Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 59

Model Evaluation Report

on
UDM Version 6.0

Ref. No. SMEDIS/00/9/E


Version 1.0
21 January 2002

Prepared by
Cambridge Environmental Research Consultants Ltd.
3, Kings Parade
Cambridge
CB2 1SJ
UK

Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................................................iv
Key to summary information ..............................................................................................................vi
0. Evaluation information.....................................................................................................................1
0.1 Protocol ..................................................................................................................................1
0.2 Evaluator ................................................................................................................................1
0.3 Date ........................................................................................................................................1
1. General model description................................................................................................................2
1.1 Name, version number and release date.................................................................................2
1.2 Short description of model .....................................................................................................2
1.3 Model type..............................................................................................................................3
1.4 Route of model into evaluation project ..................................................................................3
1.5 History of model.....................................................................................................................4
1.6 Quality assurance standards adopted......................................................................................4
1.7 Relationship with other models..............................................................................................4
1.8 Current model usage...............................................................................................................6
1.9 Hardware and software requirements.....................................................................................6
1.10 Availability and costs ...........................................................................................................7
2. Scientific basis of model ..................................................................................................................8
2.1 Specification of the source .....................................................................................................8
2.2 Specification of the environment .........................................................................................11
2.3 Model physics and formulation............................................................................................14
2.4 Solution technique................................................................................................................28
2.5 Results or output available from model ...............................................................................29
2.6 Sources of model uncertainty...............................................................................................32
2.7 Limits of applicability ..........................................................................................................32
2.8 Special features.....................................................................................................................34
2.9 Planned scientific developments ..........................................................................................34
3. User-oriented aspects of model ......................................................................................................35
3.1 User-oriented documentation and help.................................................................................35
3.2 Installation procedures .........................................................................................................35
3.3 Description of the user interface ..........................................................................................36
3.4 Internal databases .................................................................................................................36
3.5 Guidance in selecting model options....................................................................................37
3.6 Assistance in the inputting of data .......................................................................................38
3.7 Error messages and checks on use of model beyond its scope ............................................38
3.8 Computational costs .............................................................................................................39
3.9 Clarity and flexibility of output results ................................................................................39
3.10 Suitability to users and usage .............................................................................................40
3.11 Possible improvements.......................................................................................................41
3.12 Planned user-oriented developments..................................................................................41
4. Verification performed ...................................................................................................................42
4.1 Summary of verification.......................................................................................................42
4.2 Comments.............................................................................................................................43
5. Validation performed .....................................................................................................................44
5.1 Validation already performed...............................................................................................44

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

ii

Contents
6. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................46
General model description..........................................................................................................46
Scientific basis of model ............................................................................................................46
Limits of applicability ................................................................................................................47
User-oriented aspects of model ..................................................................................................47
Verification performed ...............................................................................................................48
Validation performed .................................................................................................................48
Advantages and disadvantages of model....................................................................................48
Suitability of protocol for assessment of model.........................................................................48
7. References ......................................................................................................................................49
Supplied documents ...................................................................................................................49
Appendix 1: Actively-generated information.....................................................................................50
Appendix 2: Comments from model developer .................................................................................51

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

iii

Preface
Technical models are widely used to inform decisions relating to safety problems. The quality of a
given model and its appropriate and defensible use in simulating a given problem are clearly of
great importance, and such issues have provided the primary motivation for the development of
scientific model evaluation, a technique which aims to provide information addressing these aspects
of models and their use.
Scientific model evaluation has been supported by the European Union in a number of ways, one of
the most recent being the project SMEDIS (Scientific Model Evaluation of Dense Gas Dispersion
Models). The principal objective of this project is to develop a structured procedure or protocol for
the scientific evaluation of dense gas dispersion models, with particular emphasis on the complex
effects of aerosols, terrain and obstacles, and then to apply this protocol to models used in Europe to
simulate dense gas dispersion problems.
The protocol which has been developed for SMEDIS is consistent with the guidelines issued by the
CEC Model Evaluation Group1, in that evaluation comprises the three elements of validation,
verification and assessment:
(a) assessment is the examination of a model according to a series of detailed categories,
including specific categories for the area of application being highlighted (in this case
aerosols, terrain and obstacles)
(b) validation is the quantitative comparison of experimental observations with model
predictions
(c) verification is the confirmation that the (computer) implementation is an accurate translation
of the model algorithms
The evaluation of each model in SMEDIS focuses on the validation and assessment elements: a
validation exercise is carried out using selected data sets typifying a wide range of release and
environmental conditions, including a significant number in which complex effects play an
important role; and a scientific assessment is carried out concentrating on the scientific basis of the
model and its user-oriented aspects. Verification is effectively absorbed into the assessment by the
inclusion of a section reporting previous verification carried out on the model.
This report represents the output from the assessment element in the scientific evaluation of UDM,
Version 6.0. It has been produced by analysing information supplied on this model by a nominated
organisation (either the model developer or an experienced user). The information has been elicited
by means of questionnaires and supplied mainly in the form of pre-existing documentation on the
model. Only this information has been taken into account in preparing this report2.
There are six main sections, each of which is part description and part analysis. Sections 1-3 form
the principal part of the assessment, focusing on the general description, scientific basis and useroriented aspects of the model, respectively. Each section is divided up into specific subject
headings, many of which include summary information presented in check box format for rapid
overview of the capabilities and formulation of the model. Sections 4 and 5 summarise previous
verification and validation work performed on the model, and Section 6 concludes with a summary
of the findings in the report. References are listed for the documentation utilised in the assessment.
In addition two appendices are included containing both the comments from the model developer
and a summary of the new actively-generated results from the validation exercise.
1
2

CEC Model Evaluation Group Model Evaluation Protocol Version 5, May 1994.
Together with comments from the model developer on the draft version of the report.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

iv

Preface
This report is intended for use by both the model developer and model users:
for the model developer it represents an independent assessment of their model according to a
protocol which has been applied to a wide range of other dense gas dispersion models. It
highlights both the strengths and the weaknesses of the model
for the model user the report assists them in deciding whether the model is appropriate to their
intended use. The inclusion of both scientific and user-oriented aspects of the model in the
review helps the user to gauge how well the model can simulate the specific scientific
problem of interest as well as how well the model performs from a practical point of view.
In all cases, the report can form part of the standard documentation accompanying the model in the
specific version.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

Key to summary information


In Sections 1-3 summary information is provided on many aspects of the model. This is organised
as follows:
(a) Where there is a mutually exclusive choice of options, the relevant choice is denoted by a circle
containing a dot , while the remaining choices are accompanied by an empty circle .
(b) A square box containing a tick denotes that a feature is present or an option applies to the
model; if the box contains a cross , this emphasises that the feature is not present or that the
option does not apply.
(c) A character between square brackets can convey one of the following meanings:
[U] denotes that the user can specify the details of the feature;
[M] denotes that the model specifies the details of the feature;
[?] denotes that the status of the feature is uncertain;
[n] denotes that the item has the value n.
(d) Any parts which are greyed out are not relevant to the model in question.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

vi

0. Evaluation information

0.1 Protocol
This scientific assessment was carried out using the SMEDIS Model Evaluation Protocol,
Version 1.0 (24 June 1997), and the Model Evaluation Report template Version 1.01.

0.2 Evaluator
The scientific assessment was carried out by:
R.E. Britter, CERC Ltd.

0.3 Date
The date of this scientific assessment is 11 July 2000, comments incorporated 21 January 2002.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

1. General model description

1.1 Name, version number and release date


Name:

UDM (within PHAST) Unified Dispersion Model

Version number:

6.0

Release date:

February 2000 (as part of PHAST6.0 release)

1.2 Short description of model


The Unified Dispersion Model (UDM) is an integral model to calculate the dispersion following a
two-phase pressurised release or an unpressurised release. It effectively consists of the following
linked modules:

near-field jet dispersion

non-equilibrium droplet evaporation and rainout, touchdown

pool spread and vaporisation

heavy gas dispersion

far field passive dispersion.

In addition to the non-equilibrium droplet thermodynamics model, UDM also allows for a twophase HF thermodynamics model (including effects of polymerisation). This evaluation document
does not address the module for pool spread and vaporisation.
The UDM allows for continuous instantaneous, constant finite-duration and general time-varying
releases. The UDM allows for possible plume lift-off when a grounded plume becomes buoyant.
The latest version of the UDM is currently implemented in the consequence-analysis package
PHAST6.0. It is planned to be included in the next version 6.1 of the onshore risk-analysis package
SAFETI and in the next version of the offshore risk-package NEPTUNE (successor to OHRAT).
Possible PC-based operating systems are Windows NT, 95, 2000. The programming language for
the model code is Fortran 77, and C++ for the user-interface.
Output is in the form of graphics and/or tabular output. The output is in the form of cloud
parameters, e.g. center-line concentration, ground-level concentration, plume height, plume depth,
plume width, vapour temperature, liquid temperature, etc.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

Category 1: General model description

1.3 Model type


Screening tool Integral model

Shallow layer model

1-D

3-D

2-D

CFD model

1.4 Route of model into evaluation project


1.4.1 Model supplier

Developer

o Licensee

o Other

Contact details:
Name:

Neil Prophet (sales manager)

Address:

Telephone:

Risk Management Software


Det Norske Veritas
Palace House
3 Cathedral Street
London
SE1 9DE
UK
+44 20 77166615

Fax:

+44 20 73577297

E-mail/Web:

Neil.Prophet@dnv.com

1.4.2 Model developer

As above

Contact details:
Name:

Henk W.M. Witlox

Address:

Risk Management Software


Det Norske Veritas
Palace House
3 Cathedral Street
London
SE1 9DE
UK

Telephone:

+44 20 77166711

Fax:

+44 20 73577297

E-mail/Web:

Henk.Witlox@dnv.com

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

Category 1: General model description

1.5 History of model


1.5.1 Model ancestors

There is some historical relation to previous models from Technica, specifically the jet model
TECJET and the heavy gas dispersion model within WHAZAN.
The initial work on the UDM model started in 1990.
The original version of UDM was developed by Woodward and Cook as new technology in the
early nineties. The new UDM 6.0 version represents a significant revision and extension to all parts
of the model.
1.5.2 Features inherited

Unclear.

1.6 Quality assurance standards adopted


1.6.1 Model development

o MEG guidelines

Other

Following a thorough internal assessment in the second half of 1997, the UDM documentation
has been thoroughly reviewed and revised. The code has been checked line-by-line to confirm
consistency against the documented theory. Verification and validation, both for each individual
module in the program and the overall program, has been carried out. Full documentation of
theory, verification and validation is included in the UDM Technical Reference Manual.
1.6.2 Software development
o National

o International Organisation

ISO 9000 o Other

The software development process at Risk Management Software (Section in DNV Software) is
being run to the ISO 9000 Tickit Standard.

1.7 Relationship with other models


1.7.1 Status of dispersion model being evaluated

Self-contained

Can be used as one part of suite

Inextricably bound to other models

General-purpose, only one part required

Other

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

Category 1: General model description

1.7.2 Extent and demarcation

The latest version of the UDM is currently implemented in the consequence-analysis package
PHAST6.0. It is planned to be included in the next version 6.1 of the onshore risk-analysis package
SAFETI, and in the next version of the off-shore risk-analysis package NEPTUNE (successor to
OHRAT).
The UDM model can be clearly defined within the packages PHAST and SAFETI.
1.7.3 Interfacing with other models

Dispersion models are commonly interfaced with, on the one hand, source models, and, on the other
hand, consequence models.
UDM is interfaced with consequence models for jet fires, BLEVEs, pool fires, explosions and
toxicity.
Similarly, from the documentation, it is apparent that UDM is interfaced to release models for
single and multi-phase materials, pressurised and unpressurised.
This evaluation is essentially for dense gas dispersion models (modules) and not for associated
source models. Thus the pool spread and vaporisation model is not included within this evaluation.
However, it should be noted that the pool spread and vaporisation model has been included within
the UDM model, partly because it forms a link between rain-out from the dispersion model and
subsequent re-evaporation of the material to enter a further dispersion calculation.
A downside to this is that, from notes in the validation exercise, there is no simple way to use UDM
to model a pool evaporation problem directly without preceding it with an artificial jet.
An instantaneous energetic expansion model is included with UDM (though still undergoing
development) and this has been treated as a source model for a subsequent dense gas dispersion
model and is not considered further here. This said, the portion of UDM that deals with the
momentum jet following the release and prior to any grounded dense gas dispersion model is
difficult to separate from the grounded dense gas dispersion model itself. As the linking between
these models is often a dominant modelling concern it is probably wise to include the momentum
jet aspect of the modelling within this evaluation.

1.7.4 Comments

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

Category 1: General model description

1.8 Current model usage


1.8.1 Type of user

Background
Engineer

Consultant

Type of experience
Dispersion
o Programming

Fluid dynamics Thermodynamics


Consequence modelling Risk analysis

Length of experience
Hours
Days

Regulator

Weeks

o Other

Academic

o Numerical methods
o Other

Months

Years

1.8.2 Model distribution

Location
Outside model developer
o Country of origin

Industry

Numbers
<5

o Continent of origin

Consultancies

o Universities

10-50

50-100

5-10

Worldwide
o Other
Regulatory authorities o Other

>100

1.8.3 Comments

1.9 Hardware and software requirements


1.9.1 List of requirements

Computer platforms
PC: 386
Workstation

PC: 486
PC: Pentium/Pentium II
o Main frame o Vector/parallel machine
o Other

Peripheral hardware
Monitor Keyboard

o Other

Mouse

o CD-ROM drive

Printer

o Plotter

Memory
<0.1 Mbytes

0.1-0.5 Mbytes

0.5-1.0 Mbytes

1-5 Mbytes >5 Mbytes

Disk space
<1 Mbyte

1-10 Mbytes

10-100 Mbytes

>100 Mbytes

Operating system
o DOS

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Windows

o UNIX

o VMS

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

o Other

Category 1: General model description

Additional software
Required
o Compiler

Optional
Not required
o Graphics package o GIS
Other

Graphical device requirements


o High resolution
o Colour display

o Other

Internet Explorer is required for access of the on-line HELP documentation.


1.9.2 Comments on overall requirements

1.10 Availability and costs


Proprietary

Shareware

Licence

Public domain

Perpetual licence/buy outright

Other
o Not available

o Other

Cost not provided.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

2. Scientific basis of model


A simple categorisation of dense gas dispersion models is included in the protocol, consisting of
four main types:
(a) Simplified empirical screening models or screening tools based on either a generic interpretation
of a problem or specific experience in a restricted domain
(b) One-dimensional integral models in which the development of the flow is in one spatial
dimension. Variations of, say, the concentration field in the other two dimensions are
accommodated by the assumption of self-similarity in the concentration field.
(c) Shallow-layer models or two-dimensional integral models in which the development of the flow
is in two spatial dimensions
(d) Fully three-dimensional models allowing for the development of the flow field in three spatial
dimensions and time. This would include computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and the attendant
models for turbulence.
The present model may be classified as a one-dimensional integral model.

2.1 Specification of the source


The inputs for dense gas dispersion models are, typically, provided from a release model e.g. a
momentum jet model or a liquid pool model.
2.1.1 Primary origin for source
2.1.1.1 Types of release conditions available directly to dispersion model

Release models available


Gaseous jet
Liquid jet

Two-phase jet

Liquid pool

Catastrophic release o Other

A liquid pool could be indirectly modeled following 100% rainout. Further improvements are
planned to allow dispersion directly from a pool.
2.1.2 Fluid dynamic properties of source
2.1.2.1 Instantaneous releases

Instantaneous releases
[M] Spatial dimensions

[M] Symmetry

[U] Velocity

[M] Volume

[M] Density

[U] Mass

Multiple sources

[U] Elevation

[] Other

Entrained air

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

Category 2: Scientific basis of model

2.1.2.2 Continuous releases

Continuous releases
[M] Spatial dimensions

[M] Volume flow rate

[M] Density

[U] Mass flow rate

Multiple sources

[U] Elevation

[] Other

Entrained air

Model can recalculate source dimensions

Orientation

[M] Symmetry

[U] Velocity

UDM allows for initial air mixed in for instantaneous, continuous and time-varying releases. In
PHAST, the amount of initial air mixed is calculated by separate source models. PHAST
presently does not allow initial air mixed in for standalone UDM runs.
UDM allows for orientation to be specified for continuous and time-varying releases (release
angle in vertical plane of wind direction, no upwind or crosswind releases).
2.1.2.3 Time-varying releases

Time-varying releases
[M] Spatial dimensions

[M] Volume flow rate

[M] Density

[U] Mass flow rate

Multiple sources

[] Other

Entrained air

Model can recalculate source dimensions

Orientation

Time variation

[M] Symmetry

Time-varying releases are treated by segmenting the release rate, tracking the development of
these segments (taken to be part of a continuous release) and then re-assembling the segments
incorporating concentration profiles.
2.1.2.4 Other aspects of release types

Guidance provided on choice of dispersion source type


o Instantaneous o Continuous o Time-varying

o Other

2.1.3 Thermodynamic properties of source


[M] Temperature

UDM, Ver. 6.0

[M] Quality (two-phase)

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

[] Other

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


Thermodynamic properties for input to UDM will typically be supplied by the output of a source
model. Alternatively, the UDM allows the user to specify either the quality (two-phase) or the
temperature (vapour or liquid).
2.1.4 Chemical properties of source

Composition
[M] Effective single component

[] Components (#)

[] Passive tracer

[] Other

UDM does not treat multi-component releases, but adopts effective single (or pseudo)
compound properties for a user-specified mixture. These effective properties are automatically
generated from the PHAST/SAFETI property system.

Dependence of physical properties


[M] Temperature

[M] Pressure

[M] Composition

[] Other

UDM accesses DIPPR thermodynamic database to evaluate physical properties as function of


temperature, pressure and composition. It does perform internal calculations for binary
diffusivity, dynamic vapour viscosity and specific heat of the vapour cloud.

Chemically reactive substances

Reaction with H2O

Specific reactions Oligomerisation

[] Other

But for HF only.

Radioactive substances

[M] Pre-defined substances (#)


[] Flammable

[] Toxic

[0] Mixtures

[] Other

Properties for flammable substances, toxic substances and mixtures are derived from the
PHAST/SAFETI property system, using the DIPPR property database. A basic set of 59
chemicals (toxic and/or flammable) is presented in the basic database, but access could be
provided to the entire DIPPR database (over 1000 chemicals).
[U] User-defined substances

User-defined substances can be specified by the user using the PHAST/SAFETI property system.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

10

Category 2: Scientific basis of model

2.2 Specification of the environment


2.2.1 Frame of reference

2.2.1.1 Coordinate system

Cartesian

o Cylindrical polar

o Spherical polar

o Other

2.2.1.2 Relation to environment

Origin at source

o x-axis downwind

o Other

PHAST enables the user to import a bitmap, and to indicate the location of the origin on the map.
2.2.2 Atmosphere
2.2.2.1 Mean wind field

Mean wind parameterised

Vertical profile

[M] Dependence on stratification

Horizontal field

Time-varying

[] Other

Vertical velocity profiles used

Logarithmic

[U] Velocity at reference height

Other

[] Friction velocity specified

o Mean wind modelled


[] Vertical profile [] Horizontal field

[] Time variation

o Other

Zero wind allowed

The vertical velocity profile is a power law approximation to the stratification-modified


logarithmic law. The approximation is made over the layer from 10m to 100m. Default cut-off
values of 1m and 200m are used, that is the velocity is uniform at heights below 1m and above
200m and is continuous at these two points.
Note also that the logarithmic portion of the velocity profile has been modified from loge(z/z0) to
loge[(z+z0)/z0]. This is a common modification to remove the singularity as z becomes small. Its
effect may be significant for large z0 and very dense clouds.
A uniform vertical velocity profile may also be selected by the user. This is of little use for the
average user it may be used by the specialist user (or modeler) to examine the effect of the
vertical wind speed gradient on the dispersion predictions.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

11

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.2.2.2 Turbulence

Turbulence parameterised

Turbulence modelled

2.2.2.3 Stratification

Stability ranges
[U] neutral [U] stable

[U] unstable

Stratification parameterised
o Vertical density profile

o Horizontal density field

o Time-varying

[U] Pasquill-Gifford stability categories used [M] Monin-Obukhov length used

Monin-Obukhov Pasquill-Gifford conversion

Stratification modelled
[] Vertical density profile

[] Horizontal density field

[] Time-varying

Other

Temperature and pressure profiles are internally calculated by the model.


For the temperature profile two forms are available: a constant temperature gradient prescribed
as a function of the Pasquill-Gifford stability class or a stability-modified form of a logarithmic
temperature profile.
For the pressure profile two forms are available: an atmospheric pressure independent of height
and one where the pressure decreases linearly with height (based on a constant atmospheric
density).
The atmospheric density is separately calculated from the ideal gas equation using the
atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Relative humidity and atmosphere composition are taken to be independent of height.
2.2.2.4 Use of meteorological data

Meteorological data used


[U] Temperature

[U] Humidity

[] Cloud cover

[] Date/time

[] Latitude/longitude

[U] Other

The user may specify the solar radiation flux.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

12

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.2.3 Terrain

2.2.3.1 Terrain types available

Non-flat terrain
[] Single slope

[] Slope segments (#)

[] General 2-D [] Other

2.2.3.2 Wind orientation for non-flat terrain


o Downslope

o Upslope

o General

[] Other

2.2.3.3 Surface characteristics

[U] Roughness length

o Pre-defined surface types


[U] Temperature

User-defined values

[] Other

The surface temperature can be specified independently from the ambient atmospheric groundlevel temperature (default value of surface temperature equals ground-level ambient
temperature).
2.2.4 Obstacles

2.2.4.1 Obstacle types available

Obstacle types available


o 2-D fence

o Cylindrical building

o General shape

o 1-sided canyon

o Cuboidal building
o 2-sided canyon

o Other

2.2.4.2 Obstacle distribution


o Distribution of obstacles
[] Max number (#)
[] Positions

UDM, Ver. 6.0

[] Orientations [] Other

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

13

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.2.4.3 Obstacle characteristics
o Dimensions
[] Horizontal

[] Vertical

[] Other

o Structural characteristics
[] Porous

[] Other

2.3 Model physics and formulation


2.3.1 Fundamental equations, initial conditions and boundary conditions

2.3.1.1 Equations used/set up

o Volume

Mass

Momentum

Width/radius

o Enthalpy o Temperature
o Concentration

Other

o Species concentration

Differential equations are provided for the excess horizontal and vertical components of
momentum. Differential equations are also provided for the horizontal and vertical position of
an element of a continuous plume and the position of an instantaneous puff; and for the rate of
heat convection and water vapour transfer from the substrate.
2.3.1.2 Dependent variables

Uad

o {ci}

o Other

2.3.1.3 Independent variables (#)

spatial (#)

time

o Other

For continuous releases the independent variables are spatial while for instantaneous releases the
independent variable is time.

H = depth; W = width; R = radius; Uad = advection velocity; = density; (u, v, w) = velocity components;
c = concentration; T = temperature; ci = concentration of species i.
3

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

14

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.3.1.4a Model-type-dependent features of equation formulation (screening tool)
o Physical quantities for which correlations are available
o Concentration

o Other

o Main quantities used to form dimensionless groupings


o Length scale

o Velocity scale

o Ambient density

o Other

o Main independent variables


o Downwind distance

o Wind speed o Release size/rate

o Other

o Physical quantities fixed (or given limited values) for purposes of correlation
o Wind speed

o Atmospheric stability

o Surface roughness o Other

Not applicable.
2.3.1.4b Model-type-dependent features of equation formulation (integral)

Use of similarity profiles in setting up equations

Dependent variables

Concentration

o Velocity

o Temperature

o Gaussian

o Other

Profile shapes used


o Uniform

Other

See Section 2.3.6.


2.3.1.4c Model-type-dependent features of equation formulation (shallow layer)

Not applicable.
2.3.1.4d Model-type-dependent features of equation formulation (CFD)

Not applicable.
2.3.1.5 Turbulence modelling

Turbulence models available


[] k-

UDM, Ver. 6.0

[] Buoyancy-modified k-

[] Algebraic stress

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

[] Reynolds stress

[] Other

15

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.3.1.6 Initial conditions

Initial conditions specified

Source

Atmosphere

Terrain

Obstacles

o Other

2.3.1.7 Boundary conditions

Boundary conditions specified

Source

Cloud boundary

o Other

Atmosphere

Terrain

Obstacles

2.3.2 Dispersion - advection

Advection velocity derived from wind profile

Average over cloud height [] Wind speed at fraction of cloud height

Acceleration of stationary cloud from rest calculated

Advection modelled directly

Other

The advection speed of the cloud (puff or element of a plume) is taken to be the cloud speed at
the height of the centroid of the vertical concentration distribution.
The advection speed is calculated from the horizontal momentum equation. This allows for the
treatment of an elevated jet and grounded jet or dense gas plume with the same structure.
The horizontal momentum equation is, in fact, for the excess horizontal momentum
I x 2 = I x mcld u a ( z c )
= mcld u x mcld u a ( z c )
with mcld being a mass or a mass flux for instantaneous or continuous releases respectively. ux
and ua are the velocities of the cloud and the ambient wind, respectively, and zc is the height of
the cloud centre.
For a stationary instantaneous release Ix is initially set to zero.
For a continuous release the initial horizontal cloud speed is derived from the release speed.
The initial excess horizontal momentum is then set as
I x 2 = mcld (u x u a ( z R )).
The equation for excess horizontal momentum has three terms; airborne, impact drag and ground
drag.
The airborne drag has been taken to be zero for both continuous and instantaneous releases.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

16

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


The impact drag follows the formulation used in HGSYSTEM based on the assumption of
elastic collision is applied to the plume as a whole. The approach is at variance with
fundamental laws of fluid mechanics and is, therefore, suspect.
Apart from the effect of local shear stresses at the ground plane the effect of impact on the plane
must be to remove all the vertical momentum (flux) and to conserve the horizontal momentum
(flux). To this one might postulate the conservation of kinetic energy (flux). This requires the
generation of lateral velocities (symmetrical to ensure no generation of a net lateral momentum
flux).
The ground drag formulation follows the approach used in HGSYSTEM except for a
modification to ensure that the drag reduces to zero when the cloud speed equals the wind speed.
Finally, and it may not be of significance, is that the excess horizontal momentum is defined in
terms the excess over the local ambient velocity. As the cloud descends the local ambient
velocity is changing and so even with no external forces being applied the excess horizontal
momentum is changing; no account for this is taken.
2.3.2.1 Two phase jet model

The grounded dense gas plume dispersion is preceded by a jet model which smoothly changes
into the grounded gas plume model.
The jet model is a conventional model incorporating the usual three entrainment terms

along jet term

across jet term

passive dispersion term.

For an elevated jet these three terms are summed (prior to transition to a passive plume) and,
after transition, only the last term is used.
The terms for passive dispersion are slightly different before and after transition.
For a grounded jet, the maximum of the sum of the first two and a separate term for dense gas
dispersion, is added to the passive dispersion term prior to transition and after transition only a
passive term is used.
This is a common and appropriate approach. The coefficients adopted for the first two terms are
1 = 0.17 and 2 = 0.35. The authors note literature values for 1 range from 0.11 to 0.28 and
for 2 from 0.16 and 0.60. It is somewhat surprising that such a range of constants are still
prevalent in what should be a reasonably straightforward problem. The UDM values, somewhat
coincidentally are quite central within the range.
For the third, passive entrainment term, the near-field formulation follows that in HGSYSTEM
based on experiments from Disselhorst, while the far-field formulations are based on derivatives
of the correlations for the passive dispersion coefficients from McMullen and Hosker as
described elsewhere. The latter is appropriate while the former, though somewhat speculative is
based on directly relevant experiments.
The jet model has been extended to instantaneous releases. It is a little unclear what is the
intended use of this model extension.
If the intent is to allow consideration of an instantaneous puff with initial momentum etc. then
some reconsideration of all the entrainment terms is necessary. Momentum (or buoyant) puffs
have a quite different structure (and consequent entrainment specification) to jets. This is not to

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

17

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


say that the approach adapted in UDM will produce incorrect results, only that some further
justification for the approach is probably necessary.
Alternatively, if the intent of the model extension is to provide a model for the acceleration of an
instantaneous release up to the ambient wind speed which is consistent with the jet formulation,
then the effect of the formulation may be slight anyway. If the instantaneous release has arisen
due to expansion of a catastrophic release of pressurised material then dilution during the
expansion will ensure that the momentum of the puff will be determined by the momentum of
the entrained air.
It may be helpful to a reader of the documentation to provide some examples of where the
models might be relevant.
2.3.3 Dispersion - gravity spreading
Gravity spreading parameterised

Gravity spreading locations

Plume sides

Puff edge

o Other

Gravity spreading characterisation


o Other

[M] Constant Froude number

o Cloud boundary

Upstream/lateral spreading of vapour blanket (continuous releases)


o Upstream spreading

o Lateral spreading

o Other

Gravity spreading modelled directly

The cloud in UDM is characterized by an "equivalent" cloud with effective height Heff, an
effective cloud half-width Weff, a cloud speed Ucld and an equivalent top-hat concentration equal
to the centre-line concentration

H eff

1
c ( x , y , ) d
=
c( x, y,0) 0

1
= Fv ( )d = 1 + Rz ( x)
n
0

and, similarly,

1
Weff = Fh ( y )dy = 1 + R y ( x)
m
0
The symbols in these equations are defined in sections 2.3.4.3 and 2.3.6.
An effective cloud velocity is calculated as the integral in the vertical of the concentrationweighted ambient velocity. However UDM does not use this velocity but uses Ucld, which is the
ambient velocity at the position of the cloud centroid.
Similar approaches are adapted for instantaneous releases.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

18

Category 2: Scientific basis of model

The model UDM used


where g =

dWeff
dt

= 1.15{g H eff (1 + hd )}

1/ 2

cld a ( z c )
g
cld

The general approach for gravity spreading is a common one and the coefficient typical.
UDM allows its elliptical cloud cross-sectional shape to be retained as it intersects and passes
through the ground plane.
Only that portion of the cloud above the ground is physical, containing cloud material. The
parameter hd is the fraction of the area in the bottom half of the ellipse which is above ground.
While a continuous plume is touching down, the continuous cloud cross-section gradually
transforms from a circle to a semi-ellipse (with increased crosswind spreading during touchdown). While an instantaneous cloud is touching down, the cloud shape gradually transforms
from a sphere to a semi-ellipsoid.
2.3.4 Dispersion - dilution
2.3.4.1 Dilution by direct turbulent diffusion

Dense gas regime

Passive regime

There is no explicit dilution by direct turbulent diffusion in the dense gas regime. There may be
an implicit effect of direct turbulent diffusion through the empirical variation of the exponents m
and n (see 2.3.3) in the similarity profiles for the concentration profile in the horizontal. This
will lead to a concentration profile which is not top-hat and this may be ascribed to turbulent
diffusion. However, it must be noted that the effective width Weff will not be changed, nor will
the centreline concentration.
2.3.4.2 Dilution by air entrainment

Entrainment parameterised
[M] Top surface

[M] Side surface

[] Other

o Entrainment modelled directly

The top entrainment is parameterised with an entrainment velocity ut = xu x / ( Ri* )


where
( Ri* ) = (1 + 0.65 | Ri* |) 1
=1

0 < Ri* < 2.3625

= (1 0.8 Ri

1/ 2
*

= Ri* / 7

Ri* < 0

) / 1 .7

2.3625 < Ri* < 14.72


Ri* > 14.72

This approach is typical and commonly met.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

19

Category 2: Scientific basis of model

The side entrainment is parameterised with an entrainment velocity i.e. us =

d Weff
dt

with = 0 for continuous releases

= 0.3 for instantaneous releases


The approach is typical; the former selection is now common. The latter selection for
instantaneous releases is unusual but does reflect that the typical selection of a constant near to
unity may just reflect the particular nature and geometry of the Thorney Island experiments; a
predominant model validation source.
2.3.4.3 Shear dispersion

Contributions to shear dispersion modeled


[M] Longitudinal

Lateral

o Other

No contribution to shear dispersion is included for instantaneous releases.


For finite duration continuous releases two approaches are offered; a quasi-instantaneous model
and a finite duration correction.
The former is a straightforward change from a finite duration continuous release to an
"equivalent" instantaneous release. The drawback to this approach, as the model authors state,
is the introduction of an abrupt transition with consequent discontinuities in some outputs. A
further finite duration adjustment is made to the quasi-instantaneous model but this is an
averaging time correction and will be addressed elsewhere
The second approach is a finite-duration correction. This is a direct application of alongwind
dispersion to the finite duration release. An alongwind dispersion coefficient, x, is formed from
a contribution from vertical shear and a contribution from alongwind turbulent diffusion (which
is equated with lateral turbulent diffusion).
The centre-line ground level concentration for a constant release with duration tdur is obtained
from the steady-state ground-level concentration by multiplying it with a function F where

U t
F = erf 2 3 / 2 c dur
x

where Uc is a mean convection velocity of the cloud. It must be emphasised that this provides a
correction only to the centre-line ground-level concentration.
As stated by the authors Strictly speaking the model applies to the following scenario only:

ground-level non-pressurised release

no significant rainout

uniform release of a finite duration

It cannot be used for time-varying release rates.


2.3.5 Dispersion - concentration fluctuations

Concentration fluctuations considered

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

20

Category 2: Scientific basis of model

2.3.5.1 Fluctuation calculations


o Other

[] Derived from data [] Modelled directly

2.3.6 Dispersion - concentration profiles

Concentration profiles considered

The similarity form for the concentration profile for steady-state releases is
c( x, y, ) = c0 ( x) Fv ( ) Fh ( y )
where is the co-ordinate normal to the horizontal direction and the trajectory of the plume
n( x)

Fv ( ) = exp

Rz ( x)

m( x)

Fh ( y ) = exp

R y ( x)

Of particular novelty in this model is that the exponents n(x) and m(x) are prescribed functions.
The function m(x), for the horizontal profile of concentration, varies from 2 to 50 essentially
from a Gaussian profile to a top-hat profile. m(x) is a prescribed function of the relative density
difference of the plume. No evidence is presented to support the empirical functional
dependence or why it should depend upon the relative density of difference, rather than, for
example, a Richardson number.
The function n(x) varies between 2.5 and 1.0, dependent upon the atmospheric stability and the
ratio of plume depth to Monin-Obukhov length. Under neutral atmospheric stability n(x) reduces
to 2.0. The correlation is similar to correlations for atmospheric flux gradients, however no
evidence is presented to connect the atmospheric flux gradients with the exponent n(x).
The use of empirical functions for m(x) and n(x) does produce useful simplifications for model
development and there is no evidence that it is physically unwise. However it does appear to be
applied to both an elevated jet flow and for a grounded dense gas plume. This must be
questionable in that, for example, a high pressure gas jet must have the same profiles in both
directions; a situation apparently not satisfied by the model.
A similar approach is adopted for an instantaneous release. The vertical profile from Fv is the
same as before, however the horizontal profile form Fh, incorporates both x and y, i.e.

x
FR ( x, y ) = exp
Rx

y
+

Ry
2

m/2

with Rx = R y

The co-ordinate x is relative to the centroid of the puff. The assumption Rx = Ry does not allow
for alongwind shear dispersion.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

21

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.3.6.1 Types of concentration profiles used for dense gas dispersion region

Vertical profile
o Uniform

o Exponential decay

Other

o Gaussian

o Uniform core with erf edges

Other

o Gaussian

o Uniform core with erf edges

Other

Lateral profile
o Uniform

o Gaussian

Radial profile
o Uniform

2.3.6.2 Types of concentration profiles used for passive dispersion region

Concentration profiles applied


o Uniform

o Gaussian

o Exponential decay

Other

2.3.7 Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics considered

The UDM invokes the thermodynamic model while incrementally solving the dispersion
equations in the downwind direction. The thermodynamics model calculates the following data:

phase distribution of component and of atmospheric moisture

vapour cloud temperature

cloud density

cloud volume or volume flux

For ground level dispersion the model may take into account water-vapour and heat transfer
from the substrate to the cloud.
Three types of thermodynamic model are available

equilibrium thermodynamics (no reaction)

non-equilibrium thermodynamics (no reaction)

equilibrium thermodynamics (with reaction)

The last model is only available for HF.


Finally, the UDM model also provides for water vapour from an underlying water surface when
the vapour temperature of the cloud is less than that of the water surface. The approach adopted
follows that in HGSYSTEM and relates the water vapour pick-up to the rate of heat convection
from the water surface.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

22

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.3.7.1 Sources of heat gain/loss for cloud

Ambient air

Ground: forced convection

Ground: free convection

Insolation

Chemical reactions

Phase changes

[] Other

Chemical reactions option is only available for HF.


The HF model is essentially that contained within HGSYSTEM and is based on the model
developed by Schotte. This is a commonly met approach and is generally thought to be
appropriate.
The heat transfer to or from the substrate is the maximum of calculated free and forced
convection heat fluxes.
Forced convection is calculated from the modified Reynolds analogy

St = C f 2 Pr
where

St is the Stanton number


Cf is the skin friction coefficient
Pr is the Prandtl number

The dimensional form is


q = c p TPr

u*2
max ucld , ua z = 10m

gh

The denominator should use ucld but it must also be noted that u* should be u* under the cloud
rather than that in the ambient flow.
Free convection is calculated from
1

Nu = 014
. Ra 3
where Nu is the Nusselt number and Ra is the Rayleigh number. All heat transfer calculations
assume that the ground temperature is unchanged by the passage of the cloud over the surface.
It is worth noting that the symbol Dac is used for two similar but different properties; the binary
diffusivity of the component in air and the thermal diffusivity for use in the heat transfer
correlations.
2.3.7.2 Correlations for thermodynamic properties

Perfect gas law

Antoine correlation

Other

However most properties of the released material (component) are obtained directly from the
DIPPR database. The specific enthalpies of dry air, water vapour, ice and liquid water are
interpolations from tabulated data.
2.3.8 Mass transfer mechanisms

Mass transfer mechanisms considered

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

23

Category 2: Scientific basis of model

2.3.8.1 Sources of mass loss from cloud

Dry deposition

Wet deposition

o Other

2.3.8.2 Sources of mass loss from two-phase clouds

Rain-out (two-phase)

o Other

A major novel feature of UDM is the incorporation of a rain-out model, rain out being an
important phenomenon for two-phase releases.
The liquid component in the aerosol is considered to consist of spherical droplets, surrounded by
a mixture of air and evaporated vapour.
The trajectory of a single drop (with a cloud averaged drop size varying with downstream
distance) is followed, representing the path of the centre of a cloud of drops. Evaporation and
condensation are treated by either equilibrium or non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Rainout is
taken to be centred at the point of grounding of this trajectory.
A quite separate model allows for subsequent evaporation of the rained-out portion of the release
and this evaporated component is re-incorporated into the dispersion calculation.
The initial droplet diameter is taken to be the smaller of

a mechanical break up diameter based on a critical Weber number of 12.5

a flashing break up diameter for which a correlation between this diameter and the particle
expansion energy is developed and used. This has been based on the CCPS rainout
experiments.

The trajectory of a droplet of this diameter is determined from horizontal and vertical momentum
equations and the evaporation of the droplet.
The general approach is sound and appropriate.
The droplet position/speed should be considered a typical averaged (top hat) velocity
corresponding to the droplet of averaged size.
As the droplets evaporate, the specific volume vcld of the cloud will increase (since vapour
occupies more volume than liquid), and therefore the cloud size will be increased due to
evaporation.
2.3.9 Chemical reactions

Chemical reactions considered

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

24

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.3.9.1 Substances considered

NH3

HF

N2O4

UF6

o Other

2.3.9.2 Effects of chemical reactions on cloud

Heat source/sink

Species (composition)

o Other

2.3.9.3 Level of detail in modelling

[M] Multi-phase reactants [M] Chemical kinetics

[M] Order of reactions

o Other

2.3.9.4 Radioactivity

Radioactive decay modelled

2.3.10 Transition to passive dispersion

2.3.10.1 Criteria for transition to passive dispersion

Density difference small

Richardson number small

Other

o Rate of lateral spreading small

UDM acknowledges several aspects of transition to passive dispersion.


Some are relevant to the momentum jet behaviour.
The UDM theory manual provides four criteria for transition to passive behaviour (which ALL
need to be satisfied for transition to passive dispersion):

cloud speed close to wind speed

cloud density close to ambient density

passive entrainment contribution close to total entrainment and

for grounded heavy gas plumes the Richardson number Ri* being less than a critical value.

This is a sound and appropriate approach.


The criteria values selected are

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

25

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


ru = 0.1
r = 0.015
rE = 0.3
Ri* = 15
where the first three are criteria based on proportional differences and the last is a critical
Richardson number.
In the Verification Manual 5.2.4 a relevant table lists the criterion defining transition, which is
the last of the criteria to be satisfied. In many cases the jump in the entrainment rate at transition
is quite substantial (up to a factor of 2).
For a grounded dense gas plume a criterion based on the Richardson number Ri* is used, and a
value of 15 is selected for transition. This Richardson number is equivalent to about a halving of
the top entrainment velocity based on the UDM correlation. Using the DEGADIS correlation it
reflects a reduction of about 1/3 in the top entrainment velocity.
The approach is sound though the value could be viewed as quite large, as acknowledged by the
authors. Further improvement of the transition to passive dispersion has been identified by the
authors as an important area for future developments.
Of particular interest is that in the example shown in the Verification Manual the Richardson
number is rarely the defining criterion, reflecting that the large value set for this criterion is
frequently being overridden by the other criteria.

2.3.10.2 Treatment of passive dispersion

o Other

Dispersion parameters (s) used

Dispersion parameter dependencies

Downwind distance

Roughness length

Atmospheric stability

oOther

The passive cross-wind dispersion coefficients are taken from McMullen (1975) - not a wellknown reference.
The passive vertical dispersion coefficients are taken from Hosker (1973); an obscure conference
paper.
However in the UDM Dispersion Verification Manual it is shown that the UDM dispersion
formulas (base on the above papers) are very similar to the more widely-accepted TNO
dispersion formulas (= power-law of HGSYSTEM).
While not criticizing these choices more recent review references might be more appropriate and
reassuring.
2.3.11 Complex effects: aerosols

Aerosols considered

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

26

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.3.11.1 Type of model

Homogeneous equilibrium

o Other

Explicit droplet

A choice of models is available. The homogenous equilibrium model is conventional and


appropriate. The non-equilibrium model is conventional structure and typical of such models.
2.3.11.2 Effects incorporated in aerosol model

Mass transfer between phases

Interaction with atmospheric water

o Other

Heat transfer between phases

2.3.11.3 Cloud variables affected by aerosol

Temperature

Density

o Velocity

o Concentration

o Other

2.3.12 Complex effects: terrain

Terrain considered

2.3.12.1 Physical processes modified in formulation of terrain effects


o Advection

o Entrainment o Gravity spreading

o Other

2.3.12.2 Modification of ambient flow by terrain


o Mean flow

o Turbulence o Other

2.3.13 Complex effects: obstacles

Obstacles considered

2.3.13.1 Level of detail


o Net effecto Local details o Other

2.3.13.2 Cloud variables affected by obstacles


o Depth

o Width

o Velocity

o Concentration

o Other

o Puff time-of-arrival

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

27

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.3.13.3 Physical processes affected by obstacles
o Advection

o Entrainment

o Gravity spreading

o Other

2.3.13.4 Modification of ambient flow by obstacles


o Modification
o Mean flow

o Turbulence o Other

2.4 Solution technique


2.4.1 Equation types

2.4.1.1 Type of main equations


o Algebraic Ordinary Differential

o Partial Differential

o Other

Coupled equations

2.4.2 Analytical solution methods

Significant analytical solution methods used


o Methods developed as part of model

o Existing methods used

o Other

2.4.3 Numerical solution methods

Significant numerical solution methods used


o Methods developed as part of model

Existing methods used

o Other

Numerical integration is by a Runge-Kutta-Milne integration system, which steps forward in


downwind distance (continuous releases) or time (instantaneous releases). The step size is
governed by the accuracy with which the set of differential equations is solved. The user can set
the accuracy threshold value, by adjusting the accuracy for cloud integration parameter.
According to this accuracy, the step size may be increased (doubled) or reduced (halved).

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

28

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.4.3.1 Computational grid

[?] Structured

o Unstructured

o Multi-block o Other

o Grid size/arrangement

See above.
2.4.3.2 Discretisation methods

[?] Spatial
o Explicit

o Implicit

o Other

o Implicit

o Other

[?] Temporal
o Explicit

See above.
2.4.3.3 Convergence

[?] Features to enhance convergence

[?] Convergence criteria

o Other

Standard Runge-Kutta-Milne algorithm is adopted (see above).


2.4.3.4 Accuracy

Desired accuracy specified

o Other

2.5 Results or output available from model


2.5.1 Concentration-related output for steady situations

2.5.1.1 Plume centreline

Plume centreline trajectory

2.5.1.2 Pointwise concentration

Pointwise concentration distributions

Centreline

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Longitudinal

Lateral

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

Vertical

o Other

29

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


The PHAST6.0 graphical interface allows for a wide range of tabular and graphical output. This
includes centerline, longitudinal, lateral and vertical concentrations, as well as contour plots such
as cloud footprints and cloud side views.
2.5.1.3 Derived concentration data

Concentration information derived

Contours

Lateral distance to given concentration

Flammable inventory

Other

2.5.1.4 Concentration fluctuations

Concentration fluctuations

Averaging time

o Other

PDF

An effect of averaging time on the output concentration is incorporated. The effect is felt
through a multiplicative factor on the lateral plume dispersion for passive (non-dense gas)
atmospheric dispersion. That is no effects of averaging time are felt for the dense gas dispersion
phase. The multiplicative factor is of a conventional form

FG t IJ
H 600K

0. 2

av

where the value of 600 reflects the averaging time used for the original dispersion correlations.
A further effect of averaging time occurs when the release is not a continuous steady release and
the averaging time is larger than the duration of steady concentration at a point in space.
UDM allows calculation of this for finite duration, steady releases and for the maximum
concentration on the centreline.
2.5.2 Concentration-related output for time-varying situations

2.5.2.1 Cloud position

Position of cloud

Centroid

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Time-of-arrival

o Other

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

30

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.5.2.2 Pointwise concentration

Pointwise concentration distributions

Centreline

Longitudinal

Lateral

Vertical

Other

2.5.2.3 Derived concentration data

Concentration information - derived

Contours

Dose

Concentration time history at a point

Flammable inventory

Toxic load

o Lateral distance to given dose

Maximum concentrations

o Other

Locus of maximum concentration on centreline is provided.


2.5.2.4 Concentration fluctuations

Concentration fluctuations

Averaging time

o Other

PDF

See 2.5.1.4.
2.5.3 Other information available

2.5.3.1 Temperature

Mean temperature

o Fluctuations

2.5.3.2 Further variables

Other variables available in output

Radius/width

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Height/depth

Density

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

Other

31

Category 2: Scientific basis of model

2.6 Sources of model uncertainty


2.6.1 Stochastic processes
The model contains no explicit consideration of concentration fluctuations and so does not address
this aspect of uncertainty.
2.6.2 Modelling assumptions
The principal source of model uncertainty will be the appropriateness of the model physics
assumptions. Many of them are based on limited experimental data reflecting the model
development period of the mid to late 1980s, e.g. the vertical entrainment relation, the buoyancydriven lateral growth rate correlation.

The near field passive entrainment formulation is different to the far field formulation. This may
lead to uncertainty.
The impact drag force (sec 2.3.2) arguments based on elastic collisions are at variance with
fundamental laws of fluid mechanics.
The model does not acknowledge that entrainment coefficients for puffs are quite different to those
for jets.
The model does not include shear dispersion for a time-varying release (as distinct from a finite
duration (continuous) release).
2.6.3 Numerical method
Since there is no information concerning the appropriateness of the numerical method used to
integrate the main equations, a definitive statement cannot be made on the uncertainty in the
solution associated with the numerical method. However, since the equations are ordinary
differential equations, it is unlikely that significant uncertainty will arise.
Note that in the UDM Verification Manual, exact analytical solutions are derived and compared
with the numerical UDM results for a range of situations, e.g. passive dispersion, horizontal jets and
2-D heavy gas dispersion, while for a large number of other cases UDM results are compared with
comparable HGSYSTEM runs. This does confirm the expectation that the equations are solved
accurately. This has also been confirmed by varying the accuracy adopted for solving the numerical
equations in the UDM.
2.6.4 Sensitivity to input
Detailed sensitivity studies have been carried out to examine the sensitivity to input of the model, as
well as to confirm the robustness of the model. The results of these sensitivity studies have not been
reported as part of the UDM Technical Reference Manual.

2.7 Limits of applicability


The Unified Dispersion Model (UDM) models the dispersion following a ground-level or elevated
two-phase unpressurised or pressurised release. It allows for continuous, instantaneous, constant
finite-duration and general time-varying releases. It includes a unified model for jet, heavy and
passive two-phase dispersion including possible droplet rainout, pool spreading and re-evaporation.
UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

32

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


It calculates the phase distribution and cloud temperature using either a non-equilibrium
thermodynamics model, a non-reactive equilibrium model or an equilibrium model specific for HF
(including effects of polymerization). The release direction is in the vertical plane of the wind
direction (downwind releases). The dispersion takes place over flat terrain with a uniform surface
roughness.
2.7.1 Sources
2.7.1.1 Primary origin

Release models are required to provide the input to the dense gas dispersion model.
A momentum jet model is linked directly to the dense gas dispersion model.
The jet model allows single and two-phase. The two-phase model includes an explicit droplet
rain out model.
An evaporating pool model PVAP is also available.

2.7.1.2 Release type

The external expansion to ambient pressure for high-pressure releases is not part of the UDM
model. These calculations are carried out in PHAST immediately prior to the UDM model.
For a low momentum release problem the dense gas model assumes that the initial plume
width is the same as the source width. There is no allowance for a near source vapour blanket
as included in HGSYSTEM, DEGADIS, GASTAR. This will also be a significant omission
for evaporating cryogens.
The jet model is only suitable for jet releases that are in the vertical plane in the wind
direction and through the source position.
Single sources only are modelled.

2.7.1.3 Thermodynamic properties

The jet model is an incompressible jet model and for gas releases there may be confusion
between temperatures and stagnation temperature.

2.7.1.4 Chemical properties

No mixtures or multi-components, unless expressed as an effective pure (single component)


substance
No chemically reactive substances (unless acceptable to ignore chemical reactions) other than
HF
No radioactive substances (unless acceptable to ignore radioactivity)

2.7.2 Environments
2.7.2.1 Atmosphere

For continuous releases a non-zero wind speed is required. No special treatment is applied for
low wind speeds, and as a result the model may be less accurate for these conditions.
2.7.2.2 Terrain

Terrain features or sloping ground cannot be modelled.


No advice is given as to when terrain features might be ignored.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

33

Category 2: Scientific basis of model


2.7.2.3 Obstacles

No significant obstacles must be present, i.e. features which vary on a length-scale short
compared with the variation in the cloud, such as buildings and fences
No advice is given as to when obstacles might or might not be significant.

2.7.3 Targets/output

2.7.3.1 General situations

No information on concentration fluctuations is available from the model

2.7.3.2 Steady situations

2.7.3.3 Time-dependent situations

2.8 Special features


2.8.1 Capabilities
The inclusion of a continuous change of concentration profile from passive to dense is novel.
However no evidence is offered to support the approach adopted.

Although not part of this evaluation, the inclusion of a source model which allows a two-phase jet
including droplet rainout is an important capability.
2.8.2 Formulation
None.
2.8.3 Mathematical aspects
None.

2.9 Planned scientific developments


The following are considered to be major items for further work

Remove rather arbitrary passive transition zone, and possibly improve passive formulation.
Neaten modular code, particularly for droplet modeling, link between pool and dispersion
model, and time-dependent releases (introduce along-wind diffusion).
Assessment and possible improvement for pressurized instantaneous expansion, lift-off and
mixing layer logic.
Multi-compound dispersion and solid components.
More detailed investigation and validation of pool model PVAP.
Improved flash calculations.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

34

3. User-oriented aspects of model

3.1 User-oriented documentation and help


3.1.1 Written documentation

o Other

User Manual

User Manual not supplied for evaluation.


3.1.2 On-screen help and documentation

Context-sensitive help

User Manual online

o Other

3.1.3 User support

Telephone support

Training courses

o Other

3.2 Installation procedures

3.2.1 Medium
o Diskette

o Tape

CD-ROM

Internet download

o Other

3.2.2 Procedure
o Copy files manually

Installation program/script

o Other

Installation by means of installation diskettes (installation program).


3.2.3 User-friendliness

Description of procedure

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Help available during installation

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

35

Category 3: User-oriented aspects of model

3.3 Description of the user interface


3.3.1 General properties

Interactive

Batch

o Other

Graphical

Textual

o Other

Edit files directly

o Edit existing files

o Edit default input o Other

3.3.2 Provision of input


Guided input

Enter data on graphical forms

o Other

3.3.3 Information when model running

Numerical values

Error/warning messages

Status of calculation

o Other

3.3.4 Examining output


Graphical display of output

o Separate graphical display program

Integral graphical display facilities

o Select data with graphical forms

Guided input

o Other

o Other

Examining numerical values

Integral numerical display facilities

o Edit output files

o Separate numerical display facility


o Other

3.4 Internal databases

Internal databases available

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

36

Category 3: User-oriented aspects of model

3.4.1 Databases available

Material properties

o Scenarios

o Other

3.4.2 Access by user

Access from model

o Access outside model

o Access by model itself

o Other

3.4.3 Modification

General users

Specific users

o No users

o Other

Expert users can modify model parameters (defining, for example, entrainment coefficients) in
addition to usual input data. Also material properties may be modified in PHAST. In some cases
these changes can only be applied by specific users (i.e. PHAST6.0 program administrators).

3.5 Guidance in selecting model options


3.5.1 Main choices required

Primary origin details

Source configuration

Substance released

Properties of substance released

Atmospheric conditions

Terrain

Output required

o Other

Obstacles

3.5.2 Guidance in choices available


Sources
User Manual
Type

Pre-set lists of values

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Within interface

o Other

o Other

Defaults

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

37

Category 3: User-oriented aspects of model

3.6 Assistance in the inputting of data


3.6.1 Facilities available
Checks
Valid range

Entry has been made

Valid type

Filing system
o Choose input file location

Other

o Choose input file name

3.6.2 Comments

3.7 Error messages and checks on use of model beyond its scope
3.7.1 Facilities to trap inappropriate use

Facilities available
o Checks on intermediate results

o Other

o Other action taken

Warning messages given

3.7.2 Error/warning Messages


Occurrence
During input
Type

Self-explanatory

During model run

Look up online

o Look up in documentation

During output examination

o Other
o Other

3.7.3 Comments

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

38

Category 3: User-oriented aspects of model

3.8 Computational costs


3.8.1 Execution times for specified problems
Seconds

Minutes

Hours

Days

3.8.2 Comments

3.9 Clarity and flexibility of output results


3.9.1 Summary of model output

The output is in the form of cloud parameters e.g. centreline concentration, ground level
concentration, plume height, plume depth, plume width, vapour temperature, liquid temperature,
cloud density.
Output is provided at a base averaging time (18.75 seconds; no time averaging) and at an
additional range of averaging times (toxic and/or flammable averaging time, user-specified
averaging time). Output is usually given through Crystal Reports exportable to Microsoft Word,
Excel, etc.
Graphs that may be produced include cloud footprints, cloud cross-section, cloud side view, and
the concentration at a given location.
3.9.2 Post-processing facilities

Graphical formats
Line (x-y) plots

o Display on GIS
o Other

Numerical formats
Tabulated output

Contour plots
Animated display

o User interrogation

Hard copy facilities available directly from program


Numerical output
Graphical output
Additional software
Necessary
Optional

Not required

Required for
o Line (x-y) plots
o Display on GIS
o All

o Contour plots
o Animated display
o Other

o Vector plots
o Virtual reality

o Other

o Other

o Vector plots
o Virtual reality

Direct incorporation of directives/guidelines

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

39

Category 3: User-oriented aspects of model


3.9.3 Comments
Output result capability appears to be adequate.

3.10 Suitability to users and usage


3.10.1 Suitability with respect to type of user

Background
Engineer

Consultant

Regulator

Type of experience
Dispersion
o Statistics

Fluid dynamics
o Programming

Thermodynamics
o Numerical methods
Consequence modelling Risk analysis

Length of experience
Hours
Days

Weeks

Months

o Other

Academic

Years

Frequency of use
o Occasional users

Constant users

3.10.2 Suitability with respect to type of usage


Intensity
Specific incidents

Range of problems
Narrow

Medium

Risk assessment

Integration with other models


Standalone
o Knowledge base

o Other

Wide

Other

Aspects of the jet model are strongly linked with the dense gas dispersion model.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

40

Category 3: User-oriented aspects of model

3.11 Possible improvements


o Written documentation

o On-line help and documentation

o Installation
o User interface

o Selection/entry of input data

o Information and checks while running


o Output results

3.12 Planned user-oriented developments

Real-time emergency response version of PHAST

3D output representation of dispersion plumes with and without certain pathway obstacles

Links to popular GIS programs (including Intergraph and GIS products)

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

41

4. Verification performed

4.1 Summary of verification


The model authors write
Each of the modules in the UDM has been investigated and verified in detail in conjunction
with a literature review and a sensitivity analysis. The modules have been corrected where
necessary, validated where possible, and been compared with similar third-party software
applications. This has been carried out in extensive detail for the entire basic continuous model
[phases of dispersion (passive, jet, heavy), equilibrium thermodynamics without rainout] and to
some extent also the instantaneous model [far-field passive dispersion, ground-level heavy-gas
dispersion]. Following this work the UDM comparison against large-scale experiments improved
considerably, despite the elimination of tuning coefficients.
A detailed assessment and limited corrections have been carried out for the transition to passive,
finite-duration releases, HF thermodynamics, and heat/water transfer from the substrate.
A brief assessment has been carried out for droplet modeling, pool spreading/evaporation, the
link between pool and dispersion model, pressurised instantaneous expansion, lift-off and
mixing-layer logic, and time-dependent releases. A more detailed assessment is to be carried out
for these areas.
4.1.1 Parts of implementation verified

The verification manual for the dispersion model provides separate chapters for

passive dispersion

jet dispersion

heavy gas dispersion

transitions

unpressurised instantaneous dispersion

finite-duration releases

link between dispersion and pool model

and for the thermodynamics model

non-reactive equilibrium model: heat/water transfer from substrate

equilibrium model for HF

droplet model

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

42

Category 4: Verification performed


4.1.2 Verification undertaken

For the dispersion model the only verifications against analytical solutions practically possible
are those for passive dispersion and for a horizontal release; these were undertaken.
In other cases comparisons were made with relevant published correlations (though, of course,
this includes some element of validation).
Much use is also made of comparisons with the results from other well-established models with
similar parameter settings e.g. HGSYSTEM. The latter point is particularly the case for the
thermodynamics model where several aspects are similar to HGSYSTEM. For the droplet model
comparisons are made of the model predictions with calculations based directly on the
correlations used.
In general terms the authors have gone to considerable lengths, using whatever means and
techniques available, to verify the coding of their model.
Additionally and simultaneously they have undertaken extensive sensitivity studies in order to
ensure that output trends are consistent with expectations.
4.1.3 Quality assurance

The authors state


The software development process at RMS is being run to ISO 9000 Tickit standard. The
quality assurance of the software development is carried out by means of a Quality Management
System; documentation available on request.

4.2 Comments

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

43

5. Validation performed

5.1 Validation already performed


An extensive validation document has been assembled for UDM. The document includes a
description of each validation experiment, the details of the assumptions made for the UDM
simulation plus a detailed discussion of the results obtained from a statistical and graphical
comparison against the field data.
The validation comparisons are made exclusively with field experiments. The experiments
selected are wisely chosen to cover a wide spread of phenomena.
The input data were taken from Hanna et al. (1991), data sheets provided from the SMEDIS
project and from McFarlane et. al. for the Goldfish experiments.
It is not clear what is implied by PEAK centre-line concentrations; it appears to be just the
centre-line concentration for the averaging time of the experiments. There is an important point
here. It is not specifically stated in the theory or validation document what the model-predicted
concentration is actually intended to be; and to what it should be compared when undertaking
validation. For example is the model predicting a PEAK value or an ensemble value? There are
many similar questions which are rarely asked, let alone answered prior to model validation.
Comparisons are made with peak centreline concentration and cloud widths.
Two of the validation experiments (Maplin Sands and Burro) involve dispersion from an
evaporating pool. The UDM does not allow for user-defined source conditions for dispersion
from a pool. These releases were modelled as a ground level jet with immediate rainout of the
liquid. The pool spread and vaporisation model provided the source conditions as a series of
constant segments.
5.1.1 Validation exercises

Validation comparisons were made with:


Instantaneous releases
Thorney Island
Continuous releases
Prairie Grass
Desert Tortoise
EEC
FLADIS
Goldfish
Burro
Maplin Sands LNG

7-9, 13, 15, 17, 34, 41, 50, 58


1, 2, 3, 4
360, 500
9, 16, 24
1, 2, 3
7, 9
27, 29, 34, 35

Other releases

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

44

Category 5: Validation performed


5.1.2 Conclusions

Statistical comparison measures are presented for each experiment; a mean and a variance. The
results range from reasonable to good; typical of the better dispersion models.
Considering the concentration predictions, and just taking an average value of mean and variance
for each experiment, and then averaging all the experiments together (that is weighting each
experiment equally) produces an overall mean of 1.3 and an overall variance of 2.6. Alternative
ways of grouping performance values are obviously possible.
In the broadest sense the results could be interpreted by stating that the majority of individual
predictions are likely to fall within a factor of 2 of experimental results.
The authors critically interrogate the results to locate aspects of the model which might be
improved.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

45

6. Conclusions

General model description


The Unified Dispersion Model (UDM) is an integral model to calculate the dispersion following a
two-phase pressurised release or an unpressurised release. It effectively consists of the following
linked modules:

near-field jet dispersion

non-equilibrium droplet evaporation and rainout, touchdown

pool spread and vaporisation

heavy gas dispersion

far field passive dispersion.

In addition to the non-equilibrium droplet thermodynamics model, UDM also allows for a twophase HF thermodynamics model (including effects of polymerisation). This evaluation document
does not address the module for pool spread and vaporisation.
The UDM allows for continuous instantaneous, constant finite-duration and general time-varying
releases. The UDM allows for possible plume lift-off when a grounded plume becomes buoyant.
It is not capable of treating dispersion over complex terrain/slopes or dispersion near buildings or
obstacles.
The latest version of the UDM is implemented in the consequence-analysis package PHAST,
version 6.0. It is planned to be included in the onshore risk-analysis package SAFETI, and in the
offshore risk-package NEPTUNE (successor to OHRAT).
The model runs on a PC and requires little in the way of memory or disk space. It is a self-contained
model requiring only a short time for a knowledgeable user to set up and run the model.

Scientific basis of model


UDM is a typical one-dimensional integral dense gas dispersion model, with respect to its main
capabilities and model physics. The model is interfaced directly with release models for a
momentum jet or an evaporating pool.
For the dense gas dispersion model, releases may be instantaneous or continuous. Finite duration
(constant release rate) releases are treated as continuous with either an analytic correction for the
finite duration or a (less preferred) abrupt transition to an instantaneous model. Time-varying
releases are treated by combining segments of continuous releases. In this case no allowance for
longitudinal diffusion or shear dispersion is introduced.
Equilibrium thermodynamics and heat transfer physics are incorporated.
Chemical reactions are included for HF but for no other chemicals.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

46

Category 6: Conclusions
The two-phase momentum jet model is novel for operational models in that it includes both a
vapour jet and a droplet trajectory model that is, the important problem of liquid rainout is directly
addressed in the model.
The atmospheric environment is characterized in the typical integral model fashion. Like most
similar models the atmospheric environment is assumed stationary for the time of the release that
is, it is essentially a short range/short time scale model.
Concentration profiles are based on assumed similarity shapes. A novel feature is the incorporation
of consistent similarity shapes throughout the evolution of the release. There is no confirmation
that the assumed similarity shapes are correct but the approach ensures that solution discontinuities
do not occur.
Cloud advection speed, spreading and dilution are treated in a standard way. Concentration
fluctuations are not considered. The transition from dense gas behaviour to passive behaviour
occurs at a Richardson number Ri* of 15, which is substantially larger (a factor of 10) than used in
other similar operational models.
The passive dispersion parameterisation is from what might be regarded as an obscure source, but is
shown to be very close to more commonly-accepted sources.
The governing equations are coupled ordinary differential equations, which are straightforward to
solve and lead to short run times.

Limits of applicability
Source:

Only single component releases may be treated, though these can be two-phase.

Environment:

Low wind speeds cannot be treated. The atmospheric conditions are taken to be
steady which will limit the downwind extent that can be modeled. No terrain or
slope can be modelled. The effect of buildings and obstacles on flow and
dispersion cannot be modelled. For the momentum jet release the direction of the
jet must be in a vertical plane in the direction of the wind passing through the
source. Many other source orientations are likely and these may lead to larger
downwind concentrations. Results from upwind directed jets will be suspect.

Targets/output: No particular limitations.

User-oriented aspects of model


No specific information on user-friendliness is available however as a commercially viable model
this will be an important consideration of the vendor.
The technical documentation is extensive and comprehensive. The suppliers have gone to great
lengths to document their model well. And provide an audit trail for changes and modification.
They have been refreshingly frank in the technical documentation to point out the limitations of the
model, areas where there is uncertainty, and areas they are in the process of improving. The
documentation indicated that attention has been paid to providing appropriate warnings and help to
the user.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

47

Category 6: Conclusions

Verification performed
The technical documentation describes very extensive verification work probably the most
comprehensive this reviewer has seen. The work is focused, structured and clearly presented.

Validation performed
Validation has been performed using most of the documented field datasets. This is clearly and
extensively presented in the technical documentation. Again this is probably one of the more
extensive validation sets to be included in technical documentation.

Advantages and disadvantages of model


(a) General usage
The model is relatively simple and transparent and is of a conventional form.
The model requires very limited computer resources
The model has extensive and comprehensive technical documentation.
There is extensive verification and validation documentation.
The model has substantial backup and support.
(b) Usage in context-of-use
Treats two-phase.
Has a momentum jet source model that also considers droplet trajectory; that is, a liquid
rainout in included.

No treatment of buildings/obstacles.
No treatment of terrain or sloping ground.

Suitability of protocol for assessment of model


Protocol is suitable for assessment.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

48

7. References

Supplied documents
[0] Witlox, H.W.M. and Holt, A. Unified Dispersion Model, Technical Reference Manual,
Version 6.0, Consequence Modelling Documentation, DNV, February 2000 (provided on
separate CD as part of PHAST6.0 release).
[1] "A unified model for jet, dense, buoyant and passive dispersion including droplet rainout and reevaporation", Consequence Modelling Documentation, Confidential Report, DNV Technica,
London, February 1998
[2] "Model for pool spreading, evaporation and solution on land and water", Consequence
Modelling Documentation, Confidential Report, DNV Technica, London, February 1998
[3] Woodward, J.L, Cook, J., and Papadourakis, A., "Modelling and validation of a dispersing
aerosol jet", Journal of hazardous materials 44, pp. 185-207 (1995)
[4] Woodward, J.L, and Papadourakis, A., "Reassessment and re-evaluation of rainout and drop size
correlation for an aerosol jet", Journal of hazardous materials 44, pp. 209-230 (1995)
[5] Woodward, J.L. and Cook, J., "Tuning a complex suite of dispersion models", International
Conference and workshop on modelling and mitigating the accidental releases of hazardous
materials, CCPS Conference, New Orleans, LA, September 26-29, pp. 787-824 (1995)
[6] Cook, J. and Woodward, J.L., "A new integrated model for pool spreading, evaporation and
solution on land and water", International Conference and Exhibition on Safety, Health and loss
prevention in the Oil, Chemical and Process Industries, Singapore, February 15-19 (1993)
[7] "SAFETI software for the assessment of flammable explosive and toxic impact", Theory and
user manual, Version 3.4, DNV Technical, London, November 1996 [Additional PHAST 5.11
theory+user's manual, and Safeti Pro 5.11 theory+user's manual are available on request]
[8] Hillary Z. Woodward, "SAFETI 3.41 Model Validation", Confidential Report, DNV Technica,
London, September 1997
[9] Quotations for lease and perpetual licenses for PHAST, PHAST Micro, SAFETI Pro/Classic,
SAFETI Micro
[10] Witlox H.W.M., Holt, A. (1999) A unified model for jet, heavy and passive dispersion
including droplet rainout and re-evaporation. A.I.Ch.E./CCPS International Conference, San
Francisco, Sept. Proceedings
[11] Witlox, H.W.M. and Holt, A. UDM Release Notes, provided on separate CD as part of
PHAST6.0 release, DNV, London (2000).

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

49

Appendix 1: Actively-generated information


Summary of validation results: not available at this stage.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

50

Appendix 2: Comments from model developer


The following comments were received from the developers of UDM Version 6.0 in response to the
draft version of this Model Evaluation Report. The comments have been adopted in revising the
draft to the final version.
1.

The UDM MER makes reference to the June 1999 version of the UDM Technical Reference Manual, instead of the
final February 2000 PHAST6.0 version of the UDM Technical Reference Manual. Therefore several of the
statements are out of date, and therefore I have made adjustments accordingly.

2.

Section 2.l.1.1. UDM allows for liquid jet. Liquid pool could be indirectly modelled following 100% rainout.
Further improvements are planned to allow dispersion directly from a pool.

3.

Sections 2.1.2.1 and 2.1.2.2. UDM allows for initial air mixed in for instantaneous, continuous and time varying
releases. In PHAST, the amount of initial air mixed is calculated by separate source models. PHAST presently does
not allow initial air mixed in for standalone UDM runs.

4.

Sections 2.1.2.2 and 2.1.2.3. UDM allows for orientation to be specified for continuous and time-varying releases
(release angle in vertical plane of wind direction; no upwind or crosswind releases).

5.

End of Section 2.2.2.1. A user-specified uniform windspeed profile allows the specialist user (or modeller) to
examine the effect of the vertical windspeed gradient on the dispersion predictions. This is indeed of little use for
the average user.

6.

Section 2.2.3.3. The surface temperature can be specified independently from the ambient atmospheric ground level
temperature (default value of surface temperature equals ground-level ambient temperature).

7.

Section 2.3.2.
-

Airborne drag is taken zero for both instantaneous and continuous releases
As indicated in Section 3.5.2 of the UDM Dispersion Theory Manual, the elastic-collision impact force is at
right angles to the momentary orientation of the centre-line, and therefore ensures conservation of kinetic
energy. However, as Rex states, the horizontal momentum is not assumed to be constant. I dont think this will
make a big difference and it will also be hard to find experimental data to show that this indeed shows an
improvement. However I would welcome any experimental data, if CERC does know of any. Note however
that the current UDM formulation will correctly result in increased crosswind spreading during touchdown
(see my comment for Section 2.3.3).
As the cloud descends, the local ambient velocity is changing and therefore the excess momentum is changing,
even when no external forces are being applied. It is agreed that no account for this is taken in the UDM where
in case of zero forces: Ix2 = mcld[ux-ua(zc)] remains constant, thus ux reduces if ua reduces as well. It is however
expected that the effect of change in momentum due to air entrainment (causing the cloud to move with the
ambient speed), will be usually much larger than the small effect of reducing ambient windspeed if the cloud
descends. The possible exception may be in case of large wind-speed gradients (very stable or unstable
conditions).

8.

Section 2.3.2.1. The extended instantaneous model is currently to be chosen to be consistent with the continuous
jet formulation. Indeed, after pressurised instantaneous expansion, the effect of the formulation is usually very
slight anyway. Agree with Rex his remarks, and further validation for momentum (buoyant) puffs could be
beneficial. Could CERC supply us with further literature regarding the latter?

9.

End of Section 2.3.3. The cloud volume Vcld = mcld/cld = Weff2 (1+hd) Heff (instantaneous) or cloud cross-section
area Acld = mcld / [ucld cld] = 2 WeffHeff(1+hd) (continuous) will NOT halve as the cloud intersects the ground. To
the contrary, air entrainment will result in increase of cloud mass mcld. This will indirectly involve a large increase
of the effective cloud width Weff as the cloud centre approaches the ground (increased crosswind spreading as to be

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

51

Appendix 2: Comments from model developer


expected during touchdown). Therefore concentrations will always go down (as has also always been observed in
the UDM runs).
10. Section 2.3.4.2. Note that the value of the side-entrainment coefficient for instantaneous releases is discussed in
detail in Section 6.3 of the UDM dispersion verification manual.
11. Section 2.3.6. Note that further justification and/or improvement of the concentration profile exponents n,m has
been identified as part of further work, as well as allowing for RxRy in the instantaneous formulation. The
instantaneous model DOES allow for elevated releases.
12. End of Section 2.3.8.
-

As discussed in Section 4.3 of the UDM Thermodynamics Theory Manual, the horizontal velocity of the
droplet is taken to be equal to the horizontal speed at the cloud centroid while the vertical droplet speed may
deviate from the vertical cloud centroid speed. The droplet position/speed should be considered a typical
averaged position/velocity corresponding to the droplet of averaged size. Since only averages are considered,
you could probably call this in this context top-hat velocity field for the droplets in the cloud.
The calculation of the cloud volume (instantaneous) or cloud volume rate (continuous) is described in Section
5 of the UDM Thermodynamics Theory Manual. From this section it is noted that if the droplet evaporate, the
specific volume cld of the cloud would increase (since vapour occupies more volume than liquid), and
therefore the cloud size would be increased due to evaporation.

13. End of Section 2.3.10.1.


-

As mentioned in Section 3.3 of the UDM Dispersion Theory Manual, the passive transition will taken place at
the first downwind distance xtrpas, for which ALL the mentioned criteria are satisfied.
In Section 5.2.4 of the UDM Dispersion Verification Manual, the criterion defining transition refers to the
last criterion to be satisfied. It was found that for several UDM simulations the Richardson number Ri*pas is the
defining criterion, which will even more frequently apply if Ri* pas would have been selected smaller than 15.
As indicated at the end of Section 3.3 in the UDM Theory Manual and more particularly in footnote xxvi, a
reduced value may be more appropriate. A reduced value was however shown in many simulations to
considerably delay the introduction of passive dispersion. Also note that the passive transition ONLY gets
phased in at the transition point xtr to passive transition. Fully inclusion of passive dispersion, will only occur
at the downwind distance rtrxtr, where rtr=2 by default. Thus at rtrxtr the Richardson number will be usually
much smaller than 15.
Further improvement of transition to passive dispersion (including the above) has been identified has an
important area of further improvement.

14. End of Section 2.3.10.2. Agree that the McMullen (1975) and Hosker (1973) papers are not well-known. Exactly
because of this, Section 2.2.2 in the UDM Dispersion Verification Manual shows, that the UDM dispersion
formulas (based on these papers) are very similar to the more widely accepted TNO dispersion formulas (= powerlaw of HGSYSTEM). Given this resemblance, the dispersion formulas are not changed. As discussed in item 2 of
Chapter 7 (future developments) in the UDM theory manual, the author is aware of more recent work, particularly
that of Dave Wilson. He would like to hear from CERC any further useful references in this context.
15. Section 2.5.1.2. The PHAST6.0 graphical interface allows for a wide range of tabular and graphical output. This
includes centre-line, longitudinal, lateral and vertical concentrations, as well as contour plots such as cloud foot
prints and cloud side views.
16. Section 2.6.3. Note that in the UDM verification manual for a range of situations, exact analytical solutions are
derived and compared with the numerical UDM results (e.g. passive dispersion, horizontal jets, and 2D heavy-gas
dispersion). While for a large number of other cases, UDM results are compared with comparable HGSYSTEM
runs. This does confirm the expectation that the equations are solved accurately. This has also been confirmed by
varying in the UDM the adopted accuracy for solving the numerical equations.
17. Section 2.6.4. Detailed sensitivity studies have been carried out to examine the sensitivity to input of the model, as
well as to confirm the robustness of the model. The results of these sensitivity studies have not been reported as
part of the UDM Technical Reference Manual.
18. Start of Section 2.7. I have added an paragraph stating main areas in which UDM can be applied:

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

52

Appendix 2: Comments from model developer

The Unified Dispersion Model (UDM) models the dispersion following a ground-level or elevated two-phase
unpressurised or pressurised release. It allows for continuous, instantaneous, constant finite-duration, and general
time-varying releases. It includes a unified model for jet, heavy and passive two-phase dispersion including
possible droplet rainout, pool spreading and re-evaporation. It calculates the phase distribution and cloud
temperature using either a non-equilibrium thermodynamics model, a non-reactive equilibrium model, or an
equilibrium model specific for HF (including effects of polymerisation). The release direction is the vertical plane
of the wind direction (downwind releases).The dispersion takes place over flat terrain with an uniform surface
roughness.
19. First item in Section 2.7.1.2. The external expansion to ambient pressure for high-pressure releases is not part of the
UDM model. These calculations are carried out in PHAST immediately prior to the UDM model, and are therefore
not part of the UDM documentation.
20. Section 2.7.1.3. I dont fully understand this comment. Are you referring to inclusion of kinetic energy (usually a
very small term) in the energy equation? Please give me further information?
21. Section 2.7.2.1. Note that the model is expected to be less accurate for smaller windspeeds. This is an area for
further model extension, as also indicated by item 2 in Chapter 7 of the UDM dispersion theory manual.
22. Section 3.11. Note that full on-line help and documentation is currently already fully available in PHAST6.0.
23. Start of Section 4.1. I have updated this in line with the CCPS UDM paper.
24. Section 5.1. As for the vast majority of dispersion models, it is confirmed that UDM peak centre-line
concentration, indeed refers to the centre-line concentration for the averaging time of the experiments. UDMpredicted concentrations correspond to the given averaging time (ensemble value). The UDM does at present not
include the predictions of concentration fluctuations around this ensemble value.
25. Section 6. Limits of applicability source - note that a source model has been included for a pressurised
instantaneous release, although this model may require further improvements in the future.
26. Section 7. Reference has been added to the UDM Technical Reference Manual and UDM Release Notes, as
supplied on a CD as part of the release of PHAST6.0. Hardcopies of these documents have been previously
supplied to CERC.

UDM, Ver. 6.0

Version 1.0 (21/01/02)

53

Вам также может понравиться