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INTRODUCTION
1.1. OVERVIEW OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Course Objectives
Be acquainted with the thermodynamics, heat
transfer and their current engineering applications.
Be comfortable with the metric SI commonly used in
engineering.
Develop an intuitive systematic problem-solving
technique.
Understand the basic concepts of mass transfer
THERMODYNAMICS
Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require
a knowledge of the behavior of
individual particles.
Conservation of energy
principle for the human body.
Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.
Heat flows in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid mechanics: The science
that deals with the behavior of
fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in
motion (fluid dynamics), and the
interaction of fluids with solids or
other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid: A substance in the liquid
or gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming,
whereas a fluid deforms
continuously under the influence
of shear stress, no matter how
small.
Fluid mechanics deals with liquids
and gases in motion or at rest.
HEAT TRANSFER
Example: Thermos
Example: PCBs
The primary driving force is the pressure difference for fluid flow and the
temperature difference for heat transfer, whereas it is the concentration
difference for mass transfer. Therefore, we do not speak of mass transfer in
a homogeneous medium.
Physical Origins
Both conduction and mass diffusion are transport processes that originate
from molecular activity.
Applications
Tutorial questions
C1-1. Why is heat transfer a nonequilibrium phenomenon?
Ans. Heat transfer is a non-equilibrium phenomena since in a system that is in
equilibrium there can be no temperature differences and thus no heat flow.
C1-2. Can there be any heat transfer between two bodies that are at the same
temperature but at different pressures?
Ans. There cannot be any heat transfer between two bodies that are at the same
temperature (regardless of pressure) since the driving force for heat transfer
is temperature difference
C1-3. What is mass transfer ?
Ans. Mass transfer refers to the movement of a chemical species from a high
concentration region toward a lower concentration region
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Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
1.2. MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Objectives
Understand the basic mechanisms of heat
transfer, which are conduction, convection, and
radiation, and Fourier's law of heat conduction,
Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan
Boltzmann law of radiation
Identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that
occur simultaneously in practice
Develop an awareness of the cost associated
with heat losses
Solve various heat transfer problems
encountered in practice
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INTRODUCTION
Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of temperature difference.
Thermodynamics concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.
Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of
such energy transfers as well as variation of temperature.
The transfer of energy as heat is always from the highertemperature medium to the lower-temperature one.
Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, radiation
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CONDUCTION
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their
random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of
the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by
free electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the
layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer.
Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.
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When x 0
Fouriers law of
heat conduction
In heat conduction
analysis, A represents
the area normal to the
direction of heat
transfer.
Thermal
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity:
The rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness
of the material per unit
area per unit
temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity
of a material is a
measure of the ability of
the material to conduct
heat.
A high value for thermal
conductivity indicates
A simple experimental setup
that the material is a
to determine the thermal
good heat conductor,
and a low value indicates conductivity of a material.
that the material is a
poor heat conductor or
insulator.
The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various
materials at
room
temperature.
The variation of
the thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and gases
with temperature.
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Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg C: Heat capacity
per unit mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3 C: Heat capacity
per unit volume
Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents
how fast heat diffuses through a material
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CONVECTION
Convection: The mode of
energy transfer between a
solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas that is
in motion, and it involves
the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion,
the greater the convection
heat transfer.
In the absence of any bulk
fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and
the adjacent fluid is by pure
conduction.
Forced convection: If
the fluid is forced to flow
over the surface by
external means such as
a fan, pump, or the wind.
Natural (or free)
convection: If the fluid
motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are
induced by density
differences due to the
variation of temperature
in the fluid.
Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during
the process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the
fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
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RADIATION
In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth.
StefanBoltzmann law
= 5.670 108 W/m2 K4 StefanBoltzmann constant
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.
Radiation emitted
by real surfaces
Emissivity : A measure of how closely
a surface approximates a blackbody for
which = 1 of the surface. 0
1.
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SIMULTANEOUS HEAT
TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids,
but by conduction and radiation in semitransparent
solids, but not convection. A solid may involve
convection and/or radiation on its surfaces exposed
to a fluid or other surfaces.
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by
radiation in a still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by
convection and radiation in a flowing fluid.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation.
Most gases between two solid surfaces
do not interfere with radiation.
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of
radiation.
Summary
Conduction
Fouriers law of heat conduction
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Diffusivity
Convection
Newtons law of cooling
Radiation
StefanBoltzmann law
1nm=10-3 m
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Chapter 2
HEAT CONDUCTION
Fouriers law of
heat conduction
3
Electrical resistance
Schematic for
convection and radiation
resistances at a surface.
The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a plane wall subjected to
convection on both sides, and the electrical analogy.
Temperature drop
U overall heat
transfer coefficient
Once Q is evaluated, the
surface temperature T1 can
be determined from
Multilayer
Plane
Walls
The thermal resistance
network for heat transfer
through a two-layer plane
wall subjected to
convection on both sides.
10
11
Temperature distribution and heat flow lines along two solid plates
pressed against each other for the case of perfect and imperfect contact.
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14
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When Ts and T are fixed, two ways to increase the rate of heat transfer are
To increase the convection heat transfer coefficient h. This may require the
installation of a pump or fan, or replacing the existing one with a larger one, but
this approach may or may not be practical. Besides, it may not be adequate.
To increase the surface area As by attaching to the surface extended surfaces
called fins made of highly conductive materials such as aluminum.
Some innovative fin designs.
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Fin Equation
Let
Differential
equation
where
Volume element of a fin at location x
having a length of x, cross-sectional
area of Ac, and perimeter of p.
is temperature excess
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where
Boundary conditions at the fin base and the fin tip, i.e., the relation
between T(x) and Q (x ) at the fin base (x=0) and the fin tip (x=L).
(i) Boundary condition at fin base
C1 = 0, C2 = Tb - T
in
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A long circular fin of uniform cross section and the variation of temperature along it.
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1 z
(e e z )
2
ez e z
tanh z
e z e z 23
cosh z
Fin Efficiency
24
25
mL = 5
an infinitely long fin
mL = 1 offer a good compromise
between heat transfer
performance and the fin size. 26
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Summary
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Tutorial questions
C2-1. In the steady heat
conduction of a brick wall
with a thickness of L, area A
and heat conductivity k,
determine the temperature
difference of two sides of the
wall. Assume the rate of
heat conduction is a
constant q= Qcond.
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C2-2. The windows are 0.8 m high and 1.5 m wide. Compare
the rates of heat transfer through (i) a single- pane and (ii) a
double-pane windows. Calculate the temperature of the surface
of the inner glass of each window.
(i)
(ii)
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C2-3 Six identical power transistors with aluminum casting are attached on one
side of a 1.2-cm-thick and 20-cm*30-cm-area copper plate (k = 386 W/m C ) by
screws that exert an average pressure of 10 MPa. The contact area between the case
and the plate is given to be 9 cm2, and the plate area for each transistor is 100 cm2.
The interface roughness is about 1.4 m. All transistors are covered by a thick
Plexigals layer, which is a poor conductor of heat
and heat must be dissipated to the ambient at 23
C through the back surface of the copper plate.
The combined convection/radiation heat transfer
coefficient at the back surface is h=30 W/m2 C.
For a maximum case temperature of 75 C,
determined the maximum power dissipation and
the temperature jump at the interface. (Assume
the contact conductance at the interface of
copper-aluminum plates for the case of 1.17-1.4
m roughness and 10 MPa pressure is hc =
49,000)
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32
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Chapter 2
HEAT CONDUCTION
Governing equation
A large plane wall:
A
Q& x
, cp
Q& x + x
Ac p T
Q& x + x Q& x
=
x
t
As x 0, t 0. Then
x
x, t
x + x, t + t
A thin element of
thickness x in the large
Plane wall
Q& x
T
= Ac p
x
t
(kAT / x)
T
= Ac p
x
t
2T
1 T 1 T
=
=
x 2 k / c p t t
t
L2
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Chapter 3
HEAT CONVECTION
The fluid motion enhances heat transfer, since it brings warmer and
cooler chunks of fluid into contact, initiating higher rates of conduction
at a greater number of sites in a fluid.
The rate of heat transfer through a fluid is much higher by convection
than it is by conduction.
In fact, the higher the fluid velocity, the higher the rate of heat transfer.
No-slip condition: A fluid in direct contact with a solid sticks to the surface
due to viscous effects, and there is no slip.
Boundary layer: The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the viscous
effects (and thus the velocity gradients) are significant.
The fluid property responsible for the no-slip condition and the development
of the boundary layer is viscosity.
An implication of the no-slip condition is that heat transfer from the solid
surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure conduction,
since the fluid layer is motionless, and can be expressed as
The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along the flow
(or x-) direction. The average or mean convection heat transfer coefficient
for a surface in such cases is determined by properly averaging the local
convection heat transfer coefficients over the entire surface area As or
length L as
Nusselt Number
In convection studies, it is common practice to nondimensionalize the governing
equations and combine the variables, which group together into dimensionless
numbers in order to reduce the number of total variables.
Nusselt number: Dimensionless convection heat transfer coefficient
Nu
hL
k
Prandtl Number
The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary layers
is best described by the dimensionless parameter Prandtl number
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Reynolds Number
The flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertia forces to viscous
forces in a fluid, which is given by the Reynolds number:
Re
V 2 L2
( V / L) L2
VL
Grashof number
This is the ratio of buoyancy to viscous forces, which is significant in free
convection.
Gr
L3
13
14
The local Nusselt number at a location x for laminar flow over a flat
plate may be obtained by solving the differential energy equation to be
15
Laminar +
turbulent
16
FLOW ACROSS
CYLINDERS AND
SPHERES
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