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DYNAMIC POSITIONING
CENTER CROATIA
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COURSE:
Dynamic Positioning
Induction/Basic
( Student Handouts 1st version)
Split, 2008.
MARITIME TRAINING
DYNAMIC POSITIONING
CENTER CROATIA
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CONTENTS
Objectives
1.
PRINCIPLES OF DP
6 13
1.1.
68
1.2.
89
1.3.
9 12
1.4.
2.
14 23
2.1.
14 14
2.2.
14 17
2.3.
17 17
2.4.
18 19
2.5.
19 20
2.6.
20 - 22
2.7.
13 13
23 23
3.
3.1.
24 26
3.2.
Correct procedure for setting-up the DP system in both the Manual and
Automatic modes.
26 26
3.3.
27 36
3.4.
36 - 38
3.5.
38 - 41
3.6.
41 - 41
3.7.
41 - 41
24-41
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4.
42 67
4.1.
43 44
4.2.
The principles of position definition using the various forms of HPR system
(e.g. Ultra-short, Super-short, Long baseline and Multi-user principles).
44 - 47
4.3.
48 48
4.4.
The display and configuration of the various elements in 4.3, and the
acquisition of HPR as a position-reference for DP operations
48 49
4.5.
49 49
4.6.
50 51
4.7.
51 52
4.8.
52 - 53
4.9.
The procedure for deployment and recovery of the taut wire system
53 - 53
4.10.
Display of taut-wire reference data in the DP system. Principle of positionreference using the taut-wire system.
54 - 55
4.11.
55 - 55
4.12.
55 - 57
4.13.
57 - 57
4.14.
The sources of error and inaccuracy associated with the DGPS system,
effects on the quality of positioning
57 - 58
4.15.
58 - 58
4.16.
59 - 59
4.17.
60 - 60
4.18.
61 - 61
4.19.
61 - 62
4.20.
62 - 62
4.21.
63 - 63
4.22.
64 - 67
4.23.
67 - 67
5.
68 - 72
5.1.
69 - 69
5.2.
69 - 70
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5.3.
70 - 71
5.4.
71 - 71
5.5.
The limitations of wind sensor inputs, and the consequences of deselecting the wind sensor input
71 - 71
5.6.
72 - 72
5.7.
The alarms and warnings associated with catastrophic failure, i.e. position
and/or heading Dropout
72 72
5.8.
6.
73 - 81
6.1.
The power generation and distribution arrangements in a typical dieselelectric DP vessel, with particular reference to system redundancy and
Equipment Class
74 - 75
6.2.
75 - 75
6.3.
75 - 76
6.4.
76 - 76
6.5.
77 - 78
6.6.
78 80
6.7.
81 81
6.8.
7.
OPERATIONS USING DP
7.1.
72 - 72
81 - 81
82 112
82 - 83
7.2.
The need for completing pre-DP and other checklists prior to and during
DP operations
83 - 84
7.3.
84 - 84
85 - 87
7.4.
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7.5.
88 - 88
7.6.
88 - 90
7.7.
90 - 90
7.8.
90 - 91
7.9.
91 - 91
7.10.
91 - 92
7.11.
92 - 93
7.12.
93 - 93
7.12.1.
93 97
7.12.2.
Drill ships (with special reference to the Riser Angle mode of operation)
97 99
7.12.3.
100101
7.12.4.
101-104
7.12.5.
105-106
7.12.6.
107-110
7.12.7.
111-111
7.12.8.
111-111
7.13.
111-112
Appendix A
113133
Appendix B
134-141
Appendix C
Alstom exercises
142-149
Appendix D
150-154
Abbervations
155-156
References
157
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OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of the course the trainee should be able to:
Understand the Principles of a Dynamic Positioning System.
Set up and operate DP Equipment and Position Reference Systems.
Recognise the various alarms and wamings.
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DP Advantages:
Vessel is fully self-propelled; no tugs are required at any stage of the operation.
Avoidance of risk of damaging seabed hardware from mooring lines and anchors.
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DP Disadvantages:
Can lose position in extreme weather or in shallow waters and strong tides.
Position control is active and relies on human operator (as well as equipment).
Coring,
Production drilling,
Diver support ,
Multi-role,
Hydrographic survey,
Dredging,
Subsea installation,
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platform supply,
Passenger cruises,
Mine countermeasures,
Oceanographical research,
Seabed mining.
DP is also used in;
Ship-to-ship transfer.
The wind forces can be defined by three components. The wind speed varies as a
function of height above sea level, but above 3-5 metres to the height of the vessel, the
change is small. The forces acting on the vessel are very dependent on the superstructure
shape (the part of the vessel above the water line), and the wind direction relative to the
vessel.
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The sea current can be caused by the slope of the seabed, tidal or storm surges along
coastline, outflows from rivers. It can also be wind driven. It can be caused by the effect of
heating and cooling and salinity. The effect is only a few knots, and usually slow variation over
hours and days. The effect of current on the vessel is a characteristic of vessel shape.
Waves are also described as sea state. A fully developed sea is the maximum wave
size generated by a given wind. It takes many hours to build up and die down. The significant
wave height is the mean of the 1/3 higest wave.
Countforces
Moving from one to point to another or remaining stationary, requires lots of countforces
device to produce a controlled combination of forces. Traditional devices included oars, sails,
anchors, paddle wheels, propelers and rudders.
Static Positoning Systems - These gain their countforces from anchors alone. They
are also called multipoint mooring systems, and can be used station keeping or moving very
slowly. By changing the anchor line lenghts and hence the forces, limited control of the vessel
is possible. The alternative of moving the anchors from an elastic pattern and the vessel will
take up a position in the middle of the pattern, where the forces balance, The use of anchors is
depth dependent, with the cost increasing in proportion to the depth.
Propellers and rudders provide thrust forward, some side thrust and thrust straight
astern.
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Thrusters can be used for roles such as station keeping through to complex track
following. They are not depth dependent. The thruster array must provide independent control
of surge, sway and yaw.
Figure 3. Thrusters
There are two configurations of anchors and thrusters that differ in how the anchors are
connected to the vessel. In the simple configuration, the anchors are connected directly to the
extremities of the vessel. The thruster is then used in combination with the anchors to increase
their capability.
The second configuration is turret moored. Here the anchors are attached to a turret
about which the vessel can rotate. The thrusters are now used mainly to control the vessel
heading with a secondary task of reducing anchor loadings.
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In steady to strong winds, the vessel will align itself to the direction of the wind, usually
called weathervaning. However, in light winds, the vessel will wander and oscilate about turret,
which can be problem if the vessel is connected to a shuttle tanker for instance. The thrusters
can be used to damp out any oscilation in the heading, and provide a steady heading. For
combined application either a tunnel thruster or an azimuthing thruster is used. For maximum
effectiveness the thrusters should be as far as possible away from the turret.
A free floating body will translate (move fore and aft and port and starboard) and
rotate due to forces acting upon it. In turn if there is to be control of the vessel
position and heading, the vessel needs countforces and moments to control its
motion. The vessel can move in three planes. For the purpose of DP systems we are
interested in controlling the vessel in the horizontal plane. However, it is necessary to
sense vessel motion, in other planes, and to monitor the wind, to be able to make
corrections to PME and sensor readings.
Axis of
movement
Positive direction
Coordinate
System
Use in DP
Surge
Forward
+-X
Position Control
Sway
Starboard
+-Y
Yaw
Clockwise (seen
fom above)
+-N
Heave
Upwards
+-N
Pitch
Bow Down
Roll
Stbd Down
Heading Control
Compensation for
acoustic beacon
and radio aerial /
same taut wire
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The axis of movement are traditional names for vessel's motion. The direction is
navigation term which identifies the direction of the motion. The coordinate system is
the way that the navigation term is described to the computer. The DP control system
uses these coordinates.
Both of these are controlled about desired or "setpoint" values input by the
operator, i.e. position setpoint, and heading setpoint. Position and heading must be
measured in order to obtain the error from the required value. Position is measured
by one or more of a range of position references, while heading information is
provided from one or more gyrocompasses. The difference between the setpoint and
the feedback is the error or offset, and the DP system operates to minimize these
errors. The vessel must be able to control position and heading within acceptable
limits in the face of a variety of external forces.
If these forces are measured directly, the control computers can apply
immediate compensation. A good example of this is compensation for wind forces,
where a continuous measurement is available from windsensors. Other examples
include plough cable tension in a vessel laying cable, and fire monitor forces in a
vessel engaged in firefighting. In these cases, forces are generated which, if
unknown, would disturb the station keeping if unknown. Sensors connected to the
cable tensioners, and the fire monitors allow direct feedback of these "external"
forces to the DP control system and allow compensation to be ordered from the
thruster before an excursion develops.
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Sensor system,
A DP control system requires data at a rate once per second to achieve high
accuracy. Some DP operations require better than 3m relative accuracy. This implies
that navigational feedback is available providing higher accuracy than this.
In general the DP-control system should be arranged in a DP-control station where
the operator has a good view of the vessel's exterior limits and the surrounding area.
Early DP control systems did not have the capability to learn from the past
performance other than by the integral terms of the controller. Modern systems are
able to improve station keeping performance by using a Karman filter, which
provides a model of recent performance to improve present performance.
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Measure the deviation of the vessel its target position and estimate/calculate the
forces needed restore the vessel to the required position.
The control system usually reilies on the first function, but makes use of the
second, particularly when dealing with wind gusts.
The basic control action can be summarised as:
Measure the vessel's deviation from its target position and set heading.
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To do this we need:
For simple loop feedback control system a change of a sensed condition causes
an action to counteract the change. The effect of the change is again sensed and so
on. The main feature is to have some damping in the loop to reduce oscillations in
the control. The feedback control of a vessel is complex because of the nature of the
displacing force, the sensing systems and the vessel characteristica. The control
system therefore incorporates a model of the vessel.
State Gains - These are the factors that determine the tonnes thrust from the
speed and position errors.
Thruster Allocation - This is a set of equations which take the total thrust
demand, expressed in X, Y, N coordinates, to be applied by the vessel's thrusters
and converts it into individual thrusts matched to the available thrusters and their
characteristics.
Thruster Model - This model takes the individual thruster demands and calculates
the total thrust exerted on the vessel.
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Pool - This combines the various estimates of the vessel position, and creates a
best estimate of position.
Kalman Gains - The factors, which can vary between 0 and 1, determine if the
model or estimated position is to be given preference. A value of 0.5 would
provide equal weight.
Wind speed and Direction - The wind speed and direction are converted into the
estimated wind forces on the vessel.
generators,
switchboards, and
Vital to the safety of any DP operation is the continuity of the power supply. The
power plant must always be considered to be an integral part of the vessel's DP
system. Any interruption in the supply of power can have knock-on effects on the
positioning capability of the vessel. DP vessels are particularly vulnerable to blackout
or part-blackout situations.
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Vertical Reference Unit (VRU) for vessel attitude, roll and pitch,
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Other environmental sensors may be fitted, such as current meters, tension meters.
There is a force acting on the vessel that no sensor can calculate. This force can be defined
as the resultant of all other forces acting on the vessel apart from wind. The possible
components of this force are numerous. It will also contain any errors in measurement, or
unmeasured forces acting on the vessel.
Possible components are surface current , subsea current ,waves swell, effect of drag
by attached equipment such as pipe or riser, effect of current on riser, workboats tied up to
vessel, wind (when wind sensors are deselected) and etc.
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This is IMO Class 1. Loss of position may occur in the event of a single fault.
Du IMO Class 2. Loss of position should not occur from a single fault in an active
component or system.
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Trip IMO Class 2, Loss of position should not occur from any
single failure
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A DP operator needs to have awareness not only of the equipment, but the operations
as well. There is no requirement for the DP operator to be a mariner, but bear in mind when
moving between locations, and not in DP the non mariner cannot keep a watch.
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The Man Machine Interface (MMI) is an important feature, which enables efficient and
safe operation of the system by helping the operator to make optimum operational decisions.
During normal operation this reduces the risk of human error. Emphasis has been placed on
ergonomics, logical operation, effective presentation of relevant information and userfriendliness.
Dedicated buttons are provided on the operator panel for activation of main modes,
reference systems, thrusters and other functions where indicator lights are of great importance
for situation assessment. Frequently used functions are also initiated from dedicated panel
buttons.
The display is organised with four views simultaneously shown on the screen :
The processors operating the DP control software are generally known as the
DP computers. The main distinction of concern to the DPO is the number of
computers, their methods of operation, and the level of redundancy they provide.
The computers may be installed in single, dual or triple configurations,
depending upon the level of redundancy required. Modern systems communicate via
an ethernet, or local area network (LAN), which may incorporate many other vessel
control functions in addition to the DP.
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In all DP vessels, the DP control computers are dedicated specifically for the
DP function, with no other tasks. A single-computer system, or simplex DP control
system provides no redundancy. A dual or two-computer system provides
redundancy and auto-changeover if the online system fails. A triple or triplex system
provides an extra element of security and an opportunity for 2-out-of-3 voting.
3.2. Correct procedure for setting-up the DP system in both the Manual
and Automatic modes
Procedure for setting-up the DP system to the Manual Mode
The force demand comes from movement of joystick, and or heading control (if fitted).
The controls are linked to potentiometers that send control signal to the DP controllers that
generate the thrusters commands.
If heading control is selected then heading priority will apply.
If no heading control is engaged thrust should be developed so as not to cause yawing
forces.
High gain should give 100% thrusters forces, low or reduced gain should give 50%
thrusters forces.
It may be possible to set up the joystick to automatically counter any calculated
environmental forces.
It may be possible to set the joystick to act in a progressive mode rather than linear.
The force demand for axis under automatic control is the sum of three different forces
calculated individually, namely FEED FORWARD, DAMPING and GAIN.
With Damping the DP system calculates the vessels speed, and direction, then calculates
and applies the forces necessary to stop the vessel.
Gain is not the same as the Joystick gain. It depends on the distance to the set point
(heading or position).
The greater the separation between the set point and the vessel, the more force is applied.
High, low and medium gains are available they may be set in all axes or individually.
In high gain the vessel will deviate less from set points, but use more thrust.
Whether in manual or auto, the system will not apply 100% of thrusters out put, to use a
thrusters to full capacity it is necessary to use an over-ride button (if fitted), or use the
individual thrusters controls.
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DP The vessel heading and position are both automatically maintained. This
mode is used to maintain a fixed position in relation to a stationary target with a
fixed heading.
Before an operational mode will work some requirements must be met. Sufficient
thrusters are selected or available to select to support the mode. A gyrocompass is selected
or available to select. A PME is selected or available to select.
This mode allows single lever control of all selected thrusters. In this mode, the inputs to
the system are provided by the operator alone.
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JSAH mode allows single lever control of all selected thrusters. In this mode, the level
and direction of thrust is provided by the operator, and the heading is controlled by the
gyrocompass. Thrust can be applied to the vessel in fore/aft and port/starboard directions,
while maintaining the operator set heading.
The joystick controls the thrust on the vessel in the direction in vvhich the
joystick is pointing. The magnitude of the thrust is controlled by the amount the
joystick is pushed forwards or backwards.
The thrust can either move the vessel, or hold it stationaryy against the
environmental forces. The heading of the vessel is maintained at a set heading using
the signal from a gyrocompass. The turning control knob is disabled.
DP mode maintains the vessel in a fixed position relative to a fixed reference point,
while maintaining a fixed heading. In this mode, the vessel position is controlled by a PME and
the heading controlled by a gyrocompass.
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The system receives the vessel's heading from the gyrocompass, and the vessel's
position from a PME. When DP mode is selected, the current position and heading of the
vessel are taken as the reference position and heading. The vessel's thrusters control the
vessel to maintain the position and heading. The operator may change the position and
heading of the vessel using the console display facilities (Change position and change
heading).
DP Minimum Power mode maintains the vessel's position relative to a fixed reference
point, whilst minimising the vessels port/starboard thrusters demands resulting from the net
weather forces on the vessel. This mode is also sometimes called Weathervaning. In this
mode, the position of the vessel is controlled by a PME.
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The vessel's position is measured using a PME, and the thrusters are
controlled to maintain the vessel at this position, as for DP mode. The vessel heading
is then controlled so as to minimise the power used by the thrusters.
In this mode, the position of the vessel is controlled by a PME. The vessel's position is
measured using a PME, and the thrusters are controlled to maintain the vessel at this position,
as for DP mode. The vessel heading is then controlled so as to minimise the power used by
the thrusters.
The operator should be aware that should net weather change then heading will
change to that required to minimize thruster use, there will be no input required by the
operator, distance relative to a fixed object will change.
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The vessel is maintained in a fixed position and the ROV is allowed to move
within a predefined area. If the ROV wanders outside the area, the vessel is moved
to position the area so that the ROV is at its centre again. This form of the mode
involves minimum vessel movement and is used when the ROV is moving over a
limited area. The mode uses a PME and gyrocompass to control vessel position and
heading, and an acoustic system to position the ROV relative to the vessel.
Fixed Distance
The vessel and the ROV move together maintaining a fixed horizontal (fixed
seabed) distance apart between the vessel Centre of Rotation (COR), and the
beacon on the ROV. In this mode, the vessel heading is controlled by a gyrocompass
and the relative separation controlled by an acoustic PME. This form of the mode is
used when the ROV is following a pipe or cable.
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The relative separation of the vessel and ROV is measured with an acoustic
transducer and transponder. With Fixed Position Reference, the vessel is maintained
stationary using a PME such as Artemis or DGPS. The ROV is allowed to move
around in a circular area with a radius equal to the reaction radius. The reaction
radius is positioned at a constant heading on the offset radius. While the beacon or
transponder on the ROV remains within the reaction radius, the vessel remains
stationary. As soon as the transponder moves outside the area defined by the
reaction radius, the vessel is moved so that the centre of the area is placed over the
transponder.
Pickup mode positions the vessel bow at a specific point e.g. the offloading
hose buoy, to enable the offloading hose (and hawser in an ALP field) to be easily
lifted aboard the vessel. The mode enables the vessel to be positioned at a fixed
point, without the heading pointing at the loading point, which is the case with the
approach and loading modes. As an option, fixed heading can be selected in calm
weather, or whenever preferred.
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Approach mode takes the vessel from the outer perimeter of the controlled
area surrounding the offloading point, to a position to either select Pickup or Loading
mode, while maintaining a heading into the prevailing weather.
In OLS and ALP, the vessel heads towards the loading base and the position
setpoint moves around an unlimited are centred on the loading point. In FSU, the arc
is limited to the stern of the FSU. There is also an option to select a fixed heading in
calm weather or whenever preferred. After loading, Approach mode can be used to
move down weather and leave the hose for the next tanker.
For an ALP field, the vessel heading points to the end of the boom and the
vessel always approaches with the boom to port side.
Loading mode positions and holds the vessel at a suitable position for
offloading. The vessel moves on an arc, maintaining a heading towards the loading
point and into the prevailing weather. Within an FSU, the arc is limited by the loading
boundaries. There is also an option to select a fixed heading in calm weather, or
whenever preferred.
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Fixed Loading mode allows the vessel position to be offset from that
determined by the heading. The mode is used in ALP and OLS fields to position the
vessel so as not to drift into another structure. There is also an option to select a fixed
heading in calm weather, or whenever prefered.
Riser Follow
Riser Follow mode, which is used in drilling vessels, controls the position of the
vessel so as to maintain the Riser Angle close to zero.
In Riser Follow mode, the system receives inclinometer and position signals
from the drilling module. The system calculates the vessel position at which the riser
angle will be zero, the zero angle position or ZAP. To avoid constant repositioning of
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the vessel, the riser angle is allowed to vary from the ZAP within a small Reaction
Angle, similar to one of the ROV Follow modes.
When the riser angle exceeds the Reaction Angle, the vessel is repositioned to
again reduce the riser angle to zero. The reaction angle is actually translated by the
system into a Reaction circle around the vessel control point. When the ZAP moves
outside the reaction circle, the vessel's target position is moved towards the ZAP, and
the new reaction circle drawn around it. The vessel moves towards the new target
position to again reduce the riser angle.
The simplest anchor mode provides monitoring of the anchor tensions and
vessel parameters. Three other modes provide various methods of reducing the
anchor tensions.
Manual Assist - The operator controls the vessel in fore/aft movement using the
joystick, and rotates the vessel using the turning control knob. This mode is used for
rough manoeuvring.
Auto Assist - In this mode, the system controls the thrusters to compensate for the
effect of the net environmental force on the anchors.
Damped Assist - This mode also provides auto assist but in addition the vessel
fore/aft vessel movement is damped.
Simulation
This is a facility rather than a mode, in that it can simulate the operation of any
mode. Its purpose is to provide operators with the opportunity to be trained on the
system and to familiarise themselves with the system operation while using only the
operator's console.
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Simulation can only be selected if the vessel's thrusters are not under
automatic control. When the system is in simulation mode, it allows the operator to
set the external environment such as wind, vessel heading, provide PME readings
etc. With all the inputs selected, the vessel behaves as if it is controlled at sea.
Model Control
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DP Advantages:
Vessel is fully self-propelled; no tugs are required at any stage of the operation.
Avoidance of risk of damaging seabed hardware from mooring lines and anchors.
DP Disadvantages:
Can lose position in extreme weather or in shallow waters and strong tides.
Position control is active and relies on human operator (as well as equipment).
From the above, it can be seen that DP will not always be the most economic
solution. While vessels using moorings have a number of advantages, increasingly
DP is the best option for many operations because the seabed is cluttered with
pipelines and other hardware, so laying anchors has a high risk of damage to
pipelines or wellheads. The option to moor to a platform rather than the seabed is
also less frequent, because support vessels have become larger and platforms are
not designed for the loads that can be placed in the mooring lines. Nevertheless,
there is a risk that a DP vessel makes contact with a platform.
During the 1990s there was a rapid increase in the number of vessels with
dynamic positioning systems. Many of these vessels have been designed for DP and
integrated control of engines and thrusters, but there are also a large number of
conversions and upgrades. The situation is market-driven and relies on operational
efficiency which, in turn, places a high reliability requirement on equipment, operators
and vessel managers.
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Auto Track
The purpose of Auto Track (or Track Follow) is to move vessel along a track
defined by two of more waypoints. The vessel speed is usually slow in Auto Track.
The modes uses a PME for position and a gyrocompass for heading.
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Auto Track, the track may follow a pipe cable, a plan for paying out a pipe or
cable, or a survey path. The first stage in Auto Track is to set up a series of
waypoints in the system. These can be either input manually by the operator, loaded
from diskette or downloaded from survey system. In the second stage, the vessel
automatically follows a target which moves along the track.
In practice, there are several additional functions which make Auto Track mode
more effective. The first refinement is that the vessel speed and heading between
waypoints can be independently set. The next refinement is the control of the change
of vessel direction when it reaches a waypoint.
To provide a controlled change of direction, a radius is defined around the
waypoint. When the vessel reaches this distance from the waypoint, its direction is
gradually changed so that it enters the next leg of the track in the same direction as
the track.
Another refinement is to offset the vessel's actual track by a set amount, say 10
metres, from the track defined by the waypoints. This vessel offset is sometimes
required in cable or pipelaying. Additional sophistication in the vesel track is also
necessary when moving between legs of the track so as to lay the pipe or cable at the
required point on the seabed.
Follow track
The track is programmed, or loaded into the DP system. The vessel is set up in
DP auto position. If necessary the vessel is moved into the vicinity of the first
waypoint. Follow track (Auto-track) mode is selected. The vessel will start to follow the
track as programmed. The vessel can be stopped on the track at anytime.
Programmable functions
Speed
The operator can specify a different speed for each leg, or a single speed for
the whole track. It may be possible to set a speed that the vessel will move across
track.
Leg offset
This allows the operator to move the TRACK LEG to the left or the right. This
may be in increments, or as the operator requires. Track offset left and right is
connected to following the track forward or reverse. In some systems the leg offset
changes as the vessel passes waypoint. When applying offsets at the start of a track
ensure that the offset and the vessel are on the same side of the track.
Heading
The operator can specify a heading for each track leg or single heading for the
whole track. A system selected heading may be available, this will automatically keep
the ships head, where the least amount of power will be used. Bear in mind the DP
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system will change heading in this mode without input from operator, should
environmental conditions change. It may also be able to select that the vessel, heads
towards the next waypoint. On some systems the operator may be able to control
heading manually. The operator may also be able to change heading control menu.
Position moves
Normal position move disabled. It is possible to offset track legs.
Track offset
It is also possible to offset the whole track. Geographic offsets the whole track
a bearing and distance, to make an exact copy of the track. Parallel offsets each leg a
set distance to the left or the right. The leg lengths will change using this strategy.
Move up functions are available that will move the vessel up a single length of
pipe. Speed set points can come from cable lay computers. Monitoring of cable or
pipe tensions. Automatic slow down in the event over over tension.
Turn Radius
Generally used to alow vessel to round a waypoint without the need to slow down. Used
during a heading change as vessel passes a way point. This may be set for each way
point, or for the whole track. There may be an automatic function that uses the
heading change speed as set for normal heading changes. This should used with
caution, if rotation speed is set very low the vessel may start to change heading long
befor vessel reaches the waypoint.
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Taut Wire,
DGPS,
Artemis.
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Ultra Short Baseline (USBL) less accurate than LBL, uses one beacon.
Although the names of the systems suggest a continuum, each uses a different
technique for the sound sources and detection system. Each has advantages and
disadvantages which determine when and how each is used. HPR systems are
manufactured by Nautronix, Sonardyne and Kongsberg Simrad.
Underwater acoustics have many applications, one of which is the provision of
position reference for DP purposes.
Specific application for acoustic
Drilling
ROVs
For drilling in deep water, a combination of USBL on the vessel and the LBL
transducer on the BOP is used. In addition, the drill string has inclinometers which
have both wired and acoustic coupling.
Placing the transducer on the BOP and wiring it to vessel has several
advantages:
For ROVs, towing, drill string or other mobile target, USBL is used to track in
terms of range and bearing relative to vessel. Acoustic positioning is also used for
tracking of underwater vehicles or equipment, the marking of underwater features or
hardware and the control of subsea equipment by means of acoustic telemetry.
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4.2. The principles of position definition using the various forms of HPR
system (e.g. Ultra-short, Super-short, Long baseline and Multi-user
principles)
In deepwater locations, where the accuracy of the other types degrades, the
long baseline (LBL) becomes more appropriate. LBL systems are in extensive use in
drilling operations in deep water areas (>l 000m).
LBL acoustic consist of a single transducer on the vessel, and an array of at
least three transponders, which are separated by more than 500 metres. Typically the
array will form a pentagon (5 transponders) on the seabed, with the drillship at the
centre above.
One transducer upon the vessel interrogates the transponder array, but instead
of measuring range and angular information, ranges only are measured, because the
baseline distances have already been calibrated (distances between transponders).
Position reference is obtained from range-range geometry from the
transponder locations. Calibration is done by allowing each transponder to
interrogate all the others in the array, in turn. If, at the same time, the vessel has a
DGPS or other geographically-referenced system, then the transponder array may
also be geographically calibrated. Accuracy is of the order of a few metres.
The distance for the vessel transducer to each transponder is measured by
timing a signal from the transducer to the transponder and back again. A single
transducer signal is sent and each transponder then replies with a different frequency
signal. An acoustic signal around 10kHz is used with LBL. Three ranges can provide
the vessel position: however, more ranges are usually provided for redundancy.
The baseline for the transponders can be over 100% of water depth. The
layout of transponder array and position of vessel above the array affects when
interrogations can be made. Obviously, the effect of multiple acoustic pulses being
received affects the data rate. Interrogation is complete when all return pulses are
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received. At 4000m, the effective data rate can be over 10secs. Multiple
interrogations are easier if the vessel is near the centre of the array.
Short Baseline System - the baseline is the distance between the hydrophones
15m.
SBL uses a single transponder an array of transducers mounted under the vessel
hull. The term acoustic beacon is ussualy used because it sends out a series of pulses,
rather than responding to an input. Similary, the transducer are sometimes called
hydrophones as all they need to do is listen. The baseline for this technique is the
separation of the transducers along the vessel bottom. Again, it is a range system but
now it needs compensation for vessel motion, which is provided by the VRU.
The beacon on the seabed emits short bursts of acoustic energy with known
periodicity and frequency. The time of arrival of a single pulse at three or more
transducers is measured. Detecting the required sound from the background noise
requires hydrophones which reduce noise effects. The minimum distance between
hydrophones is 15m.
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SLB can be used up to about 1000m. The positioning of the hydrophones on the
bottom of the vessel should try to keep them away from sources of aeration (thruster).
An alternative design uses phase comparison on the beacon signal. This is a
similar time of arrival, but hydrophones need to be only 10 cms apart. Therefore, only
one hydrophone assembly is needed, and the VRU can be put in hydrophone assembly.
USBL or Super Short Baseline SSBL was introduced in 1993. The technique
used in phase comparison with many receiving units positioned around the
transducer assembly. Position is calculated from the measurment of range and
angles.The time of the round trip is used to calculate the range. Small differences in
time of arrival translate into direction, mesaured in time-phase differences which are
mesaured in two axes to calculate the slant angle. As the technique requires angle
measurment, vessel motion correction is required from a VRU. An accuracy of better
than 0,2% of slant range is possible with VRU correction.
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USBL is the most used PME acoustic system. It can be used for both fixed
position and tracking applications. A transducer array can handle up to ten stationary
or mobile transponders by using different interrogation and reply frequencies.
Frequencies used range between 19 KHz and 36KHz. The vessel coordinates with
respect to the transponder are calculated from R, x and y. Care is required int he
adjustment and calibration oft he transducer.
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4.3.
Acoustic systems use tranducers which transmit and receive the acoustic
signal and transponders which receive the acoustic signal and retransmit it. Acoustic
systems are effected by the depth of the water, salinity, temperature and frequency of
the source. Currently, transponders are available which produce an acoustic signal at
a depth of several thousand metres, which can be reliably detected at the surface.
When considering system accuracy, the constant components can be eliminated,
whereas the random components (acoustic nosie and acoustic attenuation) only
reduced. Air is major source of attenuation and thrusters a main noise source.
Coordinate calculation must take account of agliment of transponder array with
the vessel coordinates and the pitch and roll compenstaion provided by the VRU. In
comparasion to light or radio, acoustic signals travel very slowly. The typical speed of
sound in water is 1485 metres/second. Therefore at depths of 4000 metres, the
signal will take approximately five seconds to return, which is well beyond the normal
PME position update rate of under one second.
In selecting an acoustic system, the following factors should be considered:
Water depth.
Accuracy.
Area of coverage.
Data rate.
Operating convenience.
Reliability.
Cost of ownership.
The vessel must deploy at least one battery-powered transponder. They can
be deployed by downline from the vessel, by an ROV or simply dropped overboard.
Lavering can cause errors, especially when the horizontal displacement from the
vessel is large. All use frequencies in the 20-30 kHz band. Some transponders are
compatible with more than one supplier's equipment.
4.4. The display and configuration of the various elements in 4.3, and the
acquisition of HPR as a position-reference for DP operations
With any PRS, some allowances must be made. The most obvious is the x/y
offset between sensor (in this case the transducer) and the fixed reference point in
the vessel, known as the "Centre of Rotation". Another compensation must be made
for the discrepancy between the geodetic vertical and local (ship-attached) vertical.
Since HPR is heavily dependent upon the accurate mesaurment of his angle, it is
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important that the atitude (roll and pitch) of the vessel be monitored accurately at all
times. This is function of a vertical reference sensor or unit (VRS or VRU) fitted
specificaly for that purpose.
4.5. Advantages and limitations of HPR as a a position reference system
All acoustic systems suffer from a number of problems. Any source of noise in
the water will reduce the efficiency of the system, while the accuracy may be
compromised by temperature layers, inversions and the resulting refraction. The
working range of the system may also be limited, especially in shallower waters.
Nevertheless, HPR is extensively used offshore, not only for DP purposes, but also
for marking and location of underwater hardware, ROVs, etc.
Long Baseline
The accuracy of acoustic systems is very dependent upon the depth of water
and so generalised figures are of little use. However, LBL is more accurate than
either SBL or USBL. It also has advantages that the technique used with LBL does
not require a VRU for angle compensation for vessel motion. The main
disadvantages of LBL are that deploying and calibrating the array expensive.
Short Baseline
Thus the accuracy can be better than the ultra or super short baseline type of
system and work with one transponder or beacon, but it still relies on vessel motion
corrections. Some vessels have as many as eight hull penetrations for tubes or poles
on which the hydrophones are deployed.
Advantages
Reasonable accuracy
Disadvantages
Affected by multipath.
Some systems have beacons that operate on the same frequencies, and will interfere with
each other.
There are reports that equipment made by different manufacturers interferes with other
systems.
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Artemis and
Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS)
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Figure 42. The principle of the Artemis microwave position reference system
Artemis has a range of 10 metres to 30 Kms and full 360 coverage around the
fix station. At short ranges, the fixed antennae can be replaced by a beacon. It is then
necessary to measure the bearing at the mobile station which introduces compass
errors and limits the useful range to about 200m.
Artemis operates at 9.2 GHz and is therefore unaffected by rain, gog or haze. It
dose, however, require an unobstructed line of sight. Its use is limited to areas where
fix stations or beacons have been installed. Artemis is used for positioning
applications such as support vessels, in and offshore positioning and surveying.
Beacon operation is used between Offshore Loading terminals (OLT) and shuttle
tankeres.
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Disadvantages
Requires a fixed location nearby to set up the fixed station.
Unit needs to be calibrated and configured, this needs experience and skill.
Special unit needed for hazardous areas.
Assistance required from platform personnel.
Can be interfered with by platform personnel.
Can suffer interference from heat haze, or precipitation.
Signal lost with line of sight interference.
3cm radar interferes with Artemis.
Vulnerable to power supply problems at fixed end.
4.8. Taut-wire position reference system
Tautwire systems differ from all other PRS in that they are chiefly mechanical
in nature. A taut wire is a useful position reference, particularly when the vessel may
spend long periods in a static location and the water depth is limited. A typical
tautwire system consists of an A-frame or davit assembly located on deck. The
commonest consists of a crane assembly on deck, usually mounted at the side of the
vessel and a depressor weight on a wire lowered by a constant-tension winch.
A Taut Wire system measures the variation in the position of a fixed point on
the vessel relative to a fixed point on the seabed. The two points are joined by a
constantly tensioned wire, and it is the variation in the angle of the wire which is
mesaured.
The Taut wire davit can be installed at any convention point at the side, stern
or bow of the vessel. The closer it is to the centre of rotation of the vessel, the less
will be the effect of pitch and roll. This will reduce the wear on the tension control
mechanism. A major consideration is choosing a position which enables the
maximumm in board angle before the wire touches the vessell.
The Taut Wire is installed on the vessel either parallel or at right angles to the
axis of the vessel. The control station must be positioned so as to provide the
operator with clear view of the sinker weight when it is being lowered and lifted past
the vessel.
Typical accuracy of a Taut wire is 2% of the water depth, up to 500 metres.
As depth and/or angle becomes geater, the catenary effect increasees, causing the
accuracy to decrease due to the effect of currents and tides. Typically, the maximum
angle allowable is 30 in either plane. A service working range is 15. Deployment
and rettrieval of the sinker weight can be a problem in heavy sea conditions, as can
dragging of the weight.
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4.9. The procedure for deployment and recovery of the taut wire system
Before use the system will need to be switched on and allowed to warm up, the
includes cooling water on some systems.
Advise DP control, who can then select the taut wire into the system.
The sensor then measures the fore, and aft, and port and starboard angles.
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The Moon Pool Taut Wire is mounted inboard with a depressor weight deployed
through the bottom of the vessel through a small moon pool or wet well. The gimbal head is
incorporated into an elevator unit that is lowered from the stowage level down to the keel level,
from where the weight and wire are lowered. Movement compensation is provided by
hydraulic accumulator, and positioning data is obtained and processed in the same way as in
the Light Weight Taut Wire system.
With a Moon Pool Taut Wire the gimbal head is that much closer to the seabed than
with a deck mounted unit, so a shorter length of wire is used. However as the wire cannot
touch the vessels side the range is often greater than that of a deck mounted unit.
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The wire is passed across to the platform adjacent and secured. No boom is needed,
instead The Surface Taut Wire gives position reference relative to a fixed structure (platform,
buoy, etc.). The sensor is located atop a short vertical tower. The principles are the same as
for the vertical taut wire systems.
The range for a Surface Taut Wire System is around 50 m. For longer distances the
accuracy would be reduced due to the curvature of the wire. There is also something called a
gangway reference system, the pivot at the inboard end of the gangway is used to give a
relative bearing, and the sliding section of the gangway is used to measure change in range.
This reference is lost if the gangway is emergency disconnected.
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The ship may then obtain positional data with an accuracy of typically 1-3 m.
This then becomes a useful input to the DP, although there are a number of pitfalls of
which the DPO must be aware. These include the effects of loss of the data link
providing the differential corrections, resulting in an immediate degradation in
accuracy. Despite the problems, DGPS is now regarded as one of the most useful
and versatile of PRS for use with DP. This defines a range of messages covering
Differential GPS corrections and rate of change, reference station parameters etc.
4.13. The operation of a modern differential corrections network
Most DGPS services accept multiple differential inputs obtained from an array
of reference stations widely separated. Generally, network DGPS systems provide
greater stability and accuracy, and remove more of the ionospferic error than
obtainable from a single reference station. Network systems are more
comprehensively monitored at the Hub, or control stations, where user information or
warning data may be generated and sent out.
The choice of which link to hire or purchase must be made based on the
vessel's expected work areas. If a vessel is expected to be working near fixed
platforms, a local HF connection can be best. For floating production, storage and
offloading (FPSO) vessels, a local UHF link and relative GPS solution can be the
best arrangement. The accuracy obtainable from DGPS systems is in the area of 13m dependent upon the distances to the reference stations, ionospheric conditions,
and the constellation of satellites available. DGPS tends to be less reliable in close
proximity to large structures (i.e. platforms) due to interference to satellite and
differential signals. DGPS perfomance near the magnetic equator has suffered due to
scintiilation (sun spot activity causing ionospheric disturbances).
4.14. The sources of error and inaccuracy associated with the DGPS
system, effects on the quality of positioning
Sources of error
Multi-path - SV's signals bounce off nearby objects, and are also received, these cause a
degradation of accuracy, and if severe enough make signals unusable. This is sometimes
called long path interference. If the extra signals are bouncing off an object onboard you
may need to move the antenna. If they are bouncing off an object outside the ship, moving
position, or changing heading may reduce the effect.
Troposphere and Ionosphere errors - The SV signal is refracted (bent) as it travels through
the earth's atmosphere. The bending depends on ionisation, temperature, pressure, and
humidity. This cannot be measured everywhere so it is assumed. If the actual conditions
are different, the signal will follow a different path to the projected path and you have got
an error.
Geometry - This is position line theory. If the position lines cross at right angles and there is
an error, the area of uncertainty will be smaller than if the position lines cross at a small
angle.
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Clock errors - While the clocks used are very accurate, they are not perfect, any timing
error can result in a position error.
Ephemeris (orbital errors) - These can occur when the SV does not follow the path
projected by Master control.
Finger trouble - This has not happened but has been predicted; the idea is that one day an
operative will make some kind of programming error that will not be spotted by quality
control., and will causing a position error.
Scintillation - This is extreme localised bending of the SV signal caused by sunspot activity.
The path followed by the signals from the SV's is so different from that projected it can
make the signal unusable. It can even affect differential corrections as the rate of ionisation
at the correcting station and the user is so different the corrections are invalid.
Differential Satellite systems - Due to military concerns when GPS was first introduced, the
signals were deliberately degraded, by dithering; this was a random rapidly varying timing
error, called Selective Availability (SA). This reduced the accuracy of GPS to about 30
metres which was not good enough for DP. Commercial companies set up a system to
correct for SA, and while SA was removed in 2001 Differential is still used as it helps
improve reliability and correct for other sources of error.
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Dual frequency systems available, which are more reliable and can, reduce the effects of
scintillation.
Disadvantages
May need to set for different areas of operations, trial points, reference stations, height
aiding etc.
If operating close to large tall structures SV's can be blocked reducing the number of
satellites available, to the extent that fixes become unusable.
Corrections become less relevant as you move away from reference stations (you would
not operate in the Pacific using corrections for Aberdeen).
Corrections need to be up to date, before SA was removed this was about 30 seconds.
Now SA is gone this is not so relevant.
System interfaces vary, some are quite complex, others are just a black box with the
operator having no insight into processing.
Systems can be jammed.a 1 watt jammer could effectively jam a coastal port).
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CyScan
CyScan is a short range laser based high precision positioning and tracking
system. It consists of a stabilised rotating laser and three or more reflective targets
positioned on the fixed vessel or structure. The reflective targets are fixed at defined
spacing along a baseline. Vessels can be uniquely identified by altering the spacing
between the targets.
A pulse of light is fired at a reflective target and the round trip timed to provide
the range measurement. At the instant the pulse is returned, an optical encoder on
the shaft is triggered to provide the angle. The laser unit can be mounted anywhere
on the vessel, but is normally placed above the bridge. It can easily be lifted and
repositioned.
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The rotating laser head is placed on a 2 axes stabilised platform which provides
compensation for pitch and roll. The system is set up for a particular vessel with the
number of reflectors and their separation. The system receives range fixes and
pattern of pulses. The use of three or more reflectors provides a high degree of
redundancy and enables erroneous reflections to be discarded. The system is
therefore not affected by objects getting in the way or direct sun.
Fanbeam
The Fanbeam system is an alternative short range laser based positioning and
tracking system. The system consists of a vessel borne laser unit and a reflector,
providing range and bearing. The reflector can be fixed onshore or on a fixed
structure. Although range-range and range and bearing modes are available,
currently only the range and bearing model is used for DP.
The practical useful range for DP is around 200-250 metres. The laser unit
must be aligned to the vessel axis, to which ali bearings are referred. A VRU is
needed for compensation for pitch and roll.
The system consists of an array of lasers, which emit a vertical fan of light,
mounted in a unit which can rotate up to 360. Many returns are processed and
average values provided. A reflector using reflective tape can be used up to 100m.
Above this range, a retro prism reflector is used. At longer ranges, multiple retro
prism arrays are needed.
4.20. Advantages and limitations associated with the optical laser PRS
Optical laser is fast becoming a very popular PRS for DP purposes. It is
accurate and simple to set up and use, but has limited range, while range and
efficiency is impaired by poor visibility, rain or simply from dirt on the lens. It is also
vulnerable to line-of-sight breaks.
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RANGE
MAX DEPTH
ACCURACY
GEOGRAFICAL
RANGE
Taut Wire
25% of water
depth
500 m
2% of water
depth
Worldwide
Radio
30km
N/A
1m
Limited to
beacon
availability
GPS
Unlimited
N/A
3m
Worldwide
Hydro Acoustic
1-2% of water
depth
Worldwide
Laser
250 m (Useful
range for DP)
< 0,5 m
Needs fixed
target
N/A
Where several PME position references are available, their values can be
pooled in several ways. The simplest form of pooling is to use the average value. A
more sophisticated method is to discard any readings which fall outside a window
placed around the average position. A further sophistication is to place weightings on
each PME for creating the mean value. The pooling of PMEs complements the
individual PME checks for signal reliability, which may cause the PME to be
deselected.
When several PMEs are available, a voting system can be used to pool the
position values, weighting the values as appropriate. In certain weather conditions,
the reference position from the PMEs may vary rapidly or erratically. To avoid
unnecessary thruster demands, the operator can alter the vessel response to PME
inputs by adjusting the Kalman filter in the control system.
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Syledis
With hyperbolic mode, the vessel receives a pair of signals from fixed stations.
The signals are place din synchronisation by a master beacon, The pair of signals
define a hyperbola upon which the vessel lies. With three hyperbola defined, the
vessel can be positioned. There is obviously no limit to the number of vessels that
can use this mode.
Microfix
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Trisponder
Trisponder is similar to Microfix, but offers both microwave anf UHF capability.
The microwave version offers a single beacon interrogation providing range and
bearing. For line of sight microwave, the accuracy is 1 metre.
Argo
In its most basic form only 2 GPS receivers are needed, usually between something like
a FPSO , and a shuttle tanker. The FPSO broadcasts its GPS fix over UHF to the shuttle
tanker, which then calculates a range and bearing to the FPSO. As the 2 are relatively close
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together if there are any errors they should be common and the relative range and bearing
should be accurate.
If both L1 and the L2 frequencies are used it is possible to calculate actual ray bending.
At the Reference station both signals are received, by measuring the difference in rate of
bending of the two signals the actual bending at the reference station can be calculated. This
can then be applied to the SV signals to remove the effect, and then the fix is calculated and
residual errors calculated, and transmitted.
At the user end both frequencies are received, the signal bending at the user is
calculated and its effect removed. The corrections from the reference station are applied to
give a fix that has no ionospheric-tropospheric-scintillation errors.
40KM range needs a local reference station which the user sets up, gives position,
Heading, VRU, and height of tide information.
Error Segmentation
The errors are divided in 2 part those at the satellite and those at the user. The user
errors are calculated using Dual frequency technology, the satellite errors (clock and orbit) are
measured at land based reference stations and transmitted to the user. The satellite errors are
valid worldwide. The local errors are calculated so with this combination of correction, the user
GPS signal can be corrected for anywhere in the world.
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Galileo
A European stand alone GPS system called Galileo has just been given the go ahead,
with multiple frequencies, and better atomic clocks, it is expected to exceed GPS standards.
This is expected to be in operation between 2008-2010.
A combination of ships inertial navigation system (SINS) and GPS, should the GPS
dropout the SINS component can be used to provide a reference signal, that will hopefully not
degrade before either GPS is regained or the operation is safely terminated.
Define the global position of the known position in an accepted coordinate system
(a geodetic system which makes allowance for the shape of the world).
Relate the coordinate system to the coordinate system used to define the required
vessel position (ali maps which define positions are based on specified geodetic
systems).
If a vessel position need only be relative to another object, say a vessel/ROV
relationship then X, Y coordinates are sufficient. If the positioning system provides a
global reference, such as DGPS, then the conversion of the X,Y values is not
necessary. The Geodetic System will be based on one of two main coordinate
systems to define the vessel position:
Latitude and Longitude
This positions a vessel in degrees north/south and east/west. It is defined in
relationship to a reference datum. The reference datum describes the shape of the
earth either globally or in an area of the world. Most used datums are WGS84 (used
for DGPS), WGS72, European 1980, Bermuda etc. Selection of the wrong datum can
cause errors of 100s of metres.
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Surface current ,
Subsea current,
Waves,
Swell,
Thruster errors.
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North speed, east speed, north acceleration, east accelerating gimbal all have
automatic compensation with speed input. The normal startup cycle of a
gyrocompass is 6 hrs. However, slew controls can override the automatic starting
cycle after 5 mins. The vessel speed compensation is set to the vessel's average
speed for the duration of the voyage.
If there is more than one gyro, either one will selected as a preferred gyro, or
an average is used. If there are only two gyros, and one starts to drift, the system can
only report a gyro difference. The operator has to decide which one is correct, this
may be difficult. If three gyros are available select them all, this can allow the DP to
vote, two out of three and a drifting or failing gyro can be voted off even if it is the
preferred gyro.
Anemometer
An anemometer is a device for measuring both the speed and direction of the wind.
Wind is a major disturbing element on the vessel. The wind speed and direction are used
to improve position control by modifying thruster demands.
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They have two main purposes: to assist in weathervaning for large stationary
vessels such as shuttle tankers or production platforms, and to make allowance for
gusty wind conditions. Separate sensors are provided for wind direction and wind
speed.
Wind speed sensor can operate at wind speeds up to 60 metres/sec, and gusts
up to 100 metres/sec. The lower threshold is around 1 metres/sec. The accuracy is
+0.3 metres/sec. Wind direction sensor the accuracy is 3.
Care must be taken in installing the anemometers to avoid wind shadow from
the vessel superstructure and spars. An anemometer should be at least 10 diameters
from any spar or mast.
5.4. Wind Feed-Forward facility, and its importance within the DP system
When a DP system is being designed for a particular vessel, the programmer will
calculate the effect of wind direction and speed on that vessel taking into account variables
such as draft and affected hull area. This calculation, called the Aerodynamic Model,- allows
for the wind effect through 360 degrees as it will exert a greater offsetting force acting on the
beam of a ship for example than it would acting from the bow.
The amount of thrust required to maintain position with the wind from any direction and
any speed (up to design limit) is then programmed into the system and the DP system will
automatically and instantaneously use that amount of thrust to compensate for wind force.
This is known as Automatic Wind Compensation (AWC) or Wind Feed Forward. Sudden
changes of wind direction or speed are instantly compensated for by AWC commanding
appropriate thrust, ensuring that position loss is minimised. It can be seen from this why it is
important that the system receive the most accurate wind information possible.
5.5. The limitations of wind sensor inputs, and the consequences of deselecting the wind sensor input
Wind Sensors are very important in that the DP treats wind as being one of the major
forces affecting the vessels position keeping (position keeping meaning both heading and
position). Care must be exercised in both positioning them on the vessel and also in selecting
which one to use in the system. Ideally the anemometers should be sited where they are
totally unobstructed e.g. on top of the derrick on a drilling rig.
On many types of vessel it is impossible to find an unobstructed position and the
anemometers may have to be sited at all four corners of a barge for example. If this is the
case the operator must be aware at all times of wind direction and select the anemometer
which is reading the true wind speed and direction. There are also times when the wind
sensors are being masked e.g. alongside the lee side of a platform or they give a false reading
e.g. down draft from a helicopter. The operator should again be aware of anything which may
give a false reading and take appropriate action when required.
A typical example is downdraft from a helicopter. When there is doubt regarding the
accuracy of wind information from the sensors, they should be deselected from the system.
Then reselected once the situation has been sorted out.
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5.7. The alarms and warnings associated with catastrophic failure, i.e.
position and/or heading Dropout
Status lights should be provided in the operation control rooms, if necessary
repeated onto working areas, ECR, and supervisor and Masters cabin. They should
be manually activated from, and repeated in, the DP control room. Status lights
should be checked for operation prior to commencing operations. Operations should
not commence to switching on the green light.
Steady green light to indicate vessel under full DP control, normal operational
status, operations may commence. Yellow light to indicate the DP operating system
is in a degraded status, operations may be stopped operations should be prepared to
stop, divers move to a place of safety.
Flashing red light to indicate DP emergency, operations to be stopped and
equipment personnel recovered.
A distinctive alarm should sound in the saturation control room, air diving
control area, the Master's cabin, Operations Superintendent's cabin (if applicable)
and the senior Diving Supervisor's cabin in conjunction with the flashing red light.
Provision of a means of cancelling the audio and flashing functions of the signals
from the receiving positions when they have been noted should be made.
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For operations under Equipment Classes 2 and 3, the level of redundancy required is
such that the power available for position keeping should be sufficient to maintain position
subsequent to worst case switchboard failure, i.e. the loss of one complete section of
switchboard and the generators supplying it. Vessels of Equipment Class 2 may have busbar
sections connected by bus tie breakers, but these breakers must separate automatically upon
overload or short circuit failure within one section. Vessels of Equipment Class 3 must operate
with bus tie breakers open, with each section of bus-bar isolated from the remainder.
6.2. The power supply and distribution arrangements in a typical nondiesel-electric DP vessel
As stated by IMO MSC/cirs. 645 Dynamic positioning system (DP-system)
means the complete installation necessary for dynamically positioning a vessel
comprising the following sub-systems:
Power system,
DP-control system.
Power system means all components and systems necessary to supply the DPsystem with power. The power system includes:
Generators,
Switchboards, and
As we can see IMO does not relate this specifically to diesel-electric but to all
power systems in general, thus requirements are for non-diesel electric DP vessel
are the same provided that the safety requirements of such system comply with the
IMO requirements.
Some DP vessels comprise part diesel direct-drive thrusters and part diesel
electric plant and motor-driven thrusters. A vessel may have twin screws as main
propulsion driven direct by diesel engines and bow and stern thrusters electrically
driven, taking power from shaft alternators coupled to the main diesels or from
separate diesel generator sets.
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generators at some pre-set limit of available power. Alarms are provided within the DP system
when the 80% power limits are reached or exceeded. Central to the concept of safe operation
and redundancy is the monitoring of available power.
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Tunnels Tunnels need to be as deep as possible, and should be at least one and a
half times the diameter of the thrusters below the water line. Thrust is fixed in direction, usually
only transverse. The longer the tunnel gives the less effective the thrusters.
Advantages
Known technology.
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Disadvantages
As speed increases thrusters less effective, at 4 knots thrusters may be only 50%
effective.
Have moving parts outside the vessel; repairs may need a dry dock.
Maintenance more than fixed pitch.
May need guard to stop garbage going through thrusters.
CPP units require calibrating
Azipods - Fixed pitch may not reverse, if they do may not be to 100%. Need fixed
modes, or may have to azimuth round constantly.
Advantages
Less moving parts less complex, easier and less expensive to maintain.
In biased modes prime movers can be loaded to operate, at less damaging loads.
Disadvantages
New technology steers like an outboard, requires more thought and familiarisation.
Different considerations when manoeuvring, e.g. the best way to stop is to slew them
outboard so they are blowing out and the wall of water acts like a brake. This means they
are readily available to apply thrust. Need to be familiarised.
In light conditions constant azimuthing can cause alarms, and vessel may hunt. May
require less efficient fixed modes to be used.
Advantages
Deeper than tunnels.
If retracting no extra drag, or draft increase.
If fixed less complex.
Directional thrust can be more efficient.
Different modes are available.
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If set up correctly vessel can operate in Stealth mode, with main engines off when at stand
by thus saving fuel (mainly supply boats).
Maintenance cans are possible to save on dry dock during repairs.
Disadvantages
Need barred zones to stop thrusters blowing over each other.
Wash can interfere with diving, or Rov operations.
If flow is reversed, they are less efficient, need to check thrust curves, and ensure that you
are operating the correct way.
If fixed, then draft is increased.
If retracting they are more complex.
CPP units require calibrating.
Samuel White Gill jets (made by Elliots) - Not widely used in DP.
Advantages
Easy to retrofit.
No draft increase.
Directional thrust.
Disadvantages
Advantages
Known technology.
Disadvantages
Complex moving parts outside the vessel, if damaged may require dry dock to carry out
repairs.
Maintenance costs higher than fixed pitch units.
Less effective astern (not because of blade , but because of disturbed flows).
Nozzles and specialised rudders cost extra, and require extra setting up.
CPP units need calibrating.
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Fixed pitch propeller - the thrust is controlled by varying the rotational speed of
the propeller.
Controllable pitch propeller the thrust is controlled by varying the pitch of the
propeller and keeping the speed constant. A variation of CPP varies both pitch
and speed using a variable speed drive to gain better efficiency.
Controllable pitch propellers have a variaty of methods to vary the pitch of the
blades. These can be fairly complex and are therefore laible to fail at sometime. Care
must be taken to ascertain the failure mode of the propeller.
Propellers provide thrust in both directions but due shape of the blades and to
the effect of the hull diamount of thrust in the revers direction is only 40 60 % of
that available in the forward direction.
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7. OPERATIONS USING DP
With any DP vessel operation, comprehensive planning is essential. The
operational requirements of the task in hand must be thoroughly discussed with the
client, and a detailed plan of the preferred sequence of events compiled. The plan
must include the approach to the worksite and set-up, together with the positional
requirements of the task itself. At all stages there must be adequate contingency
plans made.
DP operators (DPOs) must be familiar with the details of the worksite and of
the tasks planned. In many operations the vessel is simply providing a working
platform for a project team, but it is essential that the key DP personnel are familiar
with the detail of the operation and the possible hazards.
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The vessel will change over well clear of any obstructions, usually outside the
500m zone, and complete a DP checklist. Items to be checked or tested include main
engine/thruster control functions, communications (external VHF/internal) radar and
navigation aids, gyrocompasses and steering systems. In addition, checks are made
on specialist operational items associated with the work.
These checks involve the key DP personnel on the bridge and in the engine
control room. Thrusters and main propellers must be "proved" by taking manual
control and trying each thruster each way, checking response and feedback. Once
transfer is complete the watchkeeper may turn his attention to the DP control system.
7.2. The need for completing pre-DP and other checklists prior to and
during DP operations
Checklists are an essential and accepted feature of most DP operations. It is
essential that checklists are treated as an aid to memory and not as a complete
substitute for thinking. It is very easy for one person in a hurry to fill out a checklist
without checking many of the items contained therein. Checklists need updating from
time to time, as new important points are found and equipment is modified or
updated. Checklists are usually controlled documents within the shipowners quality
assurance system, where alterations may be seen as a non-conformance and
change takes too long.
Typical checklists to be maintained by the watchkeeping DPO include:
Pre-DP checklist,
Pre-operational checklist,
MCR checklist.
All DP vessels will have pre-operational and watch keeping check lists. They
are shorter versions of the location check lists and completion of the location check
list will be adequate if the work is to commence immediately. The pre-operation or
watch keeping check list then serves as a final check and typically form part of the
permit to work system of the vessel or the installation.
The pre-operation check lists should cover the present status of equipment and
form the basis of a final check prior to the commencement of an operation. When
completed these checks form part of the permission to dive/ROV document for ROV
and/or survey operations. Separate check lists are sometimes used but there is no
requirement for them.
For some DP operations, further checks are executed in the final working
position. A settling period of about thirty minutes is allowed, ensuring that the DP
control system has time to build the mathematical model. During this time the bridge
watchkeepers should complete the pre-operational checklist, and verify that preoperational checklists are complete at other locations, such as the engine control
room.
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The bridge team must be aware of the significant change in status that may
occur once the go-ahead (green light) is given for the operation to commence. Once
the green light is given, the contingency plan may change, because it must allow for
the vessel to maintain position and heading adequately to reach a safe situation.
7.3. The need for keeping logbook records of all DP operations, failures,
incidents and repairs, including details of operation and maintenance
of all position reference systems
An essential part of the DP documentation is the DP Log Book which is
designed to provide a continuous record of all activities which are of importance to
and associated with the DP operation of the vessel. As well as providing evidence of
the systematic and structured manner in which DP operations are being carried out,
the DP log book can prove to be of vital importance in the event of a DP incident or
accident. In this respect the importance of the DP Log book is that the events are
recorded as they happen, without reflection or modification and that they are
accurately timed.
The DP Log Book should be completed by the DP operator on watch. Entries in
the log book should include but not limited to the following:
Selection and de-selection of references.
Crane lifts and movements.
Vessel movements.
Helicopter movements.
Entry to installation 500m zone.
Thruster selection and changes.
Deteriorating weather conditions.
Changes in DP operation status.
ROV movements.
Communications between vessels and installation connected to the operation.
Changes in vessel heading.
Changes in vessel rotation point.
Time of vessel in and off DP.
Any unusual event that may effect DP operations.
The DP Log Book is used for continuous recording of events and occurrences;
therefore it should be constantly available to the DP operators. The DP Log Books
should be retained onboard the vessel and any copies retained by the operator or
owner ashore.
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All voice communication systems should be provided with 100% redundancy either through duplication or via an alternative system e.g. (VHF, telephone or
talkback). These systems should be situated in locations in close proximity to the
operational equipment & personnel for whom they are provided. Communications
between the Dive Control and DP Control should be regular and used to inform each
other about any change to operational status.
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Bell Status.
Diver Status.
Repeats distance and direction and asks for permission to commence move.
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Type of Information
The following lists outlines which type of information shall be exchanged
between Dive/Survey Control and DP Operator.
ROV to DP Operator:
ROV Status.
Intended excursions.
The following list indicates the type of information required by the DP Operator
about activities on board the vessel:
Intention to start and stop the use of radio or radar equipment which may affect
the DP system.
Intention to handle equipment which may affect the trim of the vessel.
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Level of redundancy.
Status of the operation in hand. Planned changes/progress for the coming watch.
Details and status of any operational elements (e.g. if the vessel is a DSV and
diving operations are underway, then the status, position, depth of the diving bell
or basket, the number of divers in the water, their umbilical lengths and expected
return times, also details of their operational task).
Traffic in the area. Any planned traffic movements that may affect the vessel and
her operation or positioning.
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Obviously a single cylindrical projection of this type cannot be used to chart the
whole terrestrial surface. The useful scope of the projection consists of a zone 6 of
longitude in width, centred upon the contact or "Central" meridian. Within this zone
distortions are minimal. Zones are identified by a number.
The numbering scheme is based upon Zone 1 being the area between the
180 meridian and Longitude 174 West, with the central meridian at 177 W.
Successive zones are numbered in an easterly direction, with the North Sea
generally being covered by Zone 31 ranging from the Greenwich Meridian to 6 E,
with the Central Meridian at 3 E. There are sixty zones in total.
Within a particular zone, the Northings and Eastings (in metres) are arranged
to increase in a Northward and an Eastward direction, respectively, irrespective of
position upon the globe. For Northings the datum is the equator, with Northern
hemisphere Northings having a value of zero on the equator, and increasing
northwards. For the Southern hemisphere, a false Northing of 10,000,000 is added to
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the (negative) values. This resolves the problem of requiring positive values
increasing Northwards throughout.
A false Easting of 500,000 is established on the central meridian, with Easting
values increasing in an easterly direction. This allows the whole zone to be covered
by positive Easting values.
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7.10. Equipment Classes and their application (with reference to the IMO
guidelines for DP vessels)
A DP-system consists of components and systems acting together to achieve
sufficiently reliable position keeping capability. The necessary reliability is determined by the
consequence of a loss of position keeping capability.The larger the consequence, the more
reliable the DP-system should be.
To achieve this philosophy the requirements have been grouped into three equipment
classes. The eguipment class of the vessel required for a particular operation should be
agreed between the owner of the vessel and the customer based on a risk analysis of the
conseguence of a loss of position. Else, the Administration or coastal State may decide the
eguipment class for the particular operation.
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The equipment classes are defined by their worst case failure modes as follows:
For equipment class 1, loss of position may occur in the event of a single fault.
For equipment class 2, a loss of position is not to occur in the event of a single fault
in any active component or system. Normally static components will not be
considered to fail where adequate protection from damage is demonstrated, and
reliability is to the satisfaction of the Administration. Single failure criteria include;
any active component or system (generators, thrusters, switchboards, remote
controlled valves, etc), and normally static component (cables, pipes, manual
valves, etc.) which is not properly documented with respect to protection and
reliability.
For equipment class 3, a single failure includes: items listed above for class 2, and
any normally static component is assumed to fail; all components in any one
watertight compartment, from fire or flooding; all components in any one fire subdivision, from fire or flooding, including cables, where special provisions apply
under section 3.5. of MSC Circ.645.
In addition, for equipment classes 2 and 3,a single inadvertent act should be
considered as a single fault if such an act is reasonably probable.
DnV
ABS
DP(CM)
DNV-T
DPS-0
Class 1
DP(AM)
DNV-AUT
DNV-AUTS
DPS-1
Class 2
DP(AA)
DNV-AUTR
DPS-2
Class 3
DP(AAA)
DNV-AUTRO
DPS-3
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Owners should ensure that their DP OSVs possess and maintain an appropriate
DP class notation issued by a classification society. In cases where the DP system is
integrated with other control systems, such as vessel management, thruster controls
and position reference systems, this might be reflected in the classification society
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Beyond 50m depth, divers will be deployed using a diving bell, forming part of a
saturation diving life-support complex. Divers remain at the pressure of the working
depth for up to 28 days, shuttling back and forth in the bell between the worksite and
the saturation chambers in the vessel. Decompression times at depths of hundreds of
metres are measured in days, not hours. The breathing mixture is a helium-oxygen
mix (heliox) resulting in the divers' characteristic "donald duck" voices.
A diving bell may well be used instead of a basket in depths of less than 50m,
as this represents a greater level of safety. Also, of course, the problems relating to
shallow water will also apply to operations where diving is taking place at a shallow
depth in deep water, e.g. inspection of structure on a jacket at the 28m level, on a
platform standing in 175m of water.
Obviously, divers in the water are particularly vulnerable to vessel problems,
particularly positioning problems. The diver's only way back to the surface is via the
bell or basket If the vessel has a run-off, then the diver will be dragged on the end of
his umbilical and this may well cause death or injury. The working location of the
diver itself has a great bearing on his level of safety. If the diver is working in open
water, close to the bell, then his return to the bell only takes a few minutes. If,
however, the diver is working inside an enclosed sea bed structure, or habitat his
return time may be twenty minutes or more. During this period the vessel must
maintain position, irrespective of anything else.
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In waters greater than about 450m in depth, the only way human divers may be
deployed is by means of Atmospheric Diving Suits (ADS). These are pressurised
diving suits containing the diver in a one atmosphere environment. A commonly used
commercial ADS is the "Newt-Suit". A DP support vessel may operate two ADS
instead of saturation diving. The other alternative for operations in deep water is the
deep-water ROV. One big advantage of using ROVs instead of real live divers is the
lower level of redundancy required for non-man-rated operations underwater.
Nevertheless, many modern vessels so equipped feature full Class 2 redundancy in
consideration of the financial penalties associated with a system failure.
The hazards of diving from vessels with rotating thrusters and propellers are
obvious. One vital requirement of any diving set-up, from a DP vessel, is that the
amount of umbilical the diver may be given, measured from the tending point (basket
or bell) must be at least 5m less than the distance to the nearest thruster. This is to
ensure that the diver cannot be drawn into a thruster or propeller.
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An ROV may be deployed direct from a gantry or A frame at the side or stern
of the vessel, or from a tether management system (TMS) incorporating a cage or
garage. If deployment is directly overside then great care must be taken to ensure
that the umbilical does not foul the thrusters or propellers. The DP control system of
the support vessel can be put into a follow sub or follow target mode for this work,
where the acoustic transponder on the vehicle becomes the position reference.
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7.12.2. Drill ships (with special reference to the Riser Angle mode of
operation)
In recent years, drilling operations have been extended into waters of ever
greater depth. This has necessitated an increase in the number of DP-capable drilling
facilities. The latest drillships are rated to work in water up to 10,000 feet (3,000m)
depth. Many DP rigs are of the semi-submersible configuration, but the latest
generation are very large monohulls.
In deep water it is not sufficient simply to position the rig directly over the
wellhead. Compensation must be made for tidal flow, in that the all-important
measurement is that of riser/stack angle which must be maintained within the
specified limits. This is the angle between the riser (containing the drill string) and the
wellhead or Lower Marine Riser Package (LMRP). It is vital that this angle remains
close to zero. With a tidal stream the riser will "bow", necessitating the vessel moving
in an uptide direction to accommodate this riser angle.
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A drilling rig using DP for these functions will usually use dual DGPS and Long
Baseline acoustic position references, as other references are not usually available in
deep water.
The centre of rotation used by the DP control system is the centre of the drill
floor rotary table, which for both monohulls or semi-submersible rigs is usually in the
centre of the vessel.
For drilling operations, it is important for the vessel to keep over the well, such
that the riser connecting the vessel to the well is practically vertical. The profile of the
riser is, however, determined by current forces and tension, as well as by vessel
position. The parameter that is continuously monitored is the lower main riser angle.
If this exceeds 3, action needs to be taken so tha t it does not get worse and force an
unwanted disconnection.
For each well or location, the rig will have well-specific operational guidelines
(WSOG), which determine when alerts are to be given and what action is appropriate.
Watch circles might be used and set which are distances that represent angles at the
lower end of the riser.
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Some DP control systems have a function known as riser angle mode. When
selected, the DP continues with a geographical position reference, but moves to
reduce the riser angle. The reference for positioning is the angle of the riser at the
stack, using sensors attached to the riser and the lower marine riser package
(LMRP).
These sensors may be electrical inclinometers, hard-wired to the rig up the
riser or a Differential Inclinometer Transponder assembly, sending angular and
positional information acoustically via the HPR system interfaced to the DP.The DP
system aboard the rig will have special display pages showing Riser angle offsets as
part of a Position Plot display page.
DP rigs are currently configured to operate in water depths of up to 3000m. In
these water depths the most reliable form of position reference is DGPS. Two or
three separate and distinct DGPS systems provide redundancy, provided that
different differential correction links are used. Further position-reference is obtained
via deep water Long Baseline acoustic systems.
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For cable lay operations within coastal waters or other shallow-water areas, it
is often necessary to bury the cable in order to prevent damage from fishing gear.
When a plough is used, it is towed by the ship, in a similar manner to a tractor towing
an agricultural plough across a field. This reduces the power available for station
keeping.
The phase of the operation where the DP capability proves most useful is the
shore-end tie-in. This is where the vessel comes to the end of the lay, a short
distance from "the beach", to complete the connection. This involves the vessel
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keeping a fixed location, close to the shore, in shallow water, where strong tides may
also stream.
S-lay,
Reel-lay and
J-lay.
A seabed tractor or trencher may be configured to lay and bury a cable. These
vehicles are tracked crawlers, built to be controlled from the vessel, with operators
driving the unit as if they were on board. These units usually move slowly,
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Pipelay Operations
Many pipelay operations are conducted by DP lay barges.
S-Lay Operations
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buckling. The set tension is to ensure a smooth catenary to the touchdown point on
the seabed. If tension is lost, then damage will occur at the touchdown area.
Pipe tension values are communicated to the DP system which is continually
providing thrust commands to maintain tension, position and heading.
Pipelay operations are particularly dependent upon environmental conditions.
The vessel must be able to cope effectively with the tides, sea state and wind
conditions from most directions, because it is not possible to allow the vessel to
weathervane.
J-Lay Operations
In J-lay operations the pipe is constructed in a long narrow factory called the
"firing-line" at deck level. Pipe is fabricated, welded, coated and inspected at a
number of stations spaced at 12m intervals along the firing-line. The pipe is controlled
by caterpillar-track pipe tensioners that feed it down the "stinger". The stinger is a
hefty ramp at the stern supporting the pipe in the overbend area. The pipe is
supported by its own tension only in the span between the end of the stinger and the
sea bed touchdown point, or the "sagbend" zone.
The DP system must allow the vessel precision positioning on a fixed heading,
maintaining pipe tension and moving the vessel ahead an exact 12m on demand.
These moves may occur every four minutes. Faster working may be achieved if
double-joints are worked, with the vessel moving 24m each time. Pipe tension is fed
back into the DP from sensors on the tensioners and must be maintained within
specification tonnages.
In deeper water, S-lay is not feasible and J-lay is common. In J-lay operations,
the stinger is configured as a tower, angled between the vertical, and up to 20
degrees from the vertical. Pipe lengths are pre-jointed into triple or quadruple joints
before being raised to the vertical for welding onto the pipestring.
Reel-Lay Operations
This type of operation varies from those described in that the pipestring is
prefabricated in one length at a shore-based factory. The vessel loads the pipeline
straight from the factory, spooling it onto a reel or into a carousel. The vessel can
transit to site with the pipe to lay it by feeding it off the reel/carousel via straighteners
and tensioners, either singly or as a bundle.
The pipe is laid by passing it from the carousel onto the lay-ramp, thence down
the stinger. In very deep water the only suitable method is J-lay. Here the stinger is
mounted close to vertical. The pipe is fabricated into triple-joint lengths, which are
turned to the vertical at the stinger. Large forces are induced at the stinger due to the
heavy weights of pipe involved and these forces must be countered by the vessel's
DP capability.
Pipelay vessels routinely conduct complicated evolutions using DP. The
operations to commence and complete pipelay, conduct an in-water tie-in or to lay
down the end of the pipe if necessary, all involve precision positioning.
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Rockdumping operations
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Dredging Operations
Many dredging operations are utilising the advantages of DP. Whether the
dredging operation is for the purposes of harbour/channel maintenance, or for the
recovery of aggregate materials, the precision available from the use of DP makes it
an attractive method of operation. A trailing suction dredger may follow a
predetermined track with the reference point being located upon the draghead, i.e.
the draghead is the element being positioned rather than the vessel. The DP system
is configured to receive and compensate for measured draghead forces determined
from suitably located sensors.
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tanker. The tanker will normally position astern of the FPSO and load through a bow
manifold. Positioning strategy is as for OLT or STL arrangements, with the added
complication that the reference point for positioning may be slowly moving; the FPSO
may be weathervaning or controlling the loading. Position reference for the offtake
tanker-will usually be a combination of Artemis and relative GPS (the DARPS
system). Both these PRS are relative in nature, as the offtake tanker is positioning in
relation to a mobile point.
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A UKOLS facility has a loading hose connected to a mid-water buoy. The buoy
is positively buoyant and is moored at a fixed depth, above a gravity-based housing
or pipeline end manifold (PLEM). Vessels using this facility have no need for a
mooring hawser; the only connection to the buoy is the hose.
A more recent development is the submerged turret loading (STL) system,
where the loading connections are located in a subsea buoy. The buoy is moored
above the PLEM at a depth greater than the draught of the offtake vessel. The STL is
mated into a docking port built into the forebody of the vessel, and carries the flowline
connections to the vessel. Once locked into position, the vessel is able to
weathervane using the swivel through the centre of the STL. A development of the
STL is used for production.
Floating Production, Storage and Offtake units are becoming common in many
parts of the world. Many FPSOs are able to weathervane around the turret and
maintain heading into the weather.
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Most FPSOs utilise offtake tankers for export of oil, and these tankers are
usually DP-capable. With any FPSO/offtake tanker operation, the tanker will
experience more positioning problems than when loading from an ALP. The offtake
vessel keeps position within a circle defined by the length of the loading hose. The
reference position is the hose terminal point on the stern of the FPSO. The mooring
and positioning system in the FPSO allows a degree of movement, especially in deep
water, so the FPSO may be continually weathervaning, so that the shuttle tanker
reference point will be moving. The shuttle tanker can try to follow this movement or
position absolutely to pre-set limits.
In FPSO offtake operations, a relative position reference is essential. One such
position reference is the relative GPS (DARPS) system, yielding position information
reduced to range/bearing data from the FPSO terminal location. Another position
reference is Artemis, with the fixed station located on the FPSO and the mobile
station located on the tanker. The prime consideration is the clearance distance from
the FPSO so that the collision risk is minimised.
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The thrusters will have to work harder and therefore create more "noise".
Due to the lag in the model position keeping stability may deteriorate.
The two position reference systems that will be affected are the HPR and the
Taut Wire. The wire itself can be bowed by strong current, but it is the possibility of
fouling from seaweed etc. That would cause a position error. Further the short wire
lenght means that the vessel's movement is severely limited especially as the wire
comes towards the keel. The HPR similary is limited by shalow water.
The transducer protrudes 3 -4 meters below the hull and the transponder ia a
couple of metres above the seabed. Thus the vertical separation is reduced hence
limiting the range. Combined with thruster noise the HPR can become unreliable.
Should the vessel move then it is possible for both these systems to go "out of range"
very quikly.
When planning shallow water operations it is necessary to have at least one
surface position reference system, preferably 2. Surface position reference systems
are likely to remain unaffected by water depth.
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APPENDIX A - DP INCIDENTS
Figure 95/04
COMMENTS
This incident has been explained as a typical soliton effect that can catch an operator
unaware in the South China Sea (for more information see IMCA seminar November
1995).
MAIN CAUSE
Soliton
SECONDARY CAUSE
Thruster failure
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Figure 95/09
COMMENTS
Low pitch pressure alarm on the port hydraulic pump came up and the port thruster
tripped on low pressure. The engineer went to investigate and witnessed a large oil
spray. On returning to the ECR the starboard pitch pump was shut down by mistake.
The loss of pressure had been caused by a nipple coming out of the valve block,
possibly due to a partly stripped thread.
MAIN CAUSE
Operator error
SECONDARY CAUSE
Thruster fault (hydraulic)
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Figure 95/09
COMMENTS
Low pitch pressure alarm on the port hydraulic pump came up and the port thruster
tripped on low pressure. The engineer went to investigate and witnessed a large oil
spray. On returning to the ECR the starboard pitch pump was shut down by mistake.
The loss of pressure had been caused by a nipple coming out of the valve block,
possibly due to a partly stripped thread.
MAIN CAUSE
Operator error
SECONDARY CAUSE
Thruster fault (hydraulic)
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Figure 95/02
COMMENTS
The DPO had little chance of stopping contact with the platform when the powerful
thruster gave full power 135 degrees from the requested direction. The vessel was off
hire for 3 days while starboard azimuth thruster was stripped down, and a foreign
body was found. Presumably the DP alarms included a thruster fault alarm and the
starboard azimuth thruster should have been stopped more quickly and then the
collision could have been avoide.
MAIN CAUSE
Thruster fault (hydraulic)
SECONDARY CAUSE
Operator error
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Figure 96/18
COMMENTS
There will also be a loss of position when changing heading a large amount quickly
especially if the vessel has heading priority. It should never be necessary to go into
manual control to out perform the DP software unless the software is poor or not
designed for the operation being performed. In addition on this vessel the azimuth
thrusters do not assist the, astern until the main propeller reached 100% pitch. The
vessel is not optimal for working stern to rough weather.
MAIN CAUSE
Operator error
SECONDARY CAUSE
Poor design (Software)
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Figure 12/92
COMMENTS
The DGPS reference was interfaced to the DP system via a navigation/survey
computer which configured the DGS into a pseudo-Artemis signal. When the taut wire
was raised this pseudo-Artemis signal became the sole reference. At the same time
the navigation computer failed to receive adequate data from the DGPS system, and
continued to output the last pseudo-Artemis signal to the DP computer.
MAIN CAUSE
DGPS software fault
SECONDARY CAUSE
Insufficient commissioning/testing/QA
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Figure 96/14
COMMENTS
The vessel was operating with open bus ties, inadequate power on line and with
power limit warnings on bus 1 and bus 2. The thrusters were poorly set up so that the
demanded thrust was either not met or exceeded. There was heavy pitching and
No.2 bow thrust tripped on overload (Amps) before any pitch reduction was possible
(DP unaware of overload because of poor set up). Failure of the other two thrusters
was a consequence of the failure of No. 2. It was not possible to restart them until an
azimuth thruster had been tripped because starting was inhibited when high power
was being used by other thrusters 85%.
MAIN CAUSE
Thruster Electrical Protection / Control
SECONDARY CAUSE
Unadequate testing / commissioning / QA
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Figure 21/92
COMMENTS
During operations the wind increased considerably and the decision ws taken to
move the vessel to the optimum heading. This required the vessel to move astern
and change the heading 30 degrees. During one of the moves the vessel failed to
reach the "marked position". It eventually became necessary to go into manual
control to complete the move. Subsequent tests of software revealed the program
was configured such that the estimated sea current was only updated when the
vessel reached the "marked position".
MAIN CAUSE
DP control fault (software)
SECONDARY CAUSE
Insufficient commissioning / QA
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Figure 96/10
COMMENTS
There were alarms for A/B difference, network serial interface timeout and then
thruster feedback for thrusters 1, 4 and 5. No final explanation is available but clearly
the ADP702 crashed and the vessel lost position until manual control was selected.
MAIN CAUSE
Computer Fault
SECONDARY CAUSE
Poor design
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Figure 96/08
COMMENTS
The man on the transponder winch line was asked to stand by to skip beacon but
failed to hear the stand by part of the message.
MAIN CAUSE
Operator error
SECONDARY CAUSE
Poor Procedures
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Figure 96/04
COMMENTS
There had been tests carried out to prove that the arrangement of DGPS and HPR
back up was satisfactory and in the 71m of water the transponder had to be within
50m for it to be a good position reference. It became outside this range.
MAIN CAUSE
Operator error
SECONDARY CAUSE
Poor Procedures
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Figure 5/92
COMMENTS
The vessel was working down weather of the rig and drifted away from the rig and
mooring lines during the blackout. The divers and equipment were back onboard
twelve minutes after the blackout. The cause of the blackout was the operation of the
interlocks for shore power to the 440V switchboard which tripped the high
voItage/440V transformers. Any vessel with a shore connection and interlocks should
make sure that these are isolated during DP operations, so that a fault or a single act
of mal-operation cannot cause a DP blackout.
MAIN CAUSE
Electrical fault
SECONDARY CAUSE
Poor design
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Figure 8/92
COMMENTS
When the vessel was initially set up on DP, trials were carried out using Artemis only
as Syledis was not available. The vessel was already working when Syledis became
available and so DP trials on Syledis only were not carried out. The vessel was
moving in open waters with only one position reference and one untested backup.
Once the vessel commenced the planned movement the Artemis signal was lost
leaving Syledis as the only reference system available. The Syledis system was not
updating position, which was the cause of the drive off. Artemis signals were
restored, and vessel went back in full auto DP on Artemis.
MAIN CAUSE
Operator Error
SECONDARY CAUSE
Poor Procedures
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Figure 96/34
COMMENTS
The master discovered after the incident that the differential signal form Inmarsat A
had been lost but the other DGPS used for survey was using an HF diff signal. There
was no alarm or rejection of DGPS when the diff signal was lost and the survey team
forgot to inform the bridge. This failure illustrates the weakness of DGPS supplied by
the survey team as pseudo Artemis.
MAIN CAUSE
DGPS Failure (diff signal)
SECONDARY CAUSE
Operator Error
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Figure 14/92
COMMENTS
After reloading the backup computer the operator pressed the restart pushbutton,
which caused the online A computer to stop with the subsequent loss of DP control.
The vessel's position was maintained using the manual controls, whilst both A and B
computers were again reload. No investigation was undertaken into this incident and
it is likely that the operator stopped the A computer by mistake.
MAIN CAUSE
Operator error
SECONDARY CAUSE
Poor Procedures
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Figure 17/92
COMMENTS
The wind squall lasted approximately 3 minutes and was accompanied by a 70
degree change in wind direction. Since the thrusters were in fixed positions, they
could not supply sufficient thrust to counter the vessels movement. The maximum
position loss was 9 metres, after which the vessel started to regain position. Had the
thrusters been in free azimuth mode before the squall, it is likely that the position loss
would have been much less and not necessitated the amber alert. The large wind
change would have had a major impact on the vessel model and a stabilisation
period should have been carried out. Diving resumed after three minutes.
MAIN CAUSE
Wind Squall
SECONDARY CAUSE
Operator error (fixed azimuth mode)
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Figure 26/92
COMMENTS
It was reported that the vessel initially lost position and heading because of a wind
gust and a heavy swell on the beam. In attempting to regain position the bow thruster
wen to 100% starboard thrust, and shortly afterwards the centre tunnel thruster
tripped out. The thruster tripped on overload when restarted. It was subsequently
found that the setting of zero pitch on the centre tunnel thruster was out, and the
thruster motor overloaded when driven 100% starboard. The pitch setting was
adjusted and after testing driving recommenced.
MAIN CAUSE
Thruster fault (electrical)
SECONDARY CAUSE
Insufficient maintenance
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Figure 22/92
COMMENTS
No more information is available about this incident. Loss of one position reference
should not cause a loss of position. Of course there can be a small shift of position
because the remaining position reference would have 100% weighting and before it
may have had a low weighting. Discussions had taken place between the two vessels
prior to this incident, regarding transponders channels to be used.
MAIN CAUSE
Operator error
SECONDARY CAUSE
Poor Procedures
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Figure 32/92
COMMENTS
To clean the 660V switchboard the centre bus-tie was opened. Opening the bus-tie
breaker caused the emergency generator to start. When this was discovered, an
engineer went to stop the emergency generator, but as the door to generator room
slammed shut the emergency switchboard supplies to the bridge and diving
switchboard tripped. The DP operators did not know why there was a loss of power to
the UPS and gyros, and initiated a "Red Alert" whilst the situation was brought under
control. The vessel maintained position while the divers were retrieved. There
appears to have been little communication between the engineers and DP operator,
and certainly switchboard cleaning should not have been undertaken while diving
was in progress.
MAIN CAUSE
Operator error
SECONDARY CAUSE
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Figure 96/51
COMMENTS
The differential corrections were thought to be independent, one Inmarsat A the other
Inmarsat B, thus avoiding a potential single point failure. After this failure it was found
that both were transmitted from the same dish in Eik Norway, and failure of the dish
caused loss of both DGPS. This failure happened.
MAIN CAUSE
DGPS Fault
SECONDARY CAUSE
Insufficient testing / Commissioning / QA
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Figure 96/09
COMMENTS
The vessel did not clearly establish the cause of this incident. A move to starboard
was input and the vessel moved to port and continued to move. The alarm print out
shows the diff signal was frequently being lost an hour earlier. We therefore think the
most likely cause was DGPS fault or operator error or both. Once high thrust was
used it is possible that the HPR was lost. There should have been three position
references on line.
MAIN CAUSE
DGPS Failure (loss of diff)
SECONDARY CAUSE
Operator error
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100
E:
500200
Wind :
10 m/s or 20 knots
340
Current :
310
Draught:
8.50 m
Insert: Limits
POSITION:
WARNING
2m
ALARM
4m
HEADING:
WARNING
ALARM
Set: Heading:
043
Make a trace of the next movements by click for Control, and then
Trace line
5 sec.
30 min.
Trend symbol
2 min.
30 min.
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N ..
E .
Your vessel is 112 m long and your rotation centre CG is 51 m from the bow.
Change ROTATION CENTRE to the bow.
What is your Position?
N ..
E .
N ..
E .
348
0.6 m/s
Then: Take the vessel to a position where the bow is 70 m south of your HPR
transponder.
Trends view:
Enter: Trends from the Main display view.
Configure three TrendPlot windows:
Fig. 1 The Force
Fig. 2 The Moment
Fig. 3 Dev Pos
What have maximum values been so far in this exercises?
Thruster force: ...
Thruster moment: ...
Position deviation: ..
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Rotate your vessel to the worst thinkable heading in current weather situation.
When in position with a stabilized system,
What is the load on the thrusters?
Resulting force . Tons
Direction .
Rotation moment .. T*m
Speed to knots
Envir. Speed to knots
When the vessel is in position with a stabilized system, set the vessel to 1.5 m/s.
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006
002.5 WARNING
- 16 m
26 m
N ..
E .
N ..
E .
E 003 00.3500
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m/s
Wpt 1 N 6482250
E 500200
use Heading 020 Speed 1,0 m/s and Turn radius 10 m towards
Wp2 N 6482400
E 500400
m/s
N 6482400
E 500600
m/s
Wp4 N 6482200
E 500750
m/s
Wp5 N 6481990
E 500600
m/s
Wp6 N 6481990
E 500400
m/s
W3
Wp7 N 6482150
E 500200
Wp8 N 6482250
E 500200
Check that the track looks correct.
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Set-Up:
Use DGPS as Reference Origin. Bring the vessel into Auto position.
Turn ON Trace Line and Trend symbols (running the Track takes app. 35 minutes).
Activate Limits/Cross warning and alarm to suitable values.
Go through all the settings in the dialog box named Track Settings.
Use these settings, all other settings you have to decide yourself:
Next waypoint 1
Low speed
Forward direction
Approach Track Waypoint
Position Dropout Action = Stop
Stop On Course = Stay with 100% Force
Heading = System selected - Waypoint Table
Along Speed Setpoint = Waypoint Table
Turn Radius = Waypoint Table
Execution :
Start the Auto Track.
When between Wpt 2 and Wpt 3 use the STOP buttons.
How much force is used during stopping ? ..
When passed Wpt 3, input a Leg Offset of 15 metres. Vessel to move on the outer
side of the track.
Should the input be + or - ?
When passed Wpt 5 press the YAW button (the YAW status lamp becomes unlit) and
use the joystick to control the heading of the vessel.
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60 00N
E:
002 00E
Wind:
10 m/s 340 0
Current :
Draught :
7.0m
ALARM
ALARM
4m
3
WARNING 2m
043 0
N ..
142
E .
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N ..
E .
Change the REFERENCE ORIGIN (RO) to Acoustic beacon on the coordinate setup
page.
What is your Position?
N ..
E .
348
0.6 m/s
Take the vessel to a position where the bow is 70 m south of your acoustic beacon.
Real time trends view :
Trends from the "Mimic Index" - "Standard Mimics" or bottom tool bar
Configure three TrendPlot windows :
Fig. 1. Thrust demand X
Fig. 2. Thrust demand N
Fig. 3. Position error X
What have maximum values been so far in this exercise ?
Thruster demand X
Thruster demand N
Position error X
.......................
.......................
..
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Rotate your vessel to the worst thinkable heading in current weather situation. Can
you change the heading?
When the heading has settled
what is the load on the thrusters ?
Heading:
0060
002m
WARNING. 004 m
ALARM
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N ..
E .
SURGE
-16 m.
SWAY
25 m.
What is your Position?
N ..
E .
Under Mimic index-Options toggle Position notation between Grid and Geographic
presentation, end up in Geographic
What is your Position?
N ..
E .
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Line,
W3
Line,
E 500600
N 6482400
Wp4 E500700
N 6482200
ArcC,
Wp5 E500600
N6481990
Line,
Wp6 E500400
N6481990
Arc A,
Wp7 E500200
N6482150
Line
Wp8 E500200
N 6482250
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Set-Up
Use DGPS as Reference Origin.
Bring the vessel into DP mode.
Turn ON Vessel trail, and display track under screen options
Check that the track looks correct.
Activate Limits warning and alarm to suitable values.
Go through all the settings on the track follow page
Use these settings, all other settings you have to decide yourself:
Next waypoint
Slider velocity /WP preset
Forward / Backwards
Continuous / increment
Heading
Intro shift / to WP
=2
= WP presets
= Forward
= Continuous
= Follow WP presets
= To WP
Execution :
Go to first WP
Modes select Follow track
When between Wpt 2 and Wpt 3 use the TRACKING button to stop the vessel.
How much force is used during stopping? .
Start the vessel by pressing the stopped button
When you restart the vesselchange heading preset to follow course
When passed Wpt 4, input a Track offset of 15 metres. Vessel to move on the outer
side of the track.
Should the input be left or right? ..
After passing WP 5 change heading presets to WP presets
After you pass WP 6 change heading to 300
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N:
60 00N
E:
002 00E
Wind:
Current:
Draught:
3 m/s 340
0.5 m/s 310
5.5
Use 2 DGPS
Set heading
000
Set up follow track using the pointer option, the track does not have to be precise
reasonably close will do
WP 1
WP2
WP3
WP4
WP5
WP6
present position
500m
000
500m
030
500m
060
500m
090
500m
120
then
then
then
then
Use line for ali waypoints; Slider or track speed to 2 m/s, next waypoint 2
Under screen option ensure ROV trail is on
PME display display beacon 12 fixes
On Simulation page select simulation tab, select plough tab
Set "brake off' to "brake on"
Set "free" to "attached"
Set "recovered" to "deployed"
Change to follo\v track
Then try and use track shift (under change position menu) to keep PLOUGH on track
If heading does not match track heading use change heading function, or use follow
course option
NB THE PLOUGH HAS A FLXED 400M LAY-BACK
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DP Simulator Course
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DP OPERATOR'S CERTIFICATE
NOTES
All DP seatime, courses and other elements of the programme must have been
completed within the past 5 years.
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30 days familiarisation at sea during which time the familiarisation tasks should be
completed.
Six months' or more recorded sea service on a DP vessel depending upon the
level of certificate sought.
Issue of a certificate.
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DPO, etc. Unfortunately entries such as Master, Chief Officer, etc. do not indicate that
that person had an operational DP role on board. These, and other ranks, may be
combined with DPO in this entry e.g. Chief Officer/DPO.
Make sure at the end of the training period the Master completes Section F
(The statement of officer to undertake full watchkeeping responsibility on board a DP
vessel). Section F should be signed by the Master who should also enter his/her own
DP certificate number if held. This signature and the ship's stamp should correspond
to an entry in Section E.
If the Master is the holder of the logbook he/she should have this section
signed by a DPO on board who should also enter his/her own DP certificate number if
held. If the Master finds himself/herself in the position vvhere he/she is unable to
have a DPO sign this section, he/she should sign this section himself/herself a
company marine manager who is aware of the Master's DP abilities should
authenticate it.
It may be necessary to have an additional section F completed if you are
applying for a full certificate or an upgrade and the section F has been previously
completed for a DP Class 1 vessel.
Please note that during the verification process the signature of the Master and
date in Section F will be checked with those entered in section E of the logbook. If
you are the Master you should have this section countersigned by an appropriate
person such as a DPO on board or a marine superintendent who knows you DP
ability. They should state their position on this page. It is also useful if the Master or
other person signing section F enters their own DP certificate number if they have
one.
When the logbook is complete it should be sent to The Nautical Institute, 202
Lambeth Road, London, SE1 7LQ, United Kingdom. There may be a charge if the
logbook is incomplete and has to be returned or additional documents have to be
submitted. It is suggested that a copy is made of the logbook before sending in case
it goes missing in transit.
The Institute will verify the following information;
Certificate of competency
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Extra vetting is carried out by random verification that the data is correct by
contacting companies, training centres, masters and individuals. If all the data is
correct the Institute will issue a numbered and dated certificate, record the
information in the logbook and normally aim to return the logbook wrth the certificate
within two weeks of receipt by first class mail or airmail overseas. If you vvish to have
these documents returned by courier you should forvvard payment of 10 with the
logbook.
You should follovv the procedure above if you are forwarding logbook for an
upgrade. For this you should also include the original limited certificate and an
additional section F signed by the Master of a DP Class 2 or 3 vessel on which you
have served.
Should you have any questions about the DP certificates the staff at the
Institute will be happy to answer these. They can be contacted by email at
icg@nautinst.org or cal@nautinst.org, by telephone on +44 20 7928 1351 or by fax
on +44 20 7401
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ABBREVIATIONS
Alstom
Artemis
C/A Code
CG
COS
C/R COR
DARPS
DGPS
DoD
DP
DPO
DR
DSV
ERS
FMEA
FPV
FPSO
FSU
GPS
HPR
INS
IMCA
IMO
MMI
LAN
LBL
LTW
OLT
P-Code
PM
PME
PMS
PPS
PRS
ROV
SA
SBL
SSBL
STL
Surge
Sway
DP system manufacturer
A microvvave position reference system
The Coarse Acquisition code used with the GPS system
Centre of Gravity
Common Operator Station
Centre of Rotation or Alternative Rotation Point
Differential Absolute and Relative Positioning System, a DGPSrelated PRS used by shuttle tankers and FPVs
Differential GPS
The US Department of Defence
Dynamic Positioning
Dynamic Positioning Operator
Dead Reckoning
Dive Support Vessel
Environment Reference Sensor
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
Floating Production Vesse
Floating Production storage offloading
Floating storage unit
The Global Positioning System of satellite navigation
Hydroacoustic Position Reference
Inertial navigation system
The International Marine Contractors Association, an amalgamation of
the DPVOA and AODC, these two bodies merged in 1995.
The International Maritime Organisation
The Man Machine Interface
Local Area Netvvork
Long Baseline HPR
Lightweight Taut Wire system
Offshore Loading Terminal
The precision code transmitted within the GPS system, currently
restricted to use by approved military users.
Position Mooring
Position measuring equipment (GPS, HPR etc)
Power management system
The Precise Positioning Service from the GPS system, only available
to approved military users
Position Reference System
Remotely Operated Vehicle, usually unmanned submersible
Selective Availability, the means by which non-approved users are
denied access to the P-code within the GPS system
Short Baseline HPR
Super-short Baseline
Submerged Turret Loading
Vessel movement in the fore and aft direction
Vessel movement in the transverse direction
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UPS
USVL
UTM
VRS
VRU
WGS84
Yaw
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REFERENCES
ALSTOM, Guide to Dynamic Positioning of Vessels, Alstom Power Conversion
Ltd, 2000.
Bray, D. J., Dynamic Positioning Operator Training, The official guide to The
Nautical Institute training standards, The Nautical Institute, 1999.
IMCA, Introduction to Dynamic PositioningThe Training and Experience ofkey DP
Personnel, Issue 1, Revision 1, January 1996.
IMCA, Training and Experience of key DP Personnel, Issue 1, Revision 1,
January 1996.
IMCA, Guidance for The Initial and Refresher Familiarisation of Vessel Crews,
December 2000.
IMCA, International Guidelines for The Safe Operation of Dynamically Positioned
Offshore Supply Vessels, March 2006.
IMCA, DP Incidents, The IMCA Database 1990-99.
IMO, Guidelines for vessels with dynamic positioning systems, Annex MSC/Circ.
645, June 1994.
IMO, Guidelines for vessels with dynamic positioning systems (DP) operator
training , July 2006. MSC/Circ. 645,
IMO, Guidelines for dynamic positioning system (DP) operator training , July 2006.
MSC.1/Circ. 738/Rev.1,
Singapore Maritime Academy, DP Operator Manual
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