A Local Ecosystem

1. Compare the abiotic characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial environments

Abiotic Non-living factors
Biotic Living Factors
Aquatic In the water
Terrestrial On land
Abiotic Factor
Buoyancy
Viscosity
Temperature
Pressure
Water Availability
Solute Availability
Oxygen

Aquatic Environment
Greater buoyancy/support
Less supportive structure
More viscous, streamlined
Varies slightly, no need to
adapt
Increases with depth
Readily available
High, minerals dissolve in
water
Low

Terrestrial Environment
Less buoyancy/support
Greater supportive structure
Less viscous, whatever
Varies greatly, have mechanisms to adapt to temperature
change
Decreases with height
Availability varies
Availability varies
High

2. Identify the factors determining the distribution and abundance of a species in each environment
Distribution Where they are
Abundance How many there are
Abiotic Factors
Water availability
Temperature
Pressure
Light intensity
Topography
Soil type
Oxygen availability
Strength and amount of wind and rainfall

Biotic Factors
Prey
Predators
Nesting
Breeding
Disease

3. Describe the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in ecosystem

Plants create their own energy using the sun
Light

CO2 + H2O -------------- GLUCOSE + O2

Chlorophyll

Growth
Repair
Reproduction

Uses of energy

Respiration
Very complicated process so we summaries it
GLUCOSE + O2 ------------- ATP + H2O + CO2
4. Identify uses of energy by organisms
Growth
Repair
Reproduction
5. Outline factors that affect numbers in predator and prey populations in the area studied
Predator eats prey
The prey catches up on the plentiful ness of food. The predators follow the pattern of prey, because prey numbers
increase the predator number increases due to the energy increase. The increase in predators causes a decrease in
prey

6. Identify examples of allelopathy, parasitism, mutualism and commensalisms in an ecosystem and the role of
organisms in each type of relationship
Allelopathy: trees drop leaves to stop other trees growing
Example: casuarinas drops pines and doesnt let other plants grow
Parasitism: one animal benefits, while the other is harmed
Example: mangrove plume moth eats mangrove, from this mangrove dies
Mutualism: both benefit from the relationship
Example: lichen and fungi, lichen grows on tree and so does the algae
Commensalisms: one species benefits, while the other species is not harmed of helped
Example: lichen on casuarinas, lichen has a home, casuarinas isnt harmed or helped
7. Describe the role of decomposers in ecosystem
Break down waste to form nutrients for organisms to use
Recycle: only have a fixed amount of resources therefore we will run out if we dont recycle
If we didnt have decomposer, we will have a very stinky planet
8. Explain trophic interactions between organisms in an ecosystem using food chains, food webs and pyramids of
biomass and energy
Food Chain
Grass ----- Cow ----- Human

Food Web

Mark

Alison
Sheep

Pyramid of Biomass

Luke
Cows

Grass

People
Sheeps/ Cows
Grass

9. Define the term adaptation and discuss the problems associated with the inferring characteristics of organisms as
adaptations for living in a particular habitat
Adaptations: characteristics which help organisms in their environment
Structural: size, shape or appearance
Behavioral: how it moves around and acts
Physiological: the internal functioning of the body
10. Identify some adaptations of living things to factor in their environments
Plants: Mangrove
Structural: pnumataphores
Behavioral: drops leaves
Physiological: drops leaves
Animal: Kangaroo
Structural: Big ears and tail
Behavioral: licks paws to cool off
Physiological: stops embryo development
11. Describe and explain the short-term and long-term consequences on the ecosystem of species competing for
resources
Short-term
Run out of resources
Run out of nesting sites

Long-term
Degradation of environment
Organisms adapt to survive

Less reproduction and death

Dont adapt and become extinct

12. Identify the impact of humans in the ecosystem studied

OLYMPIC PARK
Made waste in the rivers
Brick work
Abattoir
Chemical factory
Straightening of river to get rid of more waste and fill in water for more land
13. Field Study Work
Quadrant Abundance
Transect Distribution
Capture/Re-capture Abundance
Quadrant
1. Measure total area of site
2. Assign a quadrat size
3. Randomly distribute quadrats
4. Count the number of organism in a quadrat
5. Use formula: total number counted/number of quadrats* Total site area
----------------------------------------------------------------Area of quadrat
Transects
1. Place a line across an area
2. Measure organisms along the line
3. Record results in a graph
4. Repeat

Capture/Re-Capture
1. Catch a certain number of organisms
2. Mark organisms (non instructive/evasive)
3. Release and wait some time
4. Recapture a certain number of organisms and count the number marked
5. Use formula: number of animals marked initially * Number of animals recaptured
---------------------------------------------------------------Number of animals marked in the re-capture
Life on Earth
1.

Identify the relationship between the conditions on early earth and the origins of organic molecules
Life on earth started about 4 million years ago
Atmosphere contained more hydrogen, nitrogen, methane
There was very little oxygen
Certain meteorites contained organic compounds including amino acids and then developed into cells
Haladane and Oparin theory has been further developed recent experiments have demonstrated that amino acids
can be produced on early earth using UV instead of ammonia and methane
Biological chemicals present: primitive cells emerged about 3.5 billion years ago
Lots of water
2. Discuss the implications of the existence of organic molecules in the cosmos for the origin of life on earth
Molecules formed from methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water (i.e. substances which make majority of earths
atmosphere)
These molecules became organic molecules (i.e. sugar amino acids and nucleotides = DNA)
These compounds combined to form complex molecules
Complex molecules became the most simple form of life
3. Describe two scientific theories relating to the evolution of the chemicals of life and discuss their
significance in understanding the origin of life
Theory 1 the chemicals for life came from outer space

Earth was hit with meteorites because unlike now the earth had no atmosphere so these rocks were not destroyed
as they traveled through space. Meteorites carbonaceous chonorites contain organic compounds including amino
acids and through evolution developed into cells. This provided evidence of the existence of organic molecules
elsewhere in the universe
Theory 2 the chemicals for life were formed on earth
Haladane + Oparin in 1920s, hypothesized that the primitive gases in early earths atmosphere already contained
necessary basic chemical components for life (organic chemicals) and that more complex organic molecules were
created by spontaneous reaction using UV radiation or light energy
Oparin suggested that organic molecules slowly collected in the surface layers of the ocean, forming an organic
soup. These molecules could than have combined to form larger structures, eventually forming cells.
4. Discuss the significance of the Urey and Miller experiments in the debate on the composition of the primitive
atmosphere
Urey + millers experiment was important because it supported Haladane + Oparins theory and demonstrated that
complex organic molecules such as amino acids can be produced naturally from more basic chemical compounds
They performed an experiment:
1. In a closed system they placed equal amounts of ammonia, hydrogen and methane gases into a glass
chamber and discharged a continuous supply of power sparks stimulated energy in early earth
2. The steam produced was recycled through the system between the lower chamber of water and
atmosphere
3. In a week the condensed water became red + turbid
4. They analysed the water with chromatography and noted it contained many amino acid samples and
other organic molecules
The experiment proved that it is possible for non-living matter to produce living matter
Urey + Millers experiment was important because it supported Oparin + Haladanes theories and demonstrated that
complex organic molecules such as amino acids can be produced naturally from more basic chemical compounds.
5. Identify changes in technology that have assisted in the development of an increased understanding of the
origin of life and evolution of living things
Radioactive isotopes work out absolute age of rocks and fossils
Mass spectrometer measure the ratio of isotopes present in a sample
Electron microscope helped increase the understanding of the origin of life on earth
Detected fine details of cells and helped increase our understanding of the origin of life
Its important when looking for the earliest signs of life on earth, as the earliest life form was unicellular and thus cannot
be seen by the naked eye
Deep sea equipment increase understanding of earth
Computer technology compared human genetic code to other living things to increase understanding on life
6. Identify the major stages in the evolution of living things, including the formation of:
Organic molecules
Formed 4 billion years ago
Amino acids either developed on earth or came from outer space
Membranes
Formed 4 3.5 billion years ago
Are needed to isolate and protect the inside of a cell
Prokaryotic heterotrophic cells
Formed 3.5 2.5 billion years ago
Primitive cells with no membrane around their organelles (i.e. bacteria obtained energy from organic molecules)
Prokaryotic autotrophic cells
Formed 2.5 2.0 billion years ago
Some of the cells developed the chemical pathways to make their own food via photosynthesis (i.e. blue + green
algae)
Eucaryotic cells
Formed 1.5 billion years ago
Cells with a nucleus separated from the cytoplasm they have membranes around their organelles
Colonial organisms
Formed 1.5 billion years ago
Cells came together to live in colonies
Multicellular organisms
Formed 1.0 0.5 billion years ago

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Colonies of cells then became tissues and organs

Describe some of the palaeontological and geological evidence that suggests when life originated on earth
Paleontology study of fossil records
Earliest fossil found are two types: microfossil, which are similar to present-day single celled anaerobic prokaryotic
organisms and stromatolites, which are layered mats of photosynthetic prokaryotic cells, called
Cyanobacteria.
Geology study of rocks and earths crust
Fossils give information about the organisms and also an organisms is buried rapidly in fine sediment and does not
fully decompose
Geological evidence- anoxic ----- oxic (no oxygen ----- oxygen) reduce anaerobic (no oxygen) organisms
The first primitive cells were heterotrophic: they obtained energy by consuming other organic compounds
The evolution of photosynthesis had a dramatic effect on the environment of earth. It led to an explosion in the
abundance of photosynthetic organisms. These organisms used up carbon dioxide, which gradually reduced
levels, present in the atmosphere but were taken up by rocks.
Fe ----- Fe O3 (iron oxide)
Red banned iron formation in ocean and on land
Oxygen formed by photosynthesis was taken by rocks and not the environment red banned oxide rocks
Oxygen was then released into the atmosphere
UV radiation reacted with oxygen and produced ozone
Presence of atmosphere stopped the development of organic compounds
Explain why the changes from an anoxic to an oxic atmosphere was significant in the evolution of living
things
The significance of the change from an anoxic atmosphere to an oxic atmosphere was that anaerobic organisms
declined
As oxygen levels rose, photosynthetic organism became more abundant
As the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere increased, more and more could be converted to ozone, until an ozone
layer formed around the earth, high in the atmosphere.
Discuss the ways in which developments in scientific knowledge may conflict with the ideas about the
origins of life developed by different culture
Religion involves a set of beliefs based on faith and usually the presence of one god or gods involved in the creation
of life on earth
Philosophy is defined as the love of knowledge and the search for truth and wisdom
Human groups have developed belief systems to account for the origin of the earth and life for examples:
ancient Egyptians believed that the earth rose from a body of water called NU when the dark waters began to
receded the sun God Atum and dry land emerged. People were created from the tears of Gods and vegetation
sprouted from the body of Geb the earth of God.
Some Australian aboriginal groups believe that a sons mother warmth melted the ice and produced rivers, birds and
animals. Other believed in wandjinas - supreme spirits who painted their own images on cave walls - as the creators
of the earth.
Jewish and Christians tradition is recorded in the Genesis from the clay of the ground man was created. It is
evident that scientific explanations and belief systems can coexist they are not in conflict. Belief systems are
based on unchanging Dogma and belong to the different domain.
Describe technological advances that have increased knowledge of the prokaryotic organisms
Electron microscope discovery of prokaryotic cells, it shows the ultra structure of cells
Biochemical analysis classifying by molecular structure it has increased our understanding of the processes that
occur in cells. Comparisons can be made between different species and similarities and differences provide
information about how changes have occurred.
Describe the main features of the environment occupied by one of the following and identify the role of this
organism in its ecosystem:
Archaea
Methanogens
Are found in bogs and deep soils, in marine and freshwater sediments, in the intestinal tracts of herbivores and in
sewage treatment facilities
They are anaerobic and cannot tolerate exposure to oxygen
They use hydrogen as an energy source Carbon dioxide as a carbon source for growth Producing methane gases
in the process
Methanogen activity created most of the earths natural gas deposits

Release methane gas into the atmosphere, which contributes to the carbon cycle
Eubacteria
They are found everywhere: in soil, water, air and decaying organic materials
With fungi they play an important role as decomposers of organic matter for recycling in nature
Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic autotrophic unicells that are aquatic they occur naturally in wet or damp situations:
Ponds, streams, wet rocks and soils.
They do not have membrane bond organelles
The Cyanobacteria have a highly complex system of internal membranes called lamellae, which are involved in
photosynthesis
Live in anaerobic environments (no oxygen) Proves that they existed on early earth
Stromatolites are Cyanobacteria. There abundance and carbon fixation ability in photosynthesis over millions of
years contributed to the reduction in carbon dioxide and increased oxygen.
They would have had an important role in their ecosystem, as they were the first reefs
Produced many of the oil deposits
Greatly responsible for changing their environment form anoxic to oxic
Plays an essential role as nitrogen fixers in both fresh water and ocean
In the earths ocean not only generate large quantities of oxygen but are also known as the grass of the sea
because of their role as primary producers.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Found in symbiotic relationship in plant roots, taken from the air and convert it into more complex compounds such
as nitrated which can be used by plants. This allows them to grow in nutrient-poor soils.
Play an important role in the nitrogen cycle, and their activity is the only way that atmospheric nitrogen is made
available for use by living things
12. The role of prokaryotes in ecosystem
They play an essential role in recycling matter
Prokaryotes may be found as producers, consumers, decomposers, symbionts and parasites
They are part of the Kingdom Monera and there are thousands of groups.
Reasons for their success include:
fast rate of reproduction
varied metabolism
some species form spores
they form spores when environmental conditions are unsatisfactory
they use nutrients that cannot be used by any other species
they can live in environments with varied oxygen content
13. Explain the need for scientists to classify organisms
Help biologists to understand the relationships between organisms, and to talk to other biologist about organism
without having to describe the organism in detail
Aim to reflect our current knowledge of the world of living things
Classification systems are considered to be uncertain, because each one reflects the views of the biologists who
devised it
14. Describe the selection criteria used in different classification systems and discuss the advantages and
disadvantages for each system
Binomial systems of Naming:
Advantages: they are universal, same common name is sometimes used to label different species, they give us an
indication of the relatedness of different organisms, common names maybe misleading, one organism may have
several names.
Hierarchy/Levels of Classification
Advantages: can determine similarities and differences, information is sorted so generalizations can be made.
Classification Key
Advantages: quick and simple.
Dichotomous Keys
Classification keys are used to identify and describe different organisms. A Dichotomous key is designed so that
there are two alternatives at each step. By following the correct statements the organism can be identified.
Example: 1a it has a back bone
go to 3
b it has no back bone
2a body is segmented
worm
b body is not segmented
jelly fish

3a lives in aquatic environment

fish
b lives in terrestrial environment
cat
2 Kingdoms
Plants, animals
3 Kingdoms
Protests, plants, animals
4 Kingdoms
Monera, protests, plants, animals
5 Kingdoms
Fungi, Monera, protests, plants, animals
6 Kingdoms
Fungi, archaeobateria, Eubacteria, protests, plants,
animals
15. Explain how levels of organization in a hierarchical system assist classification
Kingdom 2 animals + plants
Phylum Many phyla, have similar features but look different
Class phyla is divided into classes
Order members of class can be divided into different orders
Family order divided into families
Genus families divided into genus
Species most important, species have many features in common they can breed with each other. Observe
similarities and differences and heaps of information
16. Discuss, using examples, the impact of changes in technology on the development and revision of biological
classification systems
Development of the light microscope first revealed that living things were made up of cells
Electron microscope revealed more and more levels of detail of their internal structure
Recent advances in molecular techniques, such as comparing the sequences of amino acids in proteins or the
sequencing of DNA bases along short lengths of chromosomes from related organisms, have considerably added to
our knowledge of evolutionary relationships between organisms, and have enabled taxonomists to continually
change and refine the existing classification system.
17. Describe the main features of the binomial system in naming organisms and relate these to the concepts of
genus and species
The first word has a capital letter and represents the Genus
The second word represents species within genus
Both words are always printed and in italics
Example: Cat Genus-Felis, Species-Domestica, Felis domestica
18. Identify and discuss the difficulties experienced in classifying extinct organisms
Fossil remains of organism may be difficult to classify
The fossil evidence may be incomplete or may not show enough detail of the organisms structure for classifications
purposes
If the organism has been extinct for a long period of time there may be no similar type of living organisms with which
to compare it.
19. Explain how classification of organisms can assist in developing an understanding of present and past life on
earth

Patterns in Nature
1.

Outline the historical development of the cell theory, in particular, the contributions of Robert Hooke and
Robert Brown
Scientist Name
Year
Scientific Discovery or Theory
What contribution did they have to Cell
Theory
Robert Hooke
1655
Discovered cells in a cork
All cells come from pre-existing cells
Robert Brown
1833
Observed large bodies, nucleus, was
Cells are the smallest units of life
present in both plant and animals
Anton Van
1674
First person to observe bacteria and
Cells are the smallest units of life
Leeuwenheok
protozoa
Matthew Schleiden
1839
That all living matter is composed of
All organisms are made up of cells
small units called cells
Theodore Schwann
1839
That all living matter is composed of
All organisms are made up of cells

Rudolf Virchow

1858

Zacharias Janssen
Discuss the
Significance
Galileo Galilei

1595
Of

Cornelius Drebbel

1619

Giovanni Faber
Anton Van
Leeuwenheok
Ernst Ruska

1625
1674

1609

small units called cells

Cells develop only from pre-existing
cells
Credited for the first compound
Technological advances
Developed a compound microscope
with convex and concave lens
Famous for his invention of a
microscope with convex lenses
First use of the term microscope
Simple microscope with only one lens

All cells came from pre-existing cells

microscope
To development In cell theory

Examines blood, yeast, insects and many

other tiny objects
1931
Co-invented the electron microscope
Makes it possible to view objects as small
as the diameter of an atom
Erwin Muller
1951
Invents the field ion microscope
Looks at atoms
Gerd Binning and
1981
Invented the scanning tunneling
Gives three dimensional images of
Heinrch Rohrer
microscope
objects down to the atomic level
Robert Hooke was an experimental scientist. Two instruments invented by Robert Hooke included
Compound light microscope with more than one lens, and observed many organisms under the microscope
Micrometer the spring control of the balance wheels in watches
Robert Brown collected 500 plant species and made many notes naming more than 140 and over 1700 new species
Brownian motion is when Brown noticed the constant movement of suspended particles and since.
In 1833, brown observed the epidermis of orchids under his microscope and discovered an opaque spot which is called
the nucleus.
2. Identify that tissues, organs and organ system in multicellular organisms consist of different types of cells
Cells
Cells are the smallest units of life
All organisms are made up of cells
All cells come from pre-existing cells
Tissues
Consist of similar cells acting together
Different tissues can group together to form organs
Human organs include: heart, stomach, brain and lungs
Plant organs include: root, stem, leaf and flower
Organs
Number of different tissues acting together organs group together to form body systems
Example: digestive system is made up of the stomach, small and large intestines.
Example: vegetation system is made up of roots, sterns and leaves
Systems
Are made up of organs acting together
3. Identify cell organelles seen with current light and electron microscopes
Refer to worksheet
4. Describe the relationship between the structure of cell organelles and their function
Organelle
Organelle Function
Mitochondrion
Known as the powerhouse of the cell as where most energy is produced, consists of a
double membrane- outer membranes is smooth and inner membrane is folded forming
cristae, the chemical reaction of respiration takes place on the cristae, active cells using lots
of energy have lots of mitochondria
Smooth
A network inside the cell, No ribosomes attached, site of lipids, is a system of membranous
Endoplasmic
sacs and tubules that is connected to the nuclear envelope. It provides internal surface for
Reticulm
chemical reactions, a series of channels through which material can be circulated
Rough
Has tiny grains attached, proteins are made in the ribosomes and transported from the
Endoplasmic
endoplasmic reticlum to Gogli
Reticulm
Nucleus
Surrounded by a double membrane nuclear envelope, spherical in shape, tiny pores allow
certain substances in and out, contains the genetic material of the cell located on the

Gogli
Secretary
Vesicles
Cell Membrane
Cell Wall
Chloroplast
Vacuole

chromosomes, controls the activities of the cell by controlling which proteins are made in the
cell, controls cell division and nucleolus is the site for ribosome formation
Consists of stacks of flattened membrane sacs, packaging center it modifies, packages
and distributes substances made by the endoplasmic reticlum and secretes it into or out of
the cell
Acts as a protective barrier to the uncontrolled flow of water, separates cytoplasm and the
outside environment
Gives protection, support and shape, all plat cells have a cell wall
Consists of a double membrane, the area inside the chloroplast is known as the stroma, the
stroma contains membranes called thylakiods that occur in stacks called grana, the
thylakiods contain the chlorophyll pigments and the enzymes needed for photosynthesis
Many types of vacuole, in plants they are large and central, they contain cell sap and they
are needed for support

5. Identify the major groups of substances found in living cells and their uses in cell activities
All substances are either organic or inorganic.
Inorganic
Substances do not contain carbon atoms
Include water, oxygen, minerals [salts such as sodium and chloride ions]
Organic
Substances containing carbon atoms
Include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nuclei acids
I. Carbohydrates
Contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Important source of energy, excess is stored as
Broken down into simplest form molecules to release energy
3 groups of carbohydrates
a)
Monasaccharides - Simplest form, 1 sugar unit, Example: glucose, fructose and ribose, All
soluble in water
b) Disaccharides consists of double sugar molecules, formed when 2 Monasaccharides are joined together,
example: lactose-glucose + galactose, maltose-glucose + glucose, sucrose-glucose + fructose
c) Polysaccharide consists of many sugar molecules joined together, in animals form glycogen, in plants form
cellulose and starch, insoluble in water
II. Lipids
Contain elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but less oxygen then found on carbohydrates
Each molecule consists of a glycerol joined to fatty acids
Used as an energy source, is also the structural component of a cell membrane
Classified as oil/fat
Insoluble in water
III. Proteins
Contain elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
Made up of amino acids joined by riptide bonds
There are 20 types of amino acids and their arrangement will dictate the type of protein [1 protein= 50-1000 amino acids]
Used as enzymes [help reactions in the cell], used in the structural component of the cell membrane
IV. Nucleic Acids
Consists of units called nucleotides
Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogen base [adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine] sugar and phosphate group
2 types of RNA ribonucleic acid: found throughout the cells and needed for protein manufacture
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid: found in chromosomes and needed for genetic information
6. Identify that there is movement of molecules into and out of cells
Diffusion
Is the movement of substances from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until the particles
are evenly distributed and have reached equilibrium
One way they take in materials from the environment; its also one way they rid themselves of unwanted materials
Requires no energy [passive transport]
Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other small ions and molecules can diffuse feely through cell membranes

Facilitated Diffusion
Type of passive transport
Substances are moved down a concentration gradient in a cell membrane
When molecules are to big or are insoluble in lipids and need to be carried over by a carrier proteins
Osmosis
Special case of passive transport involving the diffusion of water molecules across a differentially permeable
membrane
Is the movement of water molecules from an area of a high concentration to an area of lower water concentration
This results in movement of water from less concentration to more concentration
Isotonic: concentration of water is the same in both mediums stay the same inside and outside
Hypotonic: concentration of water is higher out side than inside water moves into substances and becomes fatter
Hypertonic: concentration of water is higher inside than the outside water moves out of the substances and becomes
thinner
Active Transport
Some substances cannot be transported by passive transport and must be carried through membrane using proteins.
It uses energy
7. Describe the current model of membrane structure and explain how it accounts for the movement of some
substances into and out of cells
Fluid Mosaic Model: to represent the structure of the cell membrane. Phosolipids form a bilayer with the hydrophobic
(water-hating) end of the lipid facing the middle of the membrane and the hydrophilic (water-loving) end facing towards the
watery contents of the cell.
Head [hydrophilic]
Tail [hydrophobic]
Protein

Water

Molecules soluble in lipid include: oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve in the phospholipid bilayer and diffuse across the
membrane. Molecules not soluble in lipids include water, which also diffuses across the cell membrane through small
openings made by the movement of the fluid lipids.
Semipermeable: some compounds may enter and leave the cell but others cannot.
Passive transport: do not use energy to travel through membrane.
Active transport: uses energy to travel through membrane. Passive

Diffusion through lipid layer

Facilitated Diffusion

8.

9.

Compare the processes of diffusion and osmosis

Similarities
Involve the movement of substances from high to low
concentration
Both can occur without the use of energy [ATP]
The transported substance move down concentration
gradient from high concentration to low concentration

Active transport

Differences
Diffusion is the movement of all substances osmosis is
just the movement of water
Osmosis is the movement across the membrane
whereas diffusion does not always involve a membrane

Explain how the surface area to volume ratio affects the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells

The greater the surface area to volume ratio the greater the rate of diffusion. Cells must maintain a small size to ensure
they have a large surface area to volume ratio so maximum diffusion of substances can take place. When cells become too
large they divide to maintain their efficiency.
10. Distinguish between autotrophs and hetrotrophs in term of nutrients requirements
Autotrophic means self feeding plant cells which contain chloroplast are able to produce their own nutrients via
photosynthesis
Heterotrophic means feeding on nutrients outside itself. Animal cells do not contain chloroplast they must obtain the
substances the need from their external environment.
Therefore, hetrotrophs rely on autotrophs for their nutrient requirement
Autotrophic
Heterotrophic
Energy

11. Identify the materials required for photosynthesis and its role in the ecosystem
Photosynthesis occurs in 2 stages:
Light dependant reactions radiant energy from the sun is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments in the chloroplast of green
plant cells and this is converted into chemical energy some of this energy is used to split water into hydrogen into oxygen
Light
Water -------- hydrogen + oxygen this occurs on the internal membranes of the chloroplast [thylakiods]
Light independent reactions the hydrogen from step one combines with carbon dioxide to form sugar. This process
requires energy, this come from the first set of reactions
Energy
Hydrogen + carbon dioxide -------- sugars this occurs in the stroma or fluid matrix of chloroplast. At least 2 different path
ways are known: C3 or Calvin Cycle 1st stable 3C atoms, C4 or Cane/Corn 1st stable 4C atoms
The products of photosynthesis are sugars and oxygen
12. Identify the general word equation for photosynthesis and outline this as a summary of a chain of
biochemical reactions
Light energy
Carbon dioxide + water ------------------ sugar +oxygen
Chlorophyll
13. Explain the relationship between the organization of the structures used to obtain water and minerals in a
range of plants and the need to increase the surface area available for absorption
Aquatic - Water and mineral can be absorbed across the whole surface of the plant.
Terrestrial water and minerals are obtained through root systems, which also anchor the plants in the soil. Plant roots
need a large surface area over which absorption can occur. They achieve this by having a branching structure, and root hairs
just behind the root tip.

Roots:
These have the following main functions:
1. To anchor plants in the ground
2. To absorb water and dissolve mineral salts from the soil
3. To act as a pipeline between the soil and the stem
4. To become modified as organs of food storage and a vegetative propagation (growth)

Differences between stems and roots:

Stems
1.
ar leaves and buds
2.
en green
3.
cap at end
4.
scular tissue situated away from central position
5.
scular tissue as separate bundles
Epidermis

Be
Oft
No

Roots
1. Bear roots hairs
2. Never green, often white
3. Cap present at end
4. Vascular tissue situated at core
5. Vascular tissue a single strand

Va
Va

Protective clear layer. Many young roots are covered with a slimy coating called mucilage

Cortex
Vascular
Tissue
Root Hairs
Root Cap
Xylem

Cells in cortex act as storage area. Air spaces between cells for circulation of gases
(Cylindrical center) Xylem + Phloem - Stele
Increase surface area therefore can absorb more water and mineral
Protects growing point of root. Produces mucilage
Contains long dead cells forming tubes. They are thickened with lignin in spirals or rings.
They are used for transporting water and dissolved salts upwards from the soil
Contains long tube like cells. Transports food made from the results of photosynthesis.
(Transport is both ways)

Phloem

Epidermis
Lateral Root
Root
Hair

Zone of
root hair

Root
Cap
Cortex

Phloem

Xylem

14. Explain the relationship between the shape of leaves, the distribution of tissues in them and their role

Leaves
Functions of a leaf:
Food manufacture (through photosynthesis)
for diffusion of gases (respiration + photosynthesis)
modified as organs of food storage and vegetative propagation

Upper epidermis (complete

covering with few stomates,
allows light in but keeps
pathogens out)

Vein containing
xylem + phloem

Spongy mesophyll (cells

containing few chloroplasts,
surrounded by large air spaces
for gas diffusion

Waxy cuticle (to

reduce water loss)

Palisade mesophyll (cells

contain chloroplasts for
photosynthesis)
Lower epidermis
(lots of stomates)
Guard cell stoma

Simple small plants can rely on diffusion on their surface to transport materials.
More complex plants, there is greater need for a transport system because the volume and surface area differs to the simple
small plants.
Water moves through the plant from roots to leaves via:
1. Transpiration pull: water travels through the roots up to the leaves
2. Cohesion: attraction between water molecules and this helps draw water up the xylem
3. Adhesion/Capillarity: water moves up thin tubes


Stomates
A leaf is able to control the amount of water it loses to ensure its cells dont dry out.
Each stomate is made up of two guard cells surrounding a pore.
Guard cells are able to adjust the size of the pore and therefore adjust water loss
Mesophyll
Stomates
Vein

Middle leaf. They consist of two types palisade and mesophyll cells are found most commonly in
one or two rows below the upper epidermis.
Are pores in the leaf that can open and close? When they open they permit the exchange of
gases between the leaf and the external environment.
Tubes of vascular tissues consisting of xylem and phloem

15. Describe the role of teeth in increasing the surface area of complex foods for exposure to digestive
chemicals
The shapes of teeth give a clue to the type of food eaten by an animal.
Herbivores have large grinding molars that crush the food to increase the surface area for digestion. Herbivores have
diets high in complex carbohydrates. The process of cellulose digestion is called fermentation.
Carnivores teeth are adapted to catching and holding prey and then ripping it to pieces.
16. Explain the relationship between the length and overall complexity of digestive systems of a vertebrate
herbivore and a vertebrate carnivore with respect to:
The chemical composition of their diet
Feature
Herbivore
Carnivore
Major chemical
Complex carbohydrates including cellulose
Proteins, fats
composition of
diet
Teeth
Large grinding molars to crush food
Sharp canines and molars for catching and
holding prey
Time in mouth
Chewed for a long period of time
Rapidly swallowed
Time spent eating
Most of the day
Short feeding period
Stomach
Foregut fermenters (ruminants eg. Cattle)
Small, one chambered stomach
have a four chambered stomach for break
down of cellulose
Intestines
Hindgut fermenters have an enlarged caecum Short and unspecialized
for break down of cellulose
The functions of the structures involved
Mouth and Teeth:
In the mouth, food is broken down by the mechanical action of the teeth into smaller pieces. It is then mixed with saliva, which
lubricates the food and makes it easier to swallow.
Types of teeth:
Carnivore
Herbivore
Omnivore
Sharp, Jiggered, Used for ripping,
Flat and large, used to grind up
Contain both sharp and flat teeth,
tearing, cutting and piercing
vegetation
accommodate for a diverse diet
Oesophagus:
Links the mouth to the stomach. Food travels downwards via peristalsis (rhythmic contractions of the muscles of the
oesophagus.
Stomach:
Muscular pouch which churns food. Glands in the stomach wall secrete enzymes (proteases), which split proteins into simpler
molecules. Gastric fluids (hydrochloric acid, mucus, enzymes) are produced which chemically digests food. Physical digestions
occur via churning. The movement of food is controlled by valve like muscles called sphinchiter at the beginning and end of the
stomach.
Small Intestines:
3 parts duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Receives fluid from the pancreas and bile from the liver. Pancreatic juices contain
amylase, lipase and protease. Bile breaks down fats. Here food is broken down into smaller simpler units ready for absorption.
Digestive products include: protein + protease = amino acids. Fats/oils + lipases = fatty acids. Carbohydrates + maltase lactose
= glucose, sucrose, fructose. Lined with villi to increase the surface area for greater absorption.
Large Intestines:

Absorption of minerals and water occurs here. Undigested products pass through the body via the anus unabsorbed e.g.
cellulose. Lined with villi. Rectum is the storage area for the fasces.
Villi:
Line the small and large intestines. Increase the surface area of the intestines therefore increasing the absorption of nutrients
Villi

17. Compare the roles of respiratory, circulatory and excretory system

Structure
Function
Respiratory Mouth, nose, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
Process of obtaining energy from food using
and alveoli
oxygen and releasing waste products in the form of
carbon dioxide and water
Circulatory
Open: short blood vessels, sinuses and
Nutrients and waste are able to cross from the
tubular heart
blood in the blood capillaries to the cells by
Closed: heart, gills, body cells
diffusion. Faster transport of oxygen.
Blood is pumped into the lungs fro oxygen,
then to the heart, body cells
Excretory
Kidneys, renal artery, ureters, urinary
Removes waste products from an organism. In
bladder, urethra
mammals carbon dioxide is breathed out from
lungs.
18. Identify and compare the gaseous exchange surfaces in an insect, a fish, a frog and a mammal
Animal
Structures used for respiration Description of Process of
Labeled diagram of
respiration
respiration
Insects
No lungs or blood vessels are
They transport gases using
involved oxygen is delivered
branching tubes called trachea,
directly to cells through tubes
which branch into tracholes. Each
called Trachea
trachea opens to external
environment through pores called
spiracles. Air travels through the
spiracles and along the tracheae
and tracholes bringing air directly
to cells.
Fish
Gill, which are thin external
Water enters through the mouth
structures for gaseous exchange. and then passes over the gills.
The outer surface of the gill is in
contact with the water and the
inner surface is in contact with
larger blood supply that carries the
diffused oxygen.
Amphibians 2 respiratory methods via skin
Skin: oxygen form the air diffuses
(cutaneous) and via the lungs.
over the moist skin and is
transported by the blood to all the
body cells.
Lungs: much simpler than
mammals and only have a small
surface area.
Mammals
Mouth, nose, trachea, bronchi,
Air enters through the mouth and
bronchioles and alveoli
nose where it is warmed and
filtered. Air then travels down the
trachea into the bronchi and into
smaller tubes called bronchioles
until it reaches the air sacs called
alveoli. In the alveoli gases
exchange takes place.

19. Explain the relationship between the requirements of cells and the need for transport system in multicellular
organisms
To ensure that cells are supplied with the nutrients they need and that waste do not accumulate, multicellular organisms
have a transport system that allows substances to be moved to and from the internal body cell.
Plants: runs through long tubes to the root, stems and leaves. Two transport systems xylem and phloem. Water and
mineral ions are transported upwards in the xylem (they enter via the root and travel upwards in the xylem tube) and
organic materials are transported up and down the plant in the phloem.
20. Outline the transport system in plants including
Root hair cells water is taken in by plants from the soil. Water has low concentration of solute and is
therefore a dilute solution. Water in the cytoplasm has a high concentration and solutes are more
concentrated. Water moves by diffusion down its concentration gradient by osmosis. They provide a large
surface area for water.
Xylem consists of dead cells, thickened with woody material. It gives support and strength and rigidity to the
stem. Water is transported upwards to the leaves
Factors affecting transpiration temperature (diffusion is more rapid when high)
- humidity (conditions of high humidity transpiration is decreased)
-wind (moving air increases the transpiration rate)
- light (affects stomatal opening which affects transpiration)
-soil (water content and the solute concentration affects transpiration)
21. Compare open an closed circulatory system using one vertebrate and one invertebrate as examples
System
Description
Features
Types of
Diagram
Organisms
Open
In this system the body fluid known
The pressure in
Multicellular
as the haemolymph is only
the open system is organisms:
transported within short blood
low, so body fluid
insects,
vessels for a limited amount of time. circulates slowly
molluscs
These vessels are open at one end
and is therefore
and the fluid is pumped to large
only suitable for
spaces called sinuses. Cells are
smaller organisms.
bathed in the haemolymph.
Eventually the fluid flows back to
simple tubular heart.
Closed Single The blood remains within a
Blood is under low Fish
completely closed system of vessels pressure
and never comes in direct contact
with the cells. Nutrients and waste
are able to cross via cell diffusion.
Advantages include:
1. Faster transport of oxygen
2. Greater efficiency of blood flow as
blood returns immediately to heart
after each circuit.
3. Economy of blood volume
Blood only enters heart once in
each circuit.
Closed Double Blood is pumped to the heart twice
Blood is under
Vertebrates
in each circuit. It pumped to the
high pressure
except fish.
lungs and then returns to the heart
Humans as
to get pumped to all body cells
well.
22. Identify mitosis as a process of nuclear division and explain its role
Multicellular organisms grow by a combination of the following processes:

Cell division (mitosis)

Cell enlargement

Cell differentiation (specialization)

There are 2 types of cell division:

Mitosis production of all cells in the body except sex cells.

Function is for growth, repair, replacement of dead or damaged cells and asexual reproduction,

it is a type of cell division the parent cell (original) divides to produce 2 genetically identical daughter cells (same number
of chromosomes containing the same information)

This cell division is made up of 2 processes:

(1) Mitosis division of the nucleus into identical nuclei
(2) cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is the division of the cytoplasm so that 2 new cells can be produced

Meiosis production of sex cells

Stages of Mitosis:

Prophase
Early prophase: The duplicated chromosomes are visible and are joined together. They are known as chromatids
Late prophase: the nuclear starts to breakdown and disappear

Metaphase
The chromatids line up along the center of the nucleus. A spindle forms and attaches to the center of the chromatids at a point
known as the centromere.

Anaphase
The spindle fibers contract as the chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the nucleus.

Telophase
The spindle disappears and new nuclear membrane forms around the 2 sets of chromosomes.
23. Identify the sites of mitosis in plants, insects and mammals
Mammals
mitosis occurs in all body cells except in the production of sex cells. Skin, growth of hair, fur, nails and claws,
replacement of blood cells (bone marrow), replacing cells in the lining of the digestive system.
Rate of mitosis is high during the development of the foetus, childhood upto adolescence.
Plants
mitosis occurs at the tips of roots and stems so that they can increase in length and width. Unlike animals plants can
grow forever because of the cell division at the meristematic cells.
Insects
mitosis occurs in the stages of metamorphosis (change). Mitosis is made up of 4 stages.
24.

Explain the need for cytokinesis in cell division

Division of the cytoplasm occurs immediately after mitosis
It is necessary to ensure that the chromosomes number in each cell remains constant
Chromosomes numbers double in mitosis and one cell now contains two sets of chromosomes
Division of cytoplasm results in two cells, each with a set of chromosomes

25. Identify the nuclei, mitochondria and chloroplast contain DNA

Evolution of Australian Biota

1.

Identify and describe evidence that supports the assertion that Australia was once part of a landmass called
Gondwanaland, including:
Crust and mantle is called lithosphere
Crust: ridged, thin
Mantle: dense, hot, semi solid rock
Liquid mantle is called asthenosphere
Core: very dense, metallic, liquid outer core, solid inner core
- matching continental margins
Alfred Wagner suggested the theory of continental drift, that once all the continents were joined together as one mega
continent called Pangaea. Slowly over time the continent began to split apart about 150 million years ago formed two
continents called Laurasia and Gondwanaland consisting of South America, Australia, Africa, India and Antarctica.
The continental margin is the zone between the ocean basin and the mass of continent. The continental shelf is the area
underwater from the shore to the continental drift. When the continental margins are aligned, it is important that rock types
and rock structure also aligns.
- Position of mid-ocean ridges
Scientists have discovered a line of ridges that extend through the ocean floor. These ridges occur where plates move
apart due to convection currents, so molten magma inside the mantle can seep out creating new ocean floor. Radiometric
dating has shown that the further away from the ridge the older the rock and this is evidence that the plates have moved
apart over a long period of time. When new crust is made at mid ocean ridges, it must be destroyed somewhere else, as
the earth isnt getting bigger. Therefore one-plate moves under another, e.g., deep ocean trenches from where ocean
crusts meet continental crust.
- Spreading zones between continental plates
The convection currents that move the ocean floor away from the ridges is a process known as sea floor spreading and it is
the process that is causing the continents to move apart.
- Fossils in common on Gondwanaland continents including Glossoppteris and Gangamopteris flora, and
marsupials
A fossil is any trace or remains of past life. A study of the of the fossil evidence from the different continents that once made
up Gondwanaland show great similarities that are hard to explain unless the continents were once connected.
Glossopterids are an order of plants and the three most common genera are Glossopteris. Gangamopteris and
Palaeovittaria.
The glossopteris is a genus of seed ferns with several hundred different species. Glossopteris was deciduous with mature
leaves around 10cm long. These leaves are very distinctive with a large central vein and a network of smaller veins. The
presence of Glossopteris on the southern continent during Permian is strong evidence to show Gondwanaland was
connected.
Gangamopteris is similar to Glossopteris, however they do not have a midrib, but a median groove in the leaf.
- Similarities between present day organisms on Gondwanaland continents
Some continents share similar organisms even though they are far apart.
Marsupials are found in Australia, New Guinea and South America
Kauris pines, hood pines, bunya pines and wollemi pine belonging to the species auracariceae and they are found in
Australia, New Guinea and South America
Ratite (highest birds) e.g. ostriches of Africa, rheas of South America, Emus and cassowaries of Australia, moas and kiwis
of New Zealand suggests that these all belong to similar flightless ancestors as they could not have flown to colonies
different countries. The countries must have been joined.
2. Discuss current research into the evolutionary relationships between extinct species, including mega fauna
and extant Australian species
Many species have evolved and become extinct. An example is glossopteris, which appears in the fossil records in the
Permian period. Extant species have representatives that are alive today. An example is Nothofagus, it first appeared in the
late cretaceous and living specimens are found today in Tasmania. The megafauna are animals, which are similar to the
present day organisms but are much bigger. Over the last 50 million years most of the worlds megafauna have been
extinct. There are two reasons for this:
1) Climate Change: Megafauna were mainly suited to glacial conditions. Their large bodies enabled them to live in extreme
conditions. In Eurasia and North America, when permafrost was replaced with forest, the megafauna died out and animals
more adapted to forest began to thrive. In Australia, the temperature changed from cold dry to warm-dry. As a result, water
sources began to dry up, and many animals lost their habitat and died out.
2) Human Expansion: The time of the extinction of megafauna matches very closely the pattern of human migration into
these areas. Megafauna are also large and slow, which makes them susceptible to hunting. In Africa, humans evolution
occurred there, so hunting increased slowly, allowing animals to adjust. That is why there are still megafauna there.

However, in places where humans arrived as skilled hunters, the most extinction occurred. Examples of megafauna are
large kangaroos, wallabies, wombats, the huge diprotodon, giant running birds and a giant python.
Current research into the evolutionary relationships between extinct and extant Australian species revolves around the
search of fossil evidence. Once the fossils are found, similarities and differences with other known species, both living an
extinct can be made so that relationships can be deduced.
Wynyardia was a primitive marsupial that lived in the tertiary period. It is one of the oldest fossil marsupials with a
preserved skeleton and it is believed to be an ancestor of diprotodont marsupials.
About 20,000 years ago most of the megafauna had become extinct.
3. Discuss examples of variation between members of a species
If one species occupies a large area and this large area has a noticeable change across it, then there is likely to be
variation with the species. Different environments create different selective pressure; these selective pressures allow some
gene to be passed on and others to be removed from the gene pool. This leads to some gene combinations to become
successful in one area but not another, and so variation within species occurs. Variations in a species are important in
changing an environment.
Animals in more southern areas will generally be larger than animals of the same species in warmer areas.
Populations of the white napped honeyeaters from southwestern Australia are larger with a longer bill then those of
southeastern and eastern Australia.
The west Australian kangaroo has a thicker fur coat and is darker in the forest populations and those of more open
grassland population.
The tiger snakes on islands of Bass Strait are smaller and has more toxic vermin to that of its relatives.
In sexually producing organisms variation is also caused by random segregation of chromosomes during meiosis, crossing
over during meiosis and the fact that sexual reproduction involves the union of two gametes which means half the.
characteristics come from one parent and the other half come from the other parent and thus the offspring is not identical
to either parent.
4. Identify the relationship between variation within a species and the chances of survival of species when
environmental change occurs
According to the theory of natural selection, there will always be variations within species.
When environmental change occurs, the individuals that have a variation that allows them to live in the new environment
can survive, while those without the variation die out.
So, the greater the variation within a species, the greater the chance that it will be able to survive in a situation of
environmental change.
5. Identify and describe evidence of changing environments in Australia over millions of years
Year
Event
300 million Australia was part of the super-continent Pangaea
150 million Pangaea spilt into two landmasses with Australia part of Gondwanaland joined with Africa, Antarctica,
India and South America.
This isolated many plants and animals that would become typical Gondwana flora and fauna
135 million Beginning of the cretaceous Australia became a group of islands invaded by shallow seas. Gondwana
began to split apart. Australia was inside the arctic circle and there were polar dinosaurs.
65 million
At the end of cretaceous the temperature cooled and dinosaurs became extinct
38 million
In the tertiary Australia spilt from Antarctica and moved north. Mega fauna evolved.
25 million
Marsupial diversity was at its greatest and the Australian plate collided into Asian plate.
20 million
Glaciations occurred and lowered sea levels.
15 million
Placental mammals such as rodents and bats invaded
10 million
Gradual drying out of continent with growth of extensive grassland
2 million
Glaciations lowered sea levels and a land bridge formed between Australia and New Guinea allowing
tropical vegetation and mammals to enter northern Australia
100,000
Humans arrived in Australia
5000
Dingo introduced to mainland and may animals become extinct
200
Europeans arrived and introduced new plants and animals
6. Identify areas within Australia that experience significant variations in temperature and water availability
Sclerophyll means hard leafed. Sclerophyll plants are adapted to dry conditions.
About 10mya Australia began drying out and the rainforests began to give way to eucalypt forests. In central Australia
theses forests thinned out to become woodlands. Westerly winds swept dry lakes forming sand dunes.
A wide variety of biota became well adapted to arid habitats and survived.

Areas in Australia that experience variations in temperature and water availability are arid habitats and in central Australia
water is scarce, rainfall is unpredictable and temperatures are extreme.
An adaptation that assists plants and animals to cope with variations in temperature is by being nocturnal.
Adaptations that assist plants and animals to cope with variations in availability of water include:
Waxy cuticles, holes that let air in and out, reduced numbers of stomates, stomates on under surface, hairy leaves, less
surface area, leaves that have long spiky shapes, the shape of the plant, swollen stems to store water, penetrating roots,
leaves fall during drought.
Animals: waterproof outer layer, animals that can reduce desiccation have a reduced surface area to volume ratio, the
ability to absorb water stored as dilute urine in the bladder, ability to obtain water needed by cellular respiration from diet of
dry seeds, excrete uric acid, digging for water.
7. Identify changes in the distribution of Australian species, as rainforests contracted and sclerophyll
communities and grasslands spread, as indicated by fossil evidence
As Australia became warmer and drier, rainforests shrank, and grasslands and sclerophyll communities increased
As a result, those organisms well suited to these conditions undertook adaptive radiation, i.e. the change in a species
from its original form to a different form adapted to different environments or ways of life.
Two groups that are part of the sclerophyll family are eucalypts and acacias
Both forms have adapted to survive in dry hot conditions
The 950 species of acacia are found almost everywhere, from tropical to temperate, arid and semi-arid.
The 800 species of eucalypts are found mainly in open woodland and forests
Another group, Proteaceous, has diversified into banksias, waratahs, grevilleas, etc
Marsupials, as it got warmer, in Australia diversified to many ecosystems
Placental died out, except bats
Frogs in Australia have developed an independence of permanent water, and many of them now occupy inland arid areas
As Australia moved north the Antarctic Beech forest contracted and were replaced by sclerophyll plants
Time
Evidence
Environment
50 million years ago
Lush vegetation with soft leaves e.g. glossopteris
Temperature moist condition
Forest of Antarctic Beech
Rich vegetation adapted to moist mild
Fossils found in the center of Australia were of
conditions
animals which required plenty of water e.g. flamingos, Evidence of vast seas
crocodiles, tortoises and dolphins
Up until 2 million
Ago the rainforests have been replaced by
Forests
years
sclerophyll
Today
Eucalyptuses, banksias, wattles, bottle bushes, all
Central Australia is a dry habitat with,
have sclerophyll leaves (thin, small surface and waxy
plants adapted to dry conditions.
cuticle) preventing them from dying out. When they
loose water they retain their shape so that when water
comes available they can resume normal functions
immediately
8. Discuss current theories that provide a model to account for these changes
Evidence used for the theories of changes to Australian species come from two places: Riversleigh and Naracoorte
At Riversleigh, the change from rainforest to dry habitat was observed
Fossils from Naracoorte, as well as pollen from Wylie Swamp, indicate that during the Quaternary, inland lakes dried up
and vegetation changed from forest to open woodland
These two places contribute to the following two theories:
Climate: Increase in climate and decline in water availability is shown in the contraction of rainforests and in the expansion
of open woodland. The rise and fall of Australian mammals and the radiation of marsupials is also related to climate
Human Impact: Humans arrived as an exotic species in Australia. Their actions may have contributed to the megafaunas
extinction and use of fire changed the environment. Arrival of Europeans drastically changed the environment, due to
unsustainable agricultural methods
9. Discuss Darwins observations of Australian flora and fauna and relate these to the theories of evolution
Darwin and Wallace were co-developers in the theory of evolution by natural selection. They both studied the distribution of
species. Darwins voyage on a ship called HSM Beagle in (1831-1836) took him to Australia, South America and
Galapagos islands. During this trip Darwin realised the greater variety and adaptations of living things e.g. species of
finches that lived on different islands in the Galapagos showed subtle variations and later he related this to the slightly
different food they are. These observations convinced Darwin that living organisms could change. In 1858 Wallace and
Darwin presented their ideas in Darwins book the origin of species by natural selection
They suggested that species are related

Many species changed over time

species have a mechanism for the above to happen eg. Natural selection
The Theory of Natural Selection
In any population there are variations; all the members of one species are not identical
In any generation there are offsprings that do not reach maturity and reproduce; characteristics of these organisms
are removed from the population
Those organisms that survive and reproduce are well adapted to that environment; they have favorable variations
Favorable variations are passed on to offspring; they become more and more common in the population
10. Distinguish between the processes of meiosis and mitosis in the terms of daughter cells produced
Question
Mitosis
Meiosis
Does duplication of chromosomes occur in this process
Yes
Yes
How many cell divisions occur during this process
One
Two
Does the daughter cell have a haploid of diploid number of
Diploid
Haploid
chromosomes
Is the genetic make-up of the daughter sell different or identical to the
Identical
Different
parent cell
What activities carried out by living organisms involve this process
Growth and repair
Reproduction
Mitosis: duplication of chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell followed by the division of the nucleus and finally the division
of the cell itself (cytokinesis). There are two copies of each chromosome in the cell before it divides. After division there are
two cells with the same chromosome, which make up the original parent cell. Example:

46 Chromosomes
Duplicate
92 Chromosomes
Nuclear division and cytokinesis
46 chromosomes

46 chromosomes

Cell Growth

Cell Growth

46 chromosomes

46 chromosomes

Meiosis: sexual reproduction occurs when the genetic material from the nucleus of a female sex cell joins with the nucleus
of a male sex cell. This process is called fertilization. Sex cells are called gametes. The process of fertilization is preceded
by the process of meiosis, which results in each gamete having half the number of chromosomes of the original parent cell.
During meiosis the chromosomes duplicate just as they do in mitosis but the dells divide twice.
Diploid 46 chromosomes
Duplication
42 chromosomes
Nuclear division and cytokinesis
46 chromosomes

46 chromosomes

Nuclear division and cytokinesis

23 haploid
chromosomes

23 haploid
chromosomes

Nuclear division and cytokinesis

23 haploid
chromosomes

23 haploid
chromosomes

11. Compare and contrast external and internal fertilization

External
Internal
Male gametes swim to female gametes
Male gametes swim to female gametes
No copulation
Copulation occurs the male gametes are shed into a
The male gametes are shed into a large space; there is less confined space; there is a greater chance of fertilization.
chance of fertilization
Few female gametes are produced this saves body
Many female gametes are produced zygotes develop
materials
outside male and female parents
Zygotes can be retained inside the females body for
Most common in fish, amphibians and algae
protection until fully developed.
Most common in land plants, reptiles, birds and mammals
Types of
Organisms
Terrestrial

Aquatic

Flower

Success of internal fertilization

Success of external fertilization

Does not require water therefore its perfect for

terrestrial environment
Since the area is small, only one egg is to be
released, as there is a greater chance of a
sperm meeting an egg in a confined space.
Many animals have attachments to help in
fertilization e.g. mating or courting ritual
required
Does not require water

Has no water, eggs and sperm dry out and are

unable to meet

Has water to keep gametes wet and to join

them.
Gametes exposed to elements and danger
therefore a lot of eggs released to increase
chance of survival.
Mating rituals to increase eggs and sperm
joining

Male gamete is pollen.

Male pollen lands on stigma in female part of
plant.
The pollen goes down the tube to the ovary
and the male gamete is transferred and the
ovum is fertilized

12. Discuss the relative success of these forms of fertilization in relation to the colonization of terrestrial and
aquatic environments
External fertilization is successful in an aquatic environment, enabling the gametes and young produced after fertilization to
spread out and colonize large bodies of water.
Colonization of terrestrial ecosystems has only been possible by overcoming the need for water in fertilization. Organisms
on land have developed many mechanisms to ensure successful transfer of the male gametes to the female. Without the
need for external water for fertilization, even the driest environments could be successfully colonized.
13. Describe some mechanisms found in Australian flora for
- pollination
many plants are wind pollinated. This adaptation for pollination is not a very accurate way to transfer pollen from one flower
to another. It makes up for this by producing pollen in such large quantities that by chance some lands on the stigma of
another wattle plant. Many plants rely on animals to transfer pollen.
Pollination and Fertilisation:
Pollination is the transfer of pollen onto a mature stigma
Fertilisation occurs after pollination, in the following way:

The pollen on the stigma sends a pollen tube down the style to the ovary
The two haploid nuclei of the pollen grain travel down the tube. One of the nuclei become the nucleus of the new tube cell,
while the other nucleus divides again and they both travel down the tube to the ovule
The pollen tube enters the ovule through a tiny hole called the micropyle
One of the nuclei fuses with the ovum to form the zygote
The other nucleus fuses with the two other haploid nuclei to form a triploid cell
Self-pollination involved pollen going on to the stigma of the same plant
Cross-pollination involves pollen falling on the stigma of different plants
Examples of pollination in Australian plants:
Australian Plant Method of
Adaptations of Flower
Pollination
Wattle
Wind
Large masses of pollen produced - can be carried over many kilometres by
wind. Pollen is produced in such large quantities so higher chances of landing
on stigma of another flower.
Bottlebrush
Birds
Spectacular bright red flowers attract birds
Birds visit flower for nectar, pollen attaches to their bodies and is spread from
flower to flower
Heath Banksia
Mammals
Produces a lot of nectars food supply for possums.
No petals
Australian
Bees
It flowers and matures during wasps breeding season
Orchid
Releases scent similar to female wasp, and flowers similar to female wasp, so
as the male tries to mate, pollen rubs off.
- Seed dispersal
Seed dispersal is the spreading of seeds away from the parent plant. Advantages of seed dispersal are:
Species are more likely to survive dangers such as disease, fire, or environmental change if the seeds are covering a very
widespread area. If the seeds are not spread, the entire population can get wiped-out in one go
Decrease in competition for space, light, or nutrients. Less competition from parent plant, or plants from same generation.
Examples of seed dispersal in Australian plants:
Australian Plant
Type of
Adaptations
Dispersal
Orchid seeds
Wind
Seeds attached to fine hairs which float in the breeze
Seeds can be carried hundreds of kilometres
Sheeps Burr
Animal
Seeds have hooks that attach to the fur of animals, and are carried over
large distances to another plant
Pea plants
Self
Seeds are released and scattered away from the parent plant
- Asexual reproduction with referral to local examples
Some mechanisms of asexual reproduction include:
Type
Description
Cuttings
When shoots are cut from a plant in moist soil a new plant will
form
Runners
These are long thin stems, which grow along the ground from
the parent plant. Roots and buds appear at the end of the runner
and a new plant is produced.
Tubers
Some Australian plants have thickened stems below the surface
called lingo-tubers. This is protected from fire and re-grows after
a fire
Bulbs
This is where a new plant or bud develops from the bulb to form
a identical plant
Spores
A spore consists of a single cell or a group of cells from, which
an individual can grow.
14. Describe some of the mechanisms found in Australian fauna to ensure:
- fertilization
To ensure fertilisations, sexually mature individuals need to be brought together
This process is called mating
Many factors influence mating behaviour: temperature, food, phases of moon, etc

Geraniums and carnations

Grass and strawberries
Angophoras + some banksias +
potatoes
Daffodils + tulips
Ferns, mosses and fungi

Some adaptations of Australian species to ensure fertilisation include:

Monotremes: produce leathery-shelled eggs with relatively large yolks. The egg is internally fertilised and then undergoes
partial development while in the females reproductive tract. The egg hatches after 10 days incubation in the nest.
Marsupials: young are born in a very undeveloped state and the crawl to the pouch to complete development attached to
the nipple. An embryo is made whilst little Joey is still in pouch but the embryo is delayed since the Joey cannot survive
outside the pouch.
Birds: it may take upto 12 years to mate. To ensure fertilization they have a courtship dance in which involves clapping their
bills, calling and dancing. This causes a release of a ripe egg.
-Survival of the embryo and of the young after birth
The survival of the embryo and of the young after birth is very important.
Examples of Australian animals include:
Animal
Survival of Embryo
Survival of Young after Birth
Platypus
Embryo develops inside the egg within the uterus
After hatching, young platypus remains in the
for 4 weeks. Incubation for 10 days. Eggs are stuck burrow for several months, obtaining
to the fur of abdomen
nutrients by suckling on mil. Young leave nest
when they have grown fur
Kangaroo
Internal fertilisation
After birth, underdeveloped young crawls into
Partial internal development
mothers pouch and continues development
Very short gestation period in the uterus
while feeding on milk, for 4 months.
Crocodile
Builds a nest for her eggs, lays between 4-20 eggs, She will stay guarding the hatchlings for a
which are then ignored and when they hatch
while from the predators such as turtles, sea
around 2-3 months later she will carry the
eagles and large fish
hatchings to the water in her mouth.
15. Explain how the evolution of these reproductive adaptations has increased the chances of continuity of the
species in the Australian environment
These adaptations have developed as a result of natural selection, and thus these are the fittest for their environment.
Since these reproductive adaptations are well suited to their environment, chances if continuity are increased for the plant.
16. Describe the conditions under which asexual reproduction is advantageous, with reference to a specific
Australian examples
Some animals have evolved asexual reproductive strategies such as parthenogenesis. This may be advantageous when
resources are scarce.
Asexual reproduction makes it more likely for plants to successfully reproduce. This makes the survival of the species more
likely. Asexual reproduction is advantageous in a variety of circumstances, fro example when offspring can be supported by
the parent until they are more likely to survive independently and in response to fire.
If the environment is unchanging, and the characteristics of a particular organism are well suited to the environment, then
asexual reproduction would be advantageous, since all the offspring will have the advantageous characteristics to produce.
Asexual reproduction is also advantageous when the parent plant can provide nutrients to the newly developing plant
(Spinifex). Also the parent plant can provide water to the small plant (darling lily).
17. Explain the importance of the study of past environments in predicting the impact of human activity in
present environments
The knowledge gained from palaeontology (fossils) and the study of past environments can help us to understand present
day ecosystems
This knowledge can be used to predict and determine the future for Australias plants and animals
Palaeobiologists gain knowledge about the long-term changes that have occurred in ecosystems over millions of years. At
Riversleigh, fossils are being used to see how Australias biota evolved
18. Identify the ways in which paleontology assists understanding of the factors that may determine distribution
of flora and fauna in present and future environments
The main findings of palaeontology in Australia are:
Loss of biodiversity over time - reduction in rainforest
Thylacine - numbers were already declining, Europeans finally killed them all
Analysis of plant and animal fossils can allow palaeontologists to create a picture of the ecosystems at the time.
Main causes of extinction: climate drier, agriculture and hunting
19. Explain the need to maintain biodiversity
Biodiversity is essential for maintaining the natural functions of the Earth
Such as providing clean water, air, productive soil, and recycling matter
Many human activities rely on biodiversity: agriculture, forestry, fisheries, tourism, textiles, etc
The general health of the planet depends on biodiversity