segments are illuminated by bringing the anode voltage
higher than the cathode node (again, by about .7V). The Dig lab board uses CA displays.

The seven LEDs in each digit are labeled a-g. Since the
Digilab board uses CA displays, the anodes for each of the
four digits are connected in a common node, so that four
separate anode circuit nodes exist (one per digit).Similar
cathode leads from each digit have also been tied together to
form seven common circuit nodes, so that one node exists for
each segment type. These four anode and seven cathode
circuit nodes are available at the J2connector pins labeled A1-A4 and CA-CG. With this scheme,
any segment of any digit can be driven individually. For example, to illuminate segments and c
in the second digit, the b and c cathode nodes would be brought to a suitable low voltage (by
connecting the corresponding circuit node available at the J2 connector to ground), and anode 2
would be brought to a suitablehigh voltage (by connecting the corresponding circuit node
available at theJ2 connector to Vdd).
/* PROGRAM TO SWITCH ON SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY MOVING FROM LSB
TO MSB */
#include<reg51.h>
void delay()
{
int a;
for(a=0;a<=30000;a++);
}
void main()
{
P2=0x3F;
delay();
P2=0x30;
delay();
P2=0x5B;
delay();
P2=0x1F;
delay();

P2=0x66;
delay();
P2=0x6D;
delay();
P2=0x7C;
delay();
P2=0x07;
delay();
P2=0x7F;
delay();
P2=0x3F;
delay();
}

5.3Stepper motor interfacing

STEPPER MOTOR
EMotion Control, in electronic terms, means to accurately control the movement of an object
based on either speed, distance, load, inertia or a combination of all these factors. There are
numerous types of motion control systems, including; Stepper Motor, Linear Step Motor, DC
Brush, Brushless, Servo, Brushless Servo and more. stepper motor is an electromechanical
device which converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements. Stepper motor is a
form of ac. motor .The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments
when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has
several direct relationships to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is
directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation is
directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly related to
the number of input pulses applied. For every input pulse, the motor shaft turns through a
specified number of degrees, called a step. Its working principle is one step rotation for one input
pulse. The range of step size mayvary from 0.72 degree to 90 degree. In position control
application, if the number of input pulses sent to the motor is known, the actual position of the
driven job can be obtained. A stepper motor differs from a conventional motor (CM) as under:

Figure 5.1-stepper
motor
a. Input to SM is in the form of electric pulses whereas input to a CM is invariably from a
constant voltage source.
b. A CM has a free running shaft whereas shaft of SM moves through angular steps.
5.3.1 Step Angle & Steps per Revolution
Movement associated with a single step, depends on the internal construction of the motor, in
Particular the number of teeth on the stator and the rotor. The step angle is the minimum degree
of rotation associated with a single step. Step per revolution is the total number of steps needed
to rotate one complete rotation or 360degrees (e.g., 180 steps * 2 degree = 360) Since the stepper
motor is not ordinary motor and has four separate coils, which have tobe energized one by one in
a stepwise fashion. We term them as coil A, B, C and D. At a particular instant the coil A should
get supply and then after some delay the coil B should get supply and then coil C and then coil D
and so on the cycle continues. The more the delay is introduced between the energizing of the
coils the lesser is the speed of the stepper motor advice versa.
/* PROGRAM USING STEPPER MOTOR*/
#include<reg51.h>
void delay()
{

int a;
for(a=0;a<=6000;a++);
}
void main()
{
P2=0x00;
delay( );
P2=0xff;
delay();
P2=0x00;
delay( );
P2=0xff;
delay();
P2=0x00;
delay( );
P2=0xff;
delay( );
}

5.4 Relay interfacing

The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to form an
electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by passing current through it, the core becomes
temporarily magnetized. The magnetized core attracts the iron armature. The armature is pivoted
which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil is de-energized the
armature and contacts are released. The coil can reenergized from a low power source such as a
transistor while the contacts can switch high powers such as the mains supply. The relay can also
be situated remotely from the control source. Relays can generate a very high voltage across the
coil when switched off. This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this a diode
is connected across the coil. As there are always some chances of high voltage spikes back from
the switching circuit i.e. heater so an opt coupler/isolator MCT2e is used. It provides and
electrical isolation between the microcontroller and the heater. MCT2e is a 6-pin IC with a

combination of optical transmitter LED and an optical receiver as phototransistor.

Microcontroller is connected to pin no 2 ofMCT2e through a 470-ohm resistor. Pin no.1 is given
+5V supply and pin no.4 is grounded. To handle the current drawn by the heater a power
transistor BC-369 is used as a current driver. Pin no.5 of opt coupler is connected to the base of
transistor. It takes all its output to V and activates the heater through relay circuit. The
electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to form an
electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by passing current through it, the core becomes
temporarily magnetized. The magnetized core attracts the iron armature. The armature is pivoted
which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil is de-energized the
armature and contacts are released. Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when
switched off. This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this diode is
connected across the coil. Relay has five points. Out of the 2 operating points one is permanently
connected to the ground and the other point is connected to the collector side of the power
transistor. When V reaches the collector side i.e. signal is given to the operating points the coil
gets magnetized and attracts the iron armature. The iron plate moves from normally connected
(NC) position to normally open (NO) position. Thus the heater gets the phase signal and is ON.
To remove the base leakage voltage when no signal is present a 470-ohmresistance is used.
/* PROGRAM USING RELAY */
#include<reg51.h>
void delay( )
{
int a;
for(a=0;a<=6000;a++);
}
sbit relay=P1^1;
void main()
{
while(1)
{
relay =0;

delay();
delay();
delay();
delay();
delay();
relay=1;
delay();
delay();
delay();
delay();
delay();
}
}

CONCLUSION

The basic architecture and function of a microcontroller is discussed. With examples, the need
for low power microcontroller is illustrated.
Microcontrollers are of prime importance for electronic control and communication of any
modern appliance. Any household appliance e.g. washing machine, refrigerator, air-conditioner
or office appliances e.g. electronic printer, Photostat copier, fax machine contains one or more
microcontrollers. Because of its bulk usage a marginal saving in power for one 8051 results to
enormous saving as a whole.
In any device design, when one feature is optimized another feature degrades. When low power
is achieved the speed or performance may go down. Though this microcontroller consumes
negligible power its other features are comparable to the existing microcontrollers available in
the market.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
During my training period I was able to get good knowledge in the area of
Microcontroller family 8051. I was fortunate to do my General Industrial
Training at Elvek Labs.
I would like to offer my gratitude to H.O.D. Ms. Sarita for arranging this
general industrial training programme for students.
I take this opportunity to extend my sincere thanks to my class incharge
Ms. Sunita and training incharge Mr. Raman for their support.
Also, I offer my warmest thanks to Elvek Labs for making it possible for me
to undergo in initiation for my General Industrial Training for duration of six
months at Elvek Labs. My thanks are offered to Director of Elvek Labs Ms.
Deepti Kaushal and her staff for allowing me to train at Elvek Labs.
Finally, I would like to thank my friends who trained at Elvek Labs with me
for the support given to me.