Fyp-Hydraulic Brakes

HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Page 1
BRAKE
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion.
Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy
into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be
employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of
the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later
use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential
energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized
oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic
energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which
is converted into heat. Still other braking methods even
transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by
transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but
may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid
(flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a
combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars
with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both
wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing.
Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (
), an object moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as
much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and
consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at
the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles
usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag
rises quickly with speed.
Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even
baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a
moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel
brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air
brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable
examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft,
primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the
www.final-yearproject.com | www.MBAThesis.in
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Page 2
era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep

descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed
undercarriage as an air brake.
Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum
brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air
gradually. When travelling downhill some vehicles can use their
engines to brake. When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle
with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a piston pushes the
brake pad against the brake disc which slow the wheel down.
On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake
shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down.
CHARACTERSTICS
Brakes are often describe according to several
characteristics include:
Peak force The peak force is the maximum decelerating
effect that can be obtained. The peak force is often
greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case
the brake can cause a wheel skid.
Continuous power dissipation Brakes typically get
hot in use, and fail when the temperature gets too high.
The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that
can be dissipated through the brake without failure is the
continuous power dissipation. Continuous power
dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and
speed of ambient cooling air.
Fade As a brake heats, it may become less effective,
called brake fade. Some designs are inherently prone to
fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further,
use considerations, such as cooling, often have a big
effect on fade.
Smoothness A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter,
or otherwise exerts varying brake force may lead to skids.
For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and
friction brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often lead
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Page 3
to skids, which increases maintenance costs and leads to

a "thump thump" feeling for riders inside.
Power Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a
small human application force leads to a braking force that
is higher than typical for other brakes in the same class.
This notion of "powerful" does not relate to continuous
power dissipation, and may be confusing in that a brake
may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake
application, yet have lower (worse) peak force than a less
"powerful" brake.
Pedal feel Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective
perception of brake power output as a function of pedal
travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement
of the brake and other factors.
Drag Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake
condition depending on design of the system to
accommodate total system compliance and deformation
that exists under braking with ability to retract friction
material from the rubbing surface in the off-brake
condition.
Durability Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must
be renewed periodically. Wear surfaces include the brake
shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may
be tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that generates
high peak force may also wear quickly.
Weight Brakes are often "added weight" in that they
serve no other function. Further, brakes are often mounted
on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt
traction in some circumstances. "Weight" may mean the
brake itself, or may include additional support structure.
Noise Brakes usually create some minor noise when
applied, but often create squeal or grinding noises that are
quite loud.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Page 4
FUNCTIONS OF VEHICLE BRAKING

There are two main functions of brakes :
(a) To slow down or stop the vehicle in the shortest possible
time at the time of need.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Page 5
(b) To control the speed of vehicle at turns and also at the time
of driving down on a hill slope.
PRINCIPLE OF VEHICLE BRAKING

Braking of a vehicle depends upon the static function that acts
between tyres and road surface. Brakes work on the following
principle to stop the vehicle :
The kinetic energy due to motion of the vehicle is dissipated in
the form of heat energy due to friction between moving parts
(wheel or wheel drum) and stationary parts of vehicle (brake
shoes).
The heat energy so generate4d due to application of brakes is
dissipated into air.
Brakes operate most effectively when they are applied in a
manner so that wheels do not lock completely but continue to
roll without slipping.
CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKES
On the Basis of Method of Actuation
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Page 6
(a) Foot brake (also called service brake) operated by foot

pedal.
(b) Hand brake it is also called parking brake operated by
hand.
On the Basis of Mode of Operation

(a) Mechanical brakes
(b) Hydraulic brakes
(c) Air brakes
(d) Vacuum brakes
(e) Electric brakes.
On the Basis of Action on Front or Rear Wheels
(a) Front-wheel brakes
(b) Rear-wheel brakes.
On the Basis of Method of Application of Braking
Contact
(a) Internally expanding brakes
(b) Externally contracting brakes.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Page 7
SHORT NOTES ON MISCELLANEOUS

BRAKING SYSTEMS
AIR BRAKES
Air brakes are applied by the pressure of compressed air. Air
pressure applies force on brakes shoes through suitable
linkages to operate brakes. An air compressor is used to
compress air. This compressor is run by engine power.
VACUUM BRAKES
Vacuum brakes are a piston or a diaphragm operating in a
cylinder. For application of brakes one side of piston is
subjected to atmospheric pressure while the other is applied
vacuum by exhausting air from this side. A force acts on the
piston due to difference of presure.
ELECTRIC BRAKES
In electrical brakes an electromagnet is used to actuate a cam
to expand the brake shoes. The electromagnet is energized by
the current flowing from the battery. When flow of current is
stopped the cam and brake shoes return to their original
position and brakes are disengaged. Electric brakes are not
used in automobiles as service brakes sure. This force is used
to operate brake through suitable linkages.
FRICTION BRAKES
A friction brake is a type of automotive brake that slows or
stops a vehicle by converting kinetic energy into heat energy,
via friction. The heat energy is then dissipated into the
atmosphere. In most systems, the brake acts on the vehicle's
roadwheel hubs, but some vehicles use brakes which act on the
axles or transmission. Friction brakes may be of either drum or
disc type.
DRUM BRAKE
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Page 8
A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused

by a set of brake shoes that press against the inner surface of a
rotating drum. The drum is connected to the rotating roadwheel
hub.
DISC BRAKE
The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of
a road wheel. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English), usually
made of cast iron or ceramic, is connected to the wheel or the
axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake
pads (mounted in a device called a brake caliper) is forced
mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or
electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction
causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop.
ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES
Electromagnetic brakes slow an object through electromagnetic
induction, which creates resistance and in turn either heat or
electricity. Friction brakes apply pressure on two separate
objects to slow the vehicle in a controlled manner.
PARKING BRAKES OR EMERGENCY BRAKES
Parking brakes or emergency brakes are essentially mechanical
brakes operated by hand. These are used to prevent the motion
of vehicle when parked at a place or when parked on slopes. In
cars, these brakes are generally attached to rear wby pushing a
button (provided on lever) and pressing the lever down. heels.
In this type, a cable connects the hand lever to the brake.
Brakes are applied by pulling the lever and released.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Page 9
DRUM BRAKE
A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of
shoes or pads that press against a rotating drum-shaped part
called a brake drum.
The term drum brake usually means a brake in which shoes
press on the inner surface of the drum. When shoes press on
the outside of the drum, it is usually called a clasp brake.
Where the drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a
conventional disc brake, it is sometimes called a pinch drum
brake, though such brakes are relatively rare. A related type
called a band brake uses a flexible belt or "band" wrapping
around the outside of a drum.
HISTORY
The modern automobile drum brake was invented in 1902 by
Louis Renault. He used woven asbestos lining for the drum
brakes lining, as no alternative dissipated heat like the asbestos
lining, though Maybach has used a less sophisticated drum
brake. In the first drum brakes, levers and rods or cables
operated the shoes mechanically. From the mid-1930s, oil
pressure in a small wheel cylinder and pistons (as in the
picture) operated the brakes, though some vehicles continued
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 10
with purely mechanical systems for decades. Some designs

have two wheel cylinders.
The shoes in drum brakes wear thinner, and brakes required
regular adjustment until the introduction of self-adjusting drum
brakes in the 1950s. In the 1960s and 1970s, disc brakes
gradually replaced drum brakes on the front wheels of cars.
Now practically all cars use disc brakes on the front wheels, and
many use disc brakes on all wheels. However, drum brakes are
still often used for handbrakes, as it has proven very difficult to
design a disc brake suitable for holding a parked car. Moreover,
it is very easy to fit a drum handbrake inside a disc brake so
that one unit serves as both service brake and handbrake.
Early brake shoes contained asbestos. When working on brake
systems of older cars, care must be taken not to inhale any
dust present in the brake assembly. The United States Federal
Government began to regulate asbestos production, and brake
manufacturers had to switch to non-asbestos linings. Owners
initially complained of poor braking with the replacements;
however, technology eventually advanced to compensate. A
majority of daily-driven older vehicles have been fitted with
asbestos-free linings. Many other countries also limit the use of
asbestos in brakes.
COMPONENTS
Drum brake components include the backing plate, brake drum,
shoe, wheel cylinder, and various springs and pins.
BACKING PLATE
The backing plate provides a base for the other components. It
attaches to the axle and forms a solid surface for the wheel
cylinder, brake shoes, and assorted hardware. Since all braking
operations exert pressure on the backing plate, it must be
strong and wear-resistant. Levers for emergency or parking
brakes, and automatic brake-shoe adjuster were also added in
recent years.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 11
Back plate made in the pressing shop.
BRAKE DRUM
The brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron
that is heat-conductive and wear-resistant. It is positioned close
to the brake shoe without actually touching it, and rotates with
the wheel and axle. When a driver applies the brakes, the lining
pushes against the inner surface of the drum, generating
friction heat that can reach as high as 600 F (316 C).
WHEEL CYLINDER
One wheel cylinder operates the brake on each wheel. Two
pistons operate the shoes, one at each end of the wheel
cylinder. Hydraulic pressure from the master cylinder acts on
the piston cup, pushing the pistons toward the shoes, forcing
them against the drum. When the driver releases the brakes,
the force of the brake shoe return springs returns the piston to
its original position. The parts of the wheel cylinder are as
follows:
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 12
Cut-away section of a wheel cylinder.
BRAKE SHOE
Brake shoes are typicaslly made of two pieces of sheet
steel welded together. The friction material is either
riveted to the lining table or attached with adhesive.
The crescent-shaped piece is called the Web and
contains holes and slots in different shapes for return
springs, hold-down hardware, parking brake linkage and
self-adjusting components. All the application force of
the wheel cylinder is applied through the web to the
lining table and brake lining. The edge of the lining
table generally has three V"-shaped notches or tabs on
each side called nibs. The nibs rest against the support
pads of the backing plate to which the shoes are
installed. Each brake assembly has two shoes, a primary
and secondary. The primary shoe is located toward the
front of the vehicle and has the lining positioned
differently than the secondary shoe. Quite often the two
shoes are interchangeable, so close inspection for any
variation is important.
Linings must be resistant against heat and wear and have a
high friction coefficient unaffected by fluctuations in
temperature and humidity. Materials that make up the brake
shoe include, friction modifiers (which can include graphite and
cashew nut shells), powdered metal such as lead, zinc, brass,
aluminium and other metals that resist heat fade, binders,
curing agents and fillers such as rubber chips to reduce brake
noise.
AUTOMATIC SELF-ADJUSTER
The self-adjuster is used to adjust the distance between the
brake shoe and the drum automatically as brake shoes wear.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 13
Sectional layout showing the push rods, nut adjuster and

lever pawl.
IN OPERATION
NORMAL BRAKING
When the brakes are applied, brake fluid is forced under
pressure from the master cylinder into the wheel cylinder,
which in turn pushes the brake shoes into contact with the
machined surface on the inside of the drum. This rubbing action
reduces the rotation of the brake drum, which is coupled to the
wheel. Hence the speed of the vehicle is reduced. When the
pressure is released, return springs pull the shoes back to their
rest position.
AUTOMATIC SELF-ADJUSTMENT
As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater
distance to reach the drum. When the distance reaches a
certain point, a self-adjusting mechanism automatically reacts
by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that they are
closer to the drum. Here, the adjusting lever rocks enough to
advance the adjuster gear by one tooth. The adjuster has
threads on it, like a bolt, so that it unscrews a little bit when it
turns, lengthening to fill in the gap. When the brake shoes wear
a little more, the adjuster can advance again, so it always
keeps the shoes close to the drum.
EMERGENCY BRAKE
The parking brake (emergency brake) system controls the
brakes through a series of steel cables that are connected to
either a hand lever or a foot pedal. The idea is that the system
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 14
is fully mechanical and completely by passes the hydraulic

system so that the vehicle can be brought to a stop even if
there is a total brake failure. Here the cable pulls on a lever
mounted in the brake and is directly connected to the brake
shoes. This has the effect of by passing the wheel cylinder and
controlling the brakes directly.
SELF-APPLYING CHARACTERISTIC
Drum brakes have a natural "self-applying" characteristic,
better known as "self-energizing." The rotation of the drum can
drag either one or both of the shoes into the friction surface,
causing the brakes to bite harder, which increases the force
holding them together. This increases the stopping power
without any additional effort being expended by the driver, but
it does make it harder for the driver to modulate the brake's
sensitivity. It also makes the brake more sensitive to brake
fade, as a decrease in brake friction also reduces the amount of
brake assist.
Disc brakes exhibit no self-applying effect because the
hydraulic pressure acting on the pads is perpendicular to the
direction of rotation of the disc. Disc brake systems usually
have servo assistance ("Brake Booster") to lessen the driver's
pedal effort, but some disc braked cars (notably race cars) and
smaller brakes for motorcycles, etc., do not need to use servos.
Note: In most designs, the "self-applying" effect only occurs on
one shoe. While this shoe is further forced into the drum
surface by a moment due to friction, the opposite effect is
happening on the other shoe. The friction force is trying to
rotate it away from the drum. The forces are different on each
brake shoe resulting in one shoe wearing faster. It is possible to
design a two-shoe drum brake where both shoes are selfapplying (having separate actuators and pivoted at opposite
ends), but these are very uncommon in practice.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 15
DRUM BRAKE DESIGNS
Rendering of a drum brake

Drum brakes are typically described as either leading/trailing or
twin leading.
Rear drum brakes are typically of a leading/trailing design (for
non-servo systems), or primary/secondary (for duo servo
systems) the shoes being moved by a single double-acting
hydraulic cylinder and hinged at the same point. In this design,
one of the brake shoes always experiences the self-applying
effect, irrespective of whether the vehicle is moving forwards or
backwards. This is particularly useful on the rear brakes, where
the parking brake (handbrake or footbrake) must exert enough
force to stop the vehicle from travelling backwards and hold it
on a slope. Provided the contact area of the brake shoes is
large enough, which isn't always the case, the self-applying
effect can securely hold a vehicle when the weight is
transferred to the rear brakes due to the incline of a slope or
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 16
the reverse direction of motion. A further advantage of using a

single hydraulic cylinder on the rear is that the opposite pivot
may be made in the form of a double-lobed cam that is rotated
by the action of the parking brake system.
Front drum brakes may be of either design in practice, but the
twin leading design is more effective. This design uses two
actuating cylinders arranged so that both shoes use the selfapplying characteristic when the vehicle is moving forwards.
The brake shoes pivot at opposite points to each other.This
gives the maximum possible braking when moving forwards,
but is not so effective when the vehicle is traveling in reverse.
The optimum arrangement of twin leading front brakes with
leading/trailing brakes on the rear allows more braking force at
the front of the vehicle when it is moving forwards, with less at
the rear. This helps prevent the rear wheels from locking up,
but still provides adequate braking at the rear.
Shimano Nexus front hub with roller brake

The brake drum itself is frequently made of cast iron, though
some vehicles have used aluminum drums, particularly for
front-wheel applications. Aluminum conducts heat better than
cast iron, which improves heat dissipation and reduces fade.
Aluminum drums are also lighter than iron drums, which
reduces unsprung weight. Because aluminum wears more
easily than iron, aluminum drums frequently have an iron or
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 17
steel liner on the inner surface of the drum, bonded or riveted

to the aluminum outer shell.
ADVANTAGES
Drum brakes are used in most heavy duty trucks, some
medium and light duty trucks, and few cars, dirt bikes, and
ATVs. Drum brakes are often applied to the rear wheels since
most of the stopping force is generated by the front brakes of
the vehicle and therefore the heat generated in the rear is
significantly less. Drum brakes allow simple incorporation of a
parking brake.
Drum brakes are also occasionally fitted as the parking (and
emergency) brake even when the rear wheels use disc brakes
as the main brakes. The vast majority of rear disc braking
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 18
systems use a parking brake in which the piston in the caliper is

actuated by a cam or screw. This compresses the pads against
the rotor. However, this type of system becomes much more
complicated when the rear disc brakes use fixed, multi-piston
calipers. In this situation, a small drum is usually fitted within or
as part of the brake disc. This type of brake is also known as a
banksia brake.
In hybrid vehicle applications, wear on braking systems is
greatly reduced by energy recovering motor-generators (see
regenerative braking), so some hybrid vehicles such as the
GMC Yukon Hybrid and Toyota Prius (except the third
generation) use drum brakes.
Disc brakes rely on pliability of caliper seals and slight runout to
release pads, leading to drag, fuel mileage loss, and disc
scoring. Drum brake return springs give more positive action
and, adjusted correctly, often have less drag when released.
Certain heavier duty drum brake systems compensate for load
when determining wheel cylinder pressure; a feature rare when
discs are employed (Hydropneumatic suspension systems as
employed on Citron vehicles adjust brake pressure depending
on load regardless of if drum or discs are used). One such
vehicle is the Jeep Comanche. The Comanche can automatically
send more pressure to the rear drums depending on the size of
the load.
Due to the fact that a drum brakes friction contact area is at
the circumference of the brake, a drum brake can provide more
braking force than an equal diameter disc brake. The increased
friction contact area of drum brake shoes on the drum allows
drum brake shoes to last longer than disc brake pads used in a
brake system of similar dimensions and braking force. Drum
brakes retain heat and are more complex than disc brakes but
are often the more economical and powerful brake type to use
in rear brake applications due to the low heat generation of rear
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 19
brakes, a drum brake self-applying nature, large friction surface

contact area, and long life wear characteristics (%life used/kW
of braking power).
As a driveshaft parking/emergency brake
Drum brakes have also been built onto the transmission's
driveshaft as parking brakes (e.g., Chryslers through 1956).
This provides the an advantage that it is completely
independent of the service brakesbut suffers a severe
disadvantage in that, when used with a bumper jack (common
in that era) on the rear, and without proper wheel blocks, the
differential's action can allow the vehicle to roll off the jack.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 20
DISADVANTAGES
Drum brakes, like most other brakes, convert kinetic energy
into heat by friction. This heat should dissipate into the
surrounding air, but can just as easily transfer to other braking
system components. Brake drums must be large to cope with
the massive forces involved, and must be able to absorb and
dissipate a lot of heat. Heat transfer to air can be aided by
incorporating cooling fins onto the drum. However, excessive
heating can occur due to heavy or repeated braking, which can
cause the drum to distort, leading to vibration under braking.
The other consequence of overheating is brake fade. This is due
to one of several processes or more usually an accumulation of
all of them.
1. When the drums are heated by hard braking, the diameter
of the drum increases slightly due to thermal expansion,
so the shoes must move farther and the driver must press
the brake pedal farther.
2. The properties of the friction material can change if
heated, resulting in less friction. This can be a much larger
problem with drum brakes than disc brakes, since the
shoes are inside the drum and not exposed to cooling
ambient air. The loss of friction is usually only temporary
and the material regains its efficiency when cooled, but if
the surface overheats to the point where it becomes
glazed the reduction in braking efficiency is more
permanent. Surface glazing can be worn away with further
use of the brakes, but that takes time.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 21
3. Excessive brake drum heating can cause the brake fluid to

vaporize, which reduces the hydraulic pressure applied to
the brake shoes. Therefore, the brakes provide less
deceleration for a given amount of pressure on the pedal.
The effect is worsened by poor maintenance. Brake fluid
that is old and has absorbed moisture has a lower boiling
point, so brake fade occurs sooner.
Brake fade is not always due to overheating. Water between
the friction surfaces and the drum can act as a lubricant and
reduce braking efficiency. The water tends to stay until heated
sufficiently to vaporize, at which point braking efficiency
returns. All friction braking systems have a maximum
theoretical rate of energy conversion. Once that rate is
reached, applying greater pedal pressure doesn't change it in
fact, the effects mentioned can substantially reduce it.
Ultimately, this is what brake fade is, regardless of the
mechanisms of its causes. Disc brakes are not immune to any
of these processes, but they deal with heat and water more
effectively than drums.
Drum brakes can be grabby if the drum surface gets light rust
or if the brake is cold and damp, giving the pad material
greater friction. Grabbing can be so severe that the tires skid
and continue to skid even when the pedal is released. Grab is
the opposite of fade: when the pad friction goes up, the selfassisting nature of the brakes causes application force to go up.
If the pad friction and self-amplification are high enough, the
brake stay engaged due to self-application, even when the
external application force is released.
While disc brake rotors can be machined to clean the friction
surface (i.e., 'turning'), the same generally cannot be done with
brake drums. Machining the friction surface of a brake drum
increases the diameter, which would require oversized shoes to
maintain proper contact with the drum. However, since
oversized shoes are generally unavailable for most applications,
worn or damaged drums generally must be replaced.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 22
Another disadvantage of drum brakes is their relative

complexity. A person must have a general understanding of
how drum brakes work and take simple steps to ensure the
brakes are reassembled correctly when doing work on drum
brakes. And, as a result of this increased complexity (compared
to disc brakes), maintenance of drum brakes is generally more
time-consuming. Also, the greater number of parts results in a
greater number of failure modes compared to disc brakes.
Springs can break from fatigue if not replaced along with worn
brake shoes. And the drum and shoes can become damaged
from scoring if various components (such as broken springs or
self-adjusters) break and become loose inside the drum.
Also, drum brakes do not apply immediately when the wheel
cylinders are pressurized, because the force of the return
springs must be overcome before the shoes start to move
towards the drum. This means that the very common hybrid
disc/drum systems only brake with the discs on light pedal
pressure unless extra hardware is added. In practice, a
metering valve prevents hydraulic pressure from reaching the
front calipers until pressure rises enough to overcome the
return springs in the drum brakes. If the metering valve were
left out, the vehicle would stop only with the front discs until
return spring pressure on the rear shoes were overcome.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
The brakes which are actuated by the hydraulic pressure
(pressure of a fluid) are called hydraulic brakes. Hydraulic
brakes are commonly used in the automobiles.
PRINCIPLE
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 23
Hydraulic brakes work on the principle of Pascals law which

states that pressure at a point in a fluid is equal in all
directions in space. According to this law when pressure is
applied on a fluid it travels equally in all directions so that
uniform braking action is applied on all wheels.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF

HYDRAULIC BRAKES
When brake pedal in pressed, the force is transmitted to the

brake shoes through a liquid (link). The pedal force is multiplied
and transmitted to all brake shoes by a force transmission
system. Figure 6.1 shows the system of hydraulic brake of a
four wheeler automobile. It consists of a master cylinder, four
wheel cylinders and pipes carrying a brake fluid from master
cylinder to wheel cylinder. applied on all four wheels.
Hydraulic Brake
The master cylinder is connected to all the four-wheel cylinders
by tubing or piping. All cylinders and tubes are fitted with a
fluid which acts as a link to transmit pedal force from master
cylinder to wheel cylinders.
BRAKE FLUID
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 24
The fluid filled in the hydraulic brake system is known as brake

fluid. It is a mixture of glycerine and alcohol or caster oil and
some additives .
Master cylinder consists of a piston which is connected to peal
through connecting rod. The wheel cylinder consists of two
pistons between which fluid is filled.
Each wheel brake consists of a cylinder brake drum. This drum
is mounted on the inner side of wheel. The drum revolves with
the wheel. Two brake shoes whichare mounted inside the drum
remain stationary. Heat and wear resistant brake linings are
fitted on the surface of the brake shoes.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 25
MASTER CYLINDER
A master cylinder from a Geo Storm

In automotive engineering, the master cylinder is a control
device that converts non-hydraulic pressure (commonly from a
driver's foot) into hydraulic pressure. This device controls slave
cylinders located at the other end of the hydraulic system.As
piston move along the bore of the master cylinder, this
movement is transferred through the hydraulic fluid, to result in
a movement of the slave cylinder. The hydraulic pressure
created by moving a piston (inside the bore of the master
cylinder) toward the slave cylinder compresses the fluid evenly,
but by varying the comparative surface-area of the master
cylinder and/or each slave cylinder, one can vary the amount of
force and displacement applied to each slave cylinder, relative
to the amount of force and displacement applied to the master
cylinder
VEHICLE APPLICATIONS
The most common vehicle uses of master cylinders are in brake
and clutch systems. In brake systems, the operated devices are
cylinders inside of brake calipers and/or drum brakes; these
cylinders may be called wheel cylinders or slave cylinders, and
they push the brake pads towards a surface that rotates with
the wheel (this surface is typically either a drum, or a disc,
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 26
a.k.a. a rotor) until the stationary brake pad(s) create friction

against that rotating surface (typically the rotating surface is
metal or ceramic/carbon, for their ability to withstand heat and
friction without wearing-down rapidly). In the clutch system, the
device which the master cylinder operates is called the slave
cylinder; it moves the throw out bearing until the high-friction
material on the transmission's clutch disengages from the
engine's metal (or ceramic/carbon) flywheel. For hydraulic
brakes or clutches alike, flexible high-pressure hoses or
inflexible hard-walled metal tubing may be used; but the
flexible variety of tubing is needed for at least a short length
adjacent to each wheel, whenever the wheel can move relative
to the car's chassis (this is the case on any car with steering
and other suspension movements; some drag racers and gokarts have no rear suspension, as the rear axle is welded to the
chassis, and some antique cars also have no rear suspension
movement).
A reservoir above each master cylinder supplies the master
cylinder with enough brake fluid to avoid air from entering the
master cylinder (even the typical clutch uses brake fluid, but it
may also be referred to as "clutch fluid" in a clutch application).
Most modern light trucks and passenger cars have one master
cylinder for the brakes which contains two pistons; but many
racing vehicles, as well as some classic and antique cars, have
two separate master cylinders, each with only one piston (much
like hydraulic clutches typically have only 1 piston per master
cylinder). Each piston in a master cylinder operates a brake
circuit, and for modern light trucks and passenger cars, usually
a brake circuit leads to a brake caliper or shoe on only two of
the vehicle's wheels, and the other brake circuit provides brakepressure to power the other two brakes. For safety, this is done
so that usually only two wheels lose their braking ability at the
same time; it results in longer stopping distances and should be
fixed immediately, but at least gives some braking ability,
which is preferable to having no braking ability.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 27
WHEEL CYLINDER
A wheel cylinder is a component in a drum brake system. It is located in
each wheel and is usually at the top, above the shoes. Its responsibility is
to exert force onto the shoes so they can contact the drum and stop the
vehicle with friction. What connects these wheel cylinders to the shoes are
usually small rods shaped like a birds beak. It is very similar to a master
cylinder and functions in pretty much the same way, consisting of just a
simple little plunger on the inside. On older vehicles these will begin to
leak and hinder the performance of the brakes, but are normally
inexpensive and easy to replace.
The wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder that has two pistons,

one on each side. Each piston has a rubber seal and a shaft
that connects the piston with a brake shoe. When brake
pressure is applied, the pistons are forced out pushing the
shoes into contact with the drum. Wheel cylinders must be
rebuilt or replaced if they show signs of leaking.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 28
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Hydraulic fluids, also called hydraulic liquids, are the medium
by which power is transferred in hydraulic machinery. Common
hydraulic fluids are based on mineral oil or water. Examples of
equipment that might use hydraulic fluids include excavators
and backhoes, hydraulic brakes, power steering systems,
transmissions, garbage trucks, aircraft flight control systems,
lifts, and industrial machinery.
Hydraulic systems like the ones mentioned above will work
most efficiently if the hydraulic fluid used has low
compressibility.
FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES

The primary function of a hydraulic fluid is to convey power. In
use, however, there are other important functions of hydraulic
fluid such as protection of the hydraulic machine components.
The table below lists the major functions of a hydraulic fluid and
the properties of a fluid that affect its ability to perform that
function.
Function
Medium for power
transfer and control
Property
Low compressibility (high bulk
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 29
modulus)
Fast air release
Low foaming tendency
Low volatility
Medium for heat transfer
Sealing Medium
Good thermal capacity and

conductivity
Adequate viscosity and viscosity
index
Shear stability
Viscosity for film maintenance
Low temperature fluidity
Thermal and oxidative stability
Lubricant
Hydrolytic stability / water

tolerance
Cleanliness and filterability
Demulsibility
Antiwear characteristics
Corrosion control
Pump efficiency
Proper viscosity to minimize

internal leakage
High viscosity index
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 30
Fire resistance
Special function
Friction modifications
Radiation resistance
COMPOSITION
BASE STOCK
The original hydraulic fluid, dating back to the time of ancient
Egypt, was water. Beginning in the 1920s, mineral oil began to
be used more than water as a base stock due to its inherent
lubrication properties and ability to be used at temperatures
above the boiling point of water. Today most hydraulic fluids are
based on mineral oil base stocks.
Natural oils such as rapeseed (also called canola oil) are used
as base stocks for fluids where biodegradability and renewable
sources are considered important.
Other base stocks are used for specialty applications, such as
for fire resistance and extreme temperature applications. Some
examples include: glycol, esters, organophosphate ester,
polyalphaolefin, propylene glycol, and silicone oils.
OTHER COMPONENTS
Hydraulic fluids can contain a wide range of chemical
compounds, including: oils, butanol, esters (e.g. phthalates, like
DEHP, and adipates, like bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate),
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 31
polyalkylene glycols (PAG), phosphate esters (e.g.

tributylphosphate), silicones, alkylated aromatic hydrocarbons,
polyalphaolefins (PAO) (e.g. polyisobutenes), corrosion
inhibitors, etc.
BIODEGRADABLE HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

Environmentally sensitive applications (e.g. farm tractors and
marine dredging) may benefit from using biodegradable
hydraulic fluids based upon grapeseed (Canola) vegetable oil
when there is the risk of an oil spill from a ruptured oil line.
Typically these oils are available as ISO 32, ISO 46, and ISO 68
specification oils. ASTM standards ASTM-D-6006, Guide for
Assessing Biodegradability of Hydraulic Fluids and ASTM-D6046, Standard Classification of Hydraulic Fluids for
Environmental Impact are relevant.
BRAKE FLUID
Brake fluid is a subtype of hydraulic fluid with high boiling
point, both when new (specified by the equilibrium boiling
point) and after absorption of water vapor (specified by wet
boiling point). Under the heat of braking, both free water and
water vapor in a braking system can boil into a compressible
vapor, resulting in brake failure. Glycol-ether based fluids are
hygroscopic, and absorbed moisture will greatly reduce the
boiling point over time. Silicone based fluids are not
hygroscopic, but their inferior lubrication is not suitable for all
braking systems.
SAFETY
Because industrial hydraulic systems operate at hundreds to
thousands of PSI and temperatures reaching hundreds of
degrees Celsius, severe injuries and death can result from
component failures and care must always be taken when
performing maintenance on hydraulic systems.
Fire resistance is a property available with specialized fluids.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 32
TRADE NAMES
Some of the trade names for hydraulic fluids include Arnica,
Tellus, Durad, Fyrquel, Houghto-Safe, Hydraunycoil, Lubritherm
Enviro-Safe, Pydraul, Quintolubric, Reofos, Reolube,Valvoline
Ultramax and Skydrol.
AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

As aircraft performance increased in mid-20th century, the
amount of force required to operate mechanical flight controls
became excessive, and hydraulic systems were introduced to
reduce pilot effort. The hydraulic actuators are controlled by
valves; these in turn are operated directly by input from the
aircrew (hydro-mechanical) or by computers obeying control
laws (fly by wire).
Hydraulic power is used for other purposes. It can be stored in
accumulators to start an auxiliary power unit (APU) for selfstarting the aircraft's main engines. Many aircraft equipped
with the M61 family of cannon use hydraulic power to drive the
gun system, permitting reliable high rates of fire.
The hydraulic power itself comes from pumps driven by the
engines directly, or by electrically driven pumps. In modern
commercial aircraft these are electrically driven pumps; should
all the engines fail in flight the pilot will deploy a propellerdriven electric generator called a Ram Air Turbine (RAT) which is
concealed under the fuselage.This provides electrical power for
the hydraulic pumps and control systems as power is no longer
available from the engines. In that system and others electric
pumps can provide both redundancy and the means of
operating hydraulic systems without the engines operating,
which can be very useful during maintenance/.
SPECIFICATION
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 33
Aircraft hydraulic fluids fall under various specifications:

Common petroleum-based:
Mil-H-5606: Mineral base, flammable, fairly low flashpoint,
usable from 65 F (54 C) to 275 F (135 C), red color
Mil-H-83282: Synthetic hydrocarbon base, higher
flashpoint, self-extinguishing, backward compatible to
-5606, red color, rated to 40 F (40 C) degrees.
Mil-H-87257: A development of -83282 fluid to improve its
low temperature viscosity.
Phosphate-ester based:
Skydrol hydraulic fluid meets Military Specifications . The
list below contains most of the existing industry specifications
and approvals:
S.A.E.-Ac974
S.A.E. - AS1241
Boeing Seattle - BMS3-11
Boeing Long Beach - DMS2014
Boeing Long Island- CDS5478
Lockheed - LAC C-34-1224British Aerospace - BAC M.333.B
Bombardier - BAMS 564-003
Below are some of the more common aircraft Phosphate-ester
based hydraulic fluids.
Skydrol 500B-4 (Type IV class 2): The Skydrol 500 series of
fluids has the longest service history among phosphate
ester products. The first version, Skydrol 500, was
introduced in 1952. Steady improvements to the
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 34
formulation led in 1978 to the current version, Skydrol

500B-4 which contains the same breakthrough anti
erosion additive and acid scavenger found in Skydrol LD4 . Skydrol 500B-4 is the most worker friendly of the
aviation phosphate esters; it is least irritating to skin and
less prone to form mists which can be irritating to the
respiratory tract . This has given the product enormous
popularity for use in work shops and indoor test stands.
Skydrol LD-4 (Type IV class 1): Was also introduced in
1978, and is today the largest selling aviation phosphate
ester fluid in the world. At the time of its introduction it
was a breakthrough product, solving problems of valve
erosion and thermal stability common in earlier fluids. Its
excellent thermal stability under real world conditions has
given it a reputation as the gold standard among Type IV
fluids. In recent years it has received an additional
qualification of 5000 psi approval under Boeing BMS 3-11
(Type V, Grade B and Grade C). Skydrol LD-4 features low
density, excellent thermal stability, valve erosion
prevention, and deposit control.
Skydrol 5 (Type V): Introduced in 1996, Skydrol 5 was the
first Type V fluid qualified under the Boeing BMS 3-11
specification. Skydrol 5 offers higher temperature
capability than Type IV fluids, the lowest density, and
better paint compatibility. Skydrol 5 does not have
universal air frame manufacturer approval.
Skydrol PE-5 (Type V): Skydrol PE-5, introduced in 2010,
has full approval from Airbus and Boeing for use in all of
their aircraft models. Skydrol PE-5 was developed to meet
and exceed the more demanding Type V fluid
requirements. It features the longest fluid life of any
commercially available fluid, low density and low viscosity
at low temperature; an unbeatable combination of the
best features for optimum fluid performance.
Exxon HyJet IV-A plus (Type IV): Exxon HyJet IV-A plus is a
fire-resistant phosphate ester hydraulic fluid designed for
use in commercial aircraft. It is the best-performing Type
IV fluid and approaches to a great extent many of the
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 35
performance capabilities of Type V fluids, including high

temperature stability, fluid life, low density, and rust
protection. It is superior to all other Type IV fluids in these
respects. Exxon HyJet IV-A plus meets the specifications of
all major aircraft manufacturers and SAE AS1241.
Exxon Hyjet V (Type V): Exxon HyJet V is a Type V fireresistant phosphate ester hydraulic fluid, which is superior
in thermal and hydrolytic stability to commercially
available Type IV hydraulic fluids. Better stability means
the extent of fluid degradation in aircraft systems will be
less than Type IV fluids, in-service fluid life will be longer,
and aircraft operator maintenance costs will be lower.
HyJet V provides excellent high and low temperature flow
properties (kinematic viscosities) and rust protection.
HyJet V has also demonstrated an improvement over the
erosion protection performance afforded by Type IV fluids.
CONTAMINATION
Special, stringent care is required when handling aircraft
hydraulic fluid as it is critical to flight safety that it stay free
from contamination. It is also necessary to strictly adhere to
authorized references when servicing or repairing any aircraft
system. Samples from aircraft hydraulic systems are taken
during heavy aircraft maintenance checks to check
contamination.
APPLICATION OF BRAKE
When brake pedal is pressed to apply the brakes, the piston in
the master cylinder forces the brake fluid. This increases the
pressure of fluid. This pressure is transmitted in all the pipes
and upto all wheel cylinders according to Pascals law. This
increased pressure forces out the two pistons in the wheel
cylinders. These pistons are connected to brake shoes. So, the
brake shoes expand out against brake drums. Due to friction
between brake linings and drum, wheels slow down and brakes
are applied. Two pipes carrying braked fluid are connected to
front wheel cylinders which may be same as rear wheel
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 36
cylinders. The front wheels may also have same type of brakes
(drum brakes) as shown in the rear wheels. But, in modern cars,
there are disc brakes in the front wheels and drum brakes in
the rear wheel.
RELEASE OF BRAKES
When pedal is released, the piston of master cylinder returns to
its original position due to retractor spring provided in master
cylinder. Thus, fluid pressure drops to original value. The
retractor spring provided in the wheel cylinders pulls the brake
shoes and contact between drum and brake linings is broken.
Therefore, brakes are released.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Advantages
(a) Equal braking action on all wheels.
(b ) Increased braking force.
(c) Simple in construction.
(d) Low wear rate of brake linings.
(e) Flexibility of brake linings.
(f) Increased mechanical advantage
Disadvantages
(a) Whole braking system fails due to leakage of fluid from
brake linings.
(b) Presence of air inside the tubings ruins the whole system.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 37
ADJUSTMENT OF BRAKES
When pedal is pressed to apply brake, there should be atleast
1/2 inch free pedal movement before breaking action starts.
This may vary from company to company.
The brakes are adjusted as per the above mentioned
recommendation before they are ready to use. This is done by
following a definite procedure.
(a)List the wheels by screw jack.
(b) Loosen the lock nut for the forward brake shoe and keep it
in this position.
(c) Turn the eccentric with other wrench towards the front of
automobile till the brake shoe touches the drum.
(d) Release the eccentric while turning the wheel with one
hand, till wheel turns freely.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 38
(e) Hold the eccentric in this position and tighter the lock nut.
(f) Repeat the same operation to adjust other shoe, but turn the
eccentric in the backward direction of the vehicle.
(g) Above procedure is repeated for all the four wheels.
MECHANICAL DRUM BRAKES

BRAKE SHOE REPLACEMENT
Take off the wheel, remove the grease cap and split pin, undo
the spindle nut then take off the drum.
Remove the worn brake shoes. DO NOT discard the springs.
Before replacing the brake shoes, check that there is grease on
the backing plate under the lever assembly (at the bottom),
use molybdenum grease as required.
Assemble the new shoes to the backing plate with the springs
between the shoes as shown on the drawing below. The longer
spring must be assembled in the lower position, the shorter
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 39
spring in the top position. Note that left hand side brakes are a
mirror image to right hand side brakes.
Fit the drum over the brake shoe and reassemble.
Adjust the wheel bearings by tightening the spindle nut until

firm while turning the hub slowly to seat the bearings. Loosen
the spindle nut and then re-tighten by hand (not with a wrench)
to a finger-tight condition, then align the first notch with the
hole in the shaft and insert the split pin.
Put the wheel back on the hub and tighten the wheel nuts in a
cross star pattern as shown below.
BACK SIDE
PLATE
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 40
Check the override/park brake cable is adjusted correctly. The

brakes are now ready to use. Note that the brakes may require
several stops to bed in the new shoes before they are fully
effective.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 41
MECHANICAL BRAKE ADJUSTEMENTS AND

SYSTEM SETTINGS
With overrun braking systems the adjustment sequence is
always:
Drum >> Compensator >> Brake Rod >>Coupling
N.B. in the case of over centre handbrakes it is ESSENTIAL that
the lever is tied down and the locking pins or stop pegs are
fitted as per the manufacturer's instructions BEFORE any
adjustment is carried out.
Brake Link Diagram (enlarge)
A. Before commencing adjustment - ensure that the

handbrake is fully off and that the coupling drawtube is fully
extended.
B. Linkages - slacken all nuts.
C. Drum - adjust the linings (AL-KO through the back plate,
Knott/Lockheed by the hexagonal nut on outside of back plate),
so that resistance can be felt when rotating the drum
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 42
forwards. Slacken adjuster until drum turns freely in the forward

direction.
N.B. ALWAYS rotate the drum in the FORWARD direction,
NEVER in REVERSE, otherwise the auto reverse mechanism will
be activated and correct adjustment will be impossible.
D. Repeat - on other brake units on the trailer.

E. If an over centre handbrake is fitted - remove any
locking pins or stop pegs, untie the lever. Apply the hand brake
three or four times to ensure that brake shoes are centralised.
Refit pins or pegs and retie lever down after last application and
before proceeding to (F) below.
F. Anchor plates - check that the nuts securing outer bowden
cable are tight.
G. Compensator - clean off any old grease and dirt. Adjust any
slack out of the inner cable, but do NOT put under tension.
Check that assembly runs parallel to the axle tube and that
nuts and lock nuts are tight. Smear with clean grease.
H. Brake rod - should pass through the centre of the anchor

plate by at least 50mm in order to provide correct support. If
rod length is excessive, additional support at the front of the
trailer will be required. .Adjust so that the overrun lever/brake
link just butts up against the rear end of the draw tube shaft.
Tighten all lock nuts.
N.B. this applies to all over centre and gas strut handbrakes
and some AL-KO spring cylinder models. Other earlier models
from Knott and Bradley, particularly those operating with rods
instead of cables, may require some clearance between the
draw tube and brake lever - consult the manufacturer's
instructions.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 43
I. Spring cylinder - if fitted with a ratchet handbrake adjust

the locknuts to give the required clearance.
J. If fitted with an over centre handbrake - remove any

locking pins or stop pegs and untie the lever.
K. Testing - fully apply the handbrake several times to test its
operation. With a ratchet handbrake , the adjustment is correct
if slight and equal braking resistance can be felt at each hub
when turning the wheels in a forward direction with the
handbrake on the second or third tooth. The same applies to
gas strut models when the handbrake lever is held manually in
position equivalent to first or second tooth .For over centre
models apply the handbrake and turn each wheel in the reverse
direction until it locks. All brakes should lock firmly. If not, their
adjustment is not tight enough and they should be readjusted
as per (C) above.
L. Remove the axle stands and jack - Check torque settings
on wheel bolts.See "Wheel Bolt Tightening" for exact figures
and tightening sequence.
M. Road test - if practicable - ensuring that braking is smooth
and progressive at various road speeds. (N.B. always carry out
brake testing taking due account of other road users. (This is
assuming that the tests cannot be carried out on private roads.)
N.B. It is important that reference is also made to the brake
and hub manufacturers' maintenance instructions.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 44
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF

MECHANICAL BRAKES
Internal expanding shoe brakes are most commonly used in
automobiles. In an automobile, the wheel is fitted on a wheel
drum. The brake shoes come in contact with inner surface of
this drum to apply brakes.
The construction of internal expanding mechanical brake is
shown in Figure 6.2. The whole assembly consists of a pair of
brake shoes along with brake linings, a retractor spring two
anchor pins a cam and a brake drum. Brake linings are fitted on
outer surface of each brake shoe. The brake shoes are hinged
at one end by anchor pins. Other end of brake shoe is operated
by a cam to expand it out against brake drum. A retracting
springbrings back shoes in their original position when brakes
are not applied. The brake drum closes inside it the whole
mechanism to protect it from dust and first. A plate holds whole
assembly and fits to car axle. It acts as a base to fasten the
brake shoes and other operating mechanism.
HOW BRAKE ARE APPLIED AND RELEASED

When brake pedal is pressed, the cam turns through brake
linkages. Brake shoes expand towards brake drum due to
turning of cam. The brake linings, rub against brake drum and
therefore motion of wheels is stopped. The pedal force is
transmitted to the brake shoes through a mechanical linage.
This mechanism also removed, the retractor spring brings back
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 45
shoes in original position and brakes are released multiplies the

force to apply the brakes effectively.
DISC BRAKE
A disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel
by the friction caused by pushing brake pads against a brake
disc with a set of calipers. The brake disc (or rotor in American
English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be
made of composites such as reinforced carboncarbon or
ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel
and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form
of brake pads, mounted on a device called a brake caliper, is
forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or
electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction
causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes
convert motion to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they
become less effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade.
Modern motor cars are fitted with disc brakes instead of
conventional drum type brakes. In Santro car and Maruti-800,
front wheels are provided with disc brakes whereas rear wheel
are provided with drum brakes. A disc brake consists of a
rotating disc and two friction pads which are actuated by
hydraulic braking system as described earlier. The friction pads
remain free on each side of disc when brakes are no applied.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 46
They rub against disc when brakes are applied to stop the
vehicle. These brakes are applied in the same manner as that
of hydraulic brakes. But mechanism of stopping vehicle is
different than that of drum brakes.
HISTORY
Disc-style brakes development and use began in England in the
1890s. The first caliper-type automobile disc brake was
patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham,
UK factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars.
Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping
performance, because the disc is more readily cooled. As a
consequence discs are less prone to the "brake fade"; and disc
brakes recover more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are
less effective). Most drum brake designs have at least one
leading shoe, which gives a servo-effect. By contrast, a disc
brake has no self-servo effect and its braking force is always
proportional to the pressure placed on the brake pad by the
braking system via any brake servo, braking pedal or lever, this
tends to give the driver better "feel" to avoid impending lockup.
Drums are also prone to "bell mouthing", and trap worn lining
material within the assembly, both causes of various braking
problems
Disc-style brakes development and use began in England in the
1890s. The first caliper-type automobile disc brake was
patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham
factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars.
However, the limited choice of metals in this period meant that
he had to use copper as the braking medium acting on the disc.
The poor state of the roads at this time, no more than dusty,
rough tracks, meant that the copper wore quickly, making the
disc brake system non-viable (as recorded in The Lanchester
Legacy). It took another half century for his innovation to be
widely adopted.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 47
The 1950 Crosley Hot Shot is often given credit for the first U.S.
production disc brakes but the Chrysler Crown Imperial actually
had them first as standard equipment at the beginning of the
1949 model year. The Crosley disc was a Goodyear
development, a caliper type with ventilated rotor, originally
designed for aircraft applications. Only the Hot Shot featured
it.Lack of sufficient research caused enormous reliability
problems, especially in regions requiring the use of salt on
winter roads, such as sticking and corrosion. Drum brake
conversions for Hot Shots were quite popular.
The Chrysler four-wheel disc brake system was more complex
and expensive than Crosley's, but far more efficient and
reliable. It was built by Auto Specialties Manufacturing
Company (Ausco) of St. Joseph, Michigan, under patents of
inventor H.L. Lambert, and was first tested on a 1939 Plymouth.
Unlike the caliper disc, the Ausco-Lambert used twin expanding
discs that rubbed against the inner surface of a cast-iron brake
drum, which doubled as the brake housing.The discs spread
apart to create friction against the inner drum surface through
the action of standard wheel cylinders.
Chrysler discs were "self energizing," in that some of the
braking energy itself contributed to the braking effort. This was
accomplished by small balls set into oval holes leading to the
brake surface. When the disc made initial contact with the
friction surface, the balls would be forced up the holes forcing
the discs further apart and augmenting the braking energy. This
made for lighter braking pressure than with calipers, avoided
brake fade, promoted cooler running, and provided one-third
more friction surface than standard Chrysler twelve-inch drums.
But because of the expense, the brakes were only standard on
the Chrysler Crown Imperial through 1954 and the Town and
Country Newport in 1950. They were optional, however, on
other Chryslers, priced around $400, at a time when an entire
Crosley Hot Shot retailed for $935. Today's owners consider the
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 48
Ausco-Lambert very reliable and powerful, but admit its

grabbiness and sensitivity.
Reliable caliper-type disc brakes were developed in the UK by
Dunlop and first appeared in 1953 on the Jaguar C-Type racing
car. The 1955 Citron DS featuring powered inboard front disc
brakes was the first French application of this technology, while
the 1956 Triumph TR3 was the first English production car to
feature modern disc brakes The first production car to have disc
brakes at all 4 wheels was the Austin-Healey 100S in 1954. The
first British company to market a production saloon (US: sedan)
fitted with disc brakes to all four wheels was Jensen Motors with
the introduction of a Deluxe version of the Jensen 541 with
Dunlop disc brakes. The first German production car with disc
brakes was the 1961 Mercedes-Benz 220SE coupe featuring
British-built Girling units on the front. The next American
production automobile equipped with caliper-type disc brakes
was the 1963 model year Studebaker Avanti (the Bendix
system optional on some of the other Studebaker models).
Front disc brakes became standard equipment in 1965 on the
Rambler Marlin (the Bendix units were optional on all American
Motors "senior" platform models), the Ford Thunderbird,and the
Lincoln Continental A four-wheel disc brake system was also
introduced in 1965 on the Chevrolet Corvette
StingrayCompared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better
stopping performance, because the disc is more readily cooled.
As a consequence discs are less prone to the "brake fade"
caused when brake components overheat; and disc brakes
recover more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are less
effective). Most drum brake designs have at least one leading
shoe, which gives a servo-effect; see leading/trailing drum
brake. By contrast, a disc brake has no self-servo effect and its
braking force is always proportional to to the pressure placed
on the brake pad by the braking system via any brake servo,
braking pedal or lever; this tends to give the driver better "feel"
to avoid impending lockup. Drums are also prone to "bell
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 49
mouthing", and trap worn lining material within the assembly,

both causes of various braking problems.
Many early implementations for automobiles located the brakes
on the inboard side of the driveshaft, near the differential, but
most brakes today are located inside the road wheels. (An
inboard location reduces the unsprung weight and eliminates a
source of heat transfer to the tires.)
Disc brakes were most popular on sports cars when they were
first introduced, since these vehicles are more demanding
about brake performance. Discs have now become the more
common form in most passenger vehicles, although many
(particularly light weight vehicles) use drum brakes on the rear
wheels to keep costs and weight down as well as to simplify the
provisions for a parking brake. As the front brakes perform most
of the braking effort, this can be a reasonable compromise. The
first motorcycles to use disc brakes were racing vehicles. The
first mass-produced road-going motorcycle to sport a disc-brake
was the 1969 Honda CB750. Disc brakes are now common on
motorcycles, mopeds and even mountain bikes Historically,
brake discs were manufactured throughout the world with a
strong concentration in Europe and America.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 50
BRAKE DISC
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 51
The brake disc is the disc component of a disc brake against

which the brake pads are applied. The design of the disc varies
somewhat. Some are simply solid cast iron, but others are
hollowed out with fins or vanes joining together the disc's two
contact surfaces (usually included as part of a casting process).
The weight and power of the vehicle determines the need for
ventilated discs. The "ventilated" disc design helps to dissipate
the generated heat and is commonly used on the more-heavilyloaded front discs.
Many higher-performance brakes have holes drilled through
them. This is known as cross-drilling and was originally done in
the 1960s on racing cars. For heat dissipation purposes, cross
drilling is still used on some braking components, but is not
favored for racing or other hard use as the holes are a source of
stress cracks under severe conditions.
Discs may also be slotted, where shallow channels are
machined into the disc to aid in removing dust and gas. Slotting
is the preferred method in most racing environments to remove
gas and water and to deglaze brake pads. Some discs are both
drilled and slotted. Slotted discs are generally not used on
standard vehicles because they quickly wear down brake pads;
however, this removal of material is beneficial to race vehicles
since it keeps the pads soft and avoids vitrification of their
surfaces.
As a way of avoiding thermal stress, cracking and warping, the
disc is sometimes mounted in a half loose way to the hub with
coarse splines. This allows the disc to expand in a controlled
symmetrical way and with less unwanted heat transfer to the
hub.
On the road, drilled or slotted discs still have a positive effect in
wet conditions because the holes or slots prevent a film of
water building up between the disc and the pads. Cross-drilled
discs may eventually crack at the holes due to metal fatigue.
Cross-drilled brakes that are manufactured poorly or subjected
to high stresses will crack much sooner .
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 52
MOTORCYCLES AND SCOOTERS

This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this section by adding citations to
reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed.
A drilled motorcycle brake disc

Motorcycle and scooters disc brakes have become
increasingly sophisticated since their introduction in 1962 on
the Lambretta TV175 Series 3. Motorcycle discs are usually
stainless steel, drilled and occasionally slotted, to help remove
rain water. Many motorcycle discs are of a floating design
where the disc rides on small dowels and is allowed to slightly
move laterally. This allows for better disc centering when used
with a fixed caliper. It can also prevent heat transfer to the
wheel hub under hard braking. This allows the disc to expand
while heating up without increasing tension in such a way that
the disc would become warped. Calipers have evolved from
simple "single-piston" units to two-, four- and even six-piston
items. Since (compared to cars) motorcycles have a higher
centre of gravity:wheelbase ratio, they experience more weight
transference when braking. The front brake(s) provide most of
the required deceleration, while the rear brake serves mainly to
"balance" the motorcycle during braking. A modern sports bike
will typically have twin front discs of large diameter, but only a
very much smaller single rear disc. This is because the rear
wheel can only transfer a fraction of the stopping power due to
the weight transfer to the front that occurs when braking. The
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 53
same effect lets the front wheel transfer a lot more stopping
power before locking up.
BICYCLE
BICYCLE BRAKE RAKE DISC BRAKES
Mountain bike front disc brake
Rear disc brake caliper and rotor on a mountain bike

Mountain bike disc brakes range from simple, mechanical
(cable) systems, to expensive and powerful, six-piston hydraulic
disc systems, commonly used on downhill racing bikes.
Improved technology has seen the creation of the first vented
discs for use on mountain bikes, similar to those on cars,
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 54
introduced to help avoid heat fade on fast alpine descents.

Although less common, discs are also used on road bicycles for
all-weather cycling with predictable braking, although drums
are sometimes preferred as harder to damage in crowded
parking, where discs are sometimes bent. Most bicycle brake
discs are made of steel. Stainless steel is preferred due to its
anti-rust properties. Some lightweight discs are made of
titanium or aluminium. Discs are thin, often about 2 mm. Some
use a two-piece floating disc style, others use a floating caliper,
others use pads that float in the caliper, and some use one
moving pad that makes the caliper slide on its mounts, pulling
the other pad into contact with the disc. Because the "motor" is
small, an uncommon feature of bicycle brakes is that the pads
retract to eliminate residual drag when the brake is released. In
contrast, most other brakes drag the pads lightly when released
so as to minimise initial operational travel.
OTHER VEHICLES
SLIPPERY RAIL DISC BRAKES
Disc brakes are increasingly used on very large and heavy road
vehicles, where previously large drum brakes were nearly
universal. One reason is that the disc's lack of self-assist makes
brake force much more predictable, so peak brake force can be
raised without more risk of braking-induced steering or
jackknife on articulated vehicles. Another is disc brakes fade
less when hot, and in a heavy vehicle air and rolling drag and
engine braking are small parts of total braking force, so brakes
are used harder than on lighter vehicles, and drum brake fade
can occur in a single stop. For these reasons, a heavy truck
with disc brakes can stop in about 120% the distance of a
passenger car, but with drums stopping takes about 150% the
distance.In Europe, stopping distance regulations essentially
require disc brakes for heavy vehicles. In the U.S., drums are
allowed and are typically preferred for their lower purchase
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 55
price, despite higher total lifetime cost and more frequent

service intervals.
A railroad bogie and disc brakes

Still-larger discs are used for railroads and some airplanes.
Passenger rail cars and light rail often use disc brakes outboard
of the wheels, which helps ensure a free flow of cooling air. In
contrast, some airplanes have the brake mounted with very
little cooling and the brake gets quite hot in a stop, but this is
acceptable as there is then time for cooling, and where the
maximum braking energy is very predictable.
For automotive use, disc brake discs are commonly
manufactured out of a material called grey iron. The SAE
maintains a specification for the manufacture of grey iron for
various applications. For normal car and light-truck
applications, SAE specification J431 G3000 (superseded to G10)
dictates the correct range of hardness, chemical composition,
tensile strength, and other properties necessary for the
intended use. Some racing cars and airplanes use brakes with
carbon fiber discs and carbon fiber pads to reduce weight. Wear
rates tend to be high, and braking may be poor or grabby until
the brake is hot.
RACING
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 56
Reinforced carbon brake disc on a Ferrari F430 Challenge race

car.In racing and very-high-performance road cars, other disc
materials have been employed. Reinforced carbon discs and
pads inspired by aircraft braking systems such as those used on
Concorde were introduced in Formula One by Brabham in
conjunction with Dunlop in 1976. Carboncarbon braking is now
used in most top-level motorsport worldwide, reducing
unsprung weight, giving better frictional performance and
improved structural properties at high temperatures, compared
to cast iron. Carbon brakes have occasionally been applied to
road cars, by the French Venturi sports car manufacturer in the
mid 1990s for example, but need to reach a very high
operating temperature before becoming truly effective and so
are not well suited to road use. The extreme heat generated in
these systems is easily visible during night racing, especially at
shorter tracks. It is not uncommon to be able to look at the
cars, either live in person or on television and see the brake
discs glowing red during application ceramic composites.
Mercedes Benz AMG carbon ceramic brake
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 57
Porsche Carrera composite ceramic brake

Ceramic discs are used in some high-performance cars and
heavy vehicles.
The first development of the modern ceramic brake was made
by British engineers working in the railway industry for TGV
applications in 1988. The objective was to reduce weight, the
number of brakes per axle, as well as provide stable friction
from very high speeds and all temperatures. The result was a
carbon-fibre-reinforced ceramic process which is now used in
various forms for automotive, railway, and aircraft brake
applications.
Due to the high heat tolerance and mechanical strength of
ceramic composite discs, they are often used on exotic vehicles
where the cost is not prohibitive to the application. They are
also found in industrial applications where the ceramic disc's
light weight and low-maintenance properties justify the cost
relative to alternatives. Composite brakes can withstand
temperatures that would make steel discs bendable.
Porsche's Composite Ceramic Brakes (PCCB) are siliconized
carbon fiber, with very high temperature capability, a 50%
weight reduction over iron discs (therefore reducing the
unsprung weight of the vehicle), a significant reduction in dust
generation, substantially increased maintenance intervals, and
enhanced durability in corrosive environments over
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 58
conventional iron discs. Found on some of their more expensive

models, it is also an optional brake for all street Porsches at
added expense. It is generally recognized by the bright yellow
paintwork on the aluminum six-piston calipers that are matched
with the discs. The discs are internally vented much like castiron ones, and cross-drilled.
DISC DAMAGE MODES
Discs are usually damaged in one of four ways: scarring,
cracking, warping or excessive rusting. Service shops will
sometimes respond to any disc problem by changing out the
discs entirely, This is done mainly where the cost of a new disc
may actually be lower than the cost of labour to resurface the
original disc. Mechanically this is unnecessary unless the discs
have reached manufacturer's minimum recommended
thickness, which would make it unsafe to use them, or vane
rusting is severe (ventilated discs only). Most leading vehicle
manufacturers recommend brake disc skimming (US: turning)
as a solution for lateral run-out, vibration issues and brake
noises. The machining process is performed in a brake lathe,
which removes a very thin layer off the disc surface to clean off
minor damage and restore uniform thickness. Machining the
disc as necessary will maximise the mileage out of the current
discs o Excessive lateral run-out.
Measuring this is accomplished using a dial indicator on a fixed
rigid base, with the tip perpendicular to the brake disc's face. It
is typically measured about 12 in (12.7 mm) from the outside
diameter of the disc. The disc is spun. The difference between
minimum and maximum value on the dial is called lateral
runout. Typical hub/disc assembly runout specifications for
passenger vehicles are around 0.0020 in (50.8 m). Runout can
be caused either by deformation of the disc itself or by runout
in the underlying wheel hub face or by contamination between
the disc surface and the underlying hub mounting surface.
Determining the root cause of the indicator displacement
(lateral runout) requires disassembly of the disc from the hub.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 59
Disc face runout due to hub face runout or contamination will

typically have a period of 1 minimum and 1 maximum per
revolution of the brake disc.
Discs can be machined to eliminate thickness variation and
lateral runout. Machining can be done in situ (on-car) or off-car
(bench lathe). Both methods will eliminate thickness variation.
Machining on-car with proper equipment can also eliminate
lateral runout due to hub-face non-perpendicularity.
Incorrect fitting can distort (warp) discs; the disc's retaining
bolts (or the wheel/lug nuts, if the disc is simply sandwiched in
place by the wheel, as on many cars) must be tightened
progressively and evenly. The use of air tools to fasten lug nuts
is extremely bad practice, unless a torque tube is also used.
The vehicle manual will indicate the proper pattern for
tightening as well as a torque rating for the bolts. Lug nuts
should never be tightened in a circle. Some vehicles are
sensitive to the force the bolts apply and tightening should be
done with a torque wrench.
Often uneven pad transfer is confused for disc warping. In
reality, the majority of brake discs which are diagnosed as
"warped" are actually simply the product of uneven transfer of
pad material. Uneven pad transfer will often lead to a thickness
variation of the disc. When the thicker section of the disc
passes between the pads, the pads will move apart and the
brake pedal will raise slightly; this is pedal pulsation. The
thickness variation can be felt by the driver when it is
approximately 0.17 mm (0.0067 in) or greater (on automobile
discs).
This type of thickness variation has many causes, but there are
three primary mechanisms which contribute the most to the
propagation of disc thickness variations connected to uneven
pad transfer. The first is improper selection of brake pads for a
given application. Pads which are effective at low temperatures,
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 60
such as when braking for the first time in cold weather, often
are made of materials which decompose unevenly at higher
temperatures. This uneven decomposition results in uneven
deposition of material onto the brake disc. Another cause of
uneven material transfer is improper break in of a pad/disc
combination. For proper break in, the disc surface should be
refreshed (either by machining the contact surface or by
replacing the disc as a whole) every time the pads are changed
on a vehicle. Once this is done, the brakes are heavily applied
multiple times in succession. This creates a smooth, even
interface between the pad and the disc. When this is not done
properly the brake pads will see an uneven distribution of stress
and heat, resulting in an uneven, seemingly random, deposition
of pad material. The third primary mechanism of uneven pad
material transfer is known as "pad imprinting." This occurs
when the brake pads are heated to the point that the material
begins to break-down and transfer to the disc. In a properly
broken in brake system (with properly selected pads), this
transfer is natural and actually is a major contributor to the
braking force generated by the brake pads. However, if the
vehicle comes to a stop and the driver continues to apply the
brakes, the pads will deposit a layer of material in the shape of
the brake pad. This small thickness variation can begin the
cycle of uneven pad transfer.
Once the disc has some level of variation in thickness, uneven
pad deposition can accelerate, sometimes resulting in changes
to the crystal structure of the metal that composes the disc in
extreme situations. As the brakes are applied, the pads slide
over the varying disc surface. As the pads pass by the thicker
section of the disc, they are forced outwards. The foot of the
driver applied to the brake pedal naturally resists this change,
and thus more force is applied to the pads. The result is that
the thicker sections see higher levels of stress. This causes an
uneven heating of the surface of the disc, which causes two
major issues. As the brake disc heats unevenly it also expands
unevenly. The thicker sections of the disc expand more than the
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 61
thinner sections due to seeing more heat, and thus the

difference in thickness is magnified. Also, the uneven
distribution of heat results in further uneven transfer of pad
material. The result is that the thicker-hotter sections receive
even more pad material than the thinner-cooler sections,
contributing to a further increase in the variation in the disc's
thickness. In extreme situations, this uneven heating can
actually cause the crystal structure of the disc material to
change. When the hotter sections of the discs reach extremely
high temperatures (12001300 F or 649704 C ), the carbon
within the cast iron of the disc will react with the iron molecules
to form a carbide known as cementite. This iron carbide is very
different from the cast iron the rest of the disc is composed of.
It is extremely hard, verybrittle, and does not absorb heat well.
After cementite is formed, the integrity of the disc is
compromised. Even if the disc surface is machined, the
cementite within the disc will not wear or absorb heat at the
same rate as the cast iron surrounding it, causing the uneven
thickness and uneven heating characteristics of the disc to
return.
SCARRING
Scarring (US: Scoring) can occur if brake pads are not changed
promptly when they reach the end of their service life and are
considered worn out. Once enough of the friction material has
worn away, the pad's steel backing plate (for glued pads) or the
pad retainer rivets (for riveted pads) will bear directly upon the
disc's wear surface, reducing braking power and making
scratches on the disc. Generally a moderately scarred / scored
disc, which operated satisfactorily with existing brake pads, will
be equally usable with new pads. If the scarring is deeper but
not excessive, it can be repaired by machining off a layer of the
disc's surface. This can only be done a limited number of times
as the disc has a minimum rated safe thickness. The minimum
thickness value is typically cast into the disc during
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 62
manufacturing on the hub or the edge of the disc. In

Pennsylvania, which has one of the most rigorous auto safety
inspection programs in North America, an automotive disc
cannot pass safety inspection if any scoring is deeper than .015
inches (0.38 mm), and must be replaced if machining will
reduce the disc below its minimum safe thickness.
To prevent scarring, it is prudent to periodically inspect the
brake pads for wear. A tire rotation is a logical time for
inspection, since rotation must be performed regularly based
on vehicle operation time and all wheels must be removed,
allowing ready visual access to the brake pads. Some types of
alloy wheels and brake arrangements will provide enough open
space to view the pads without removing the wheel. When
practical, pads that are near the wear-out point should be
replaced immediately, as complete wear out leads to scarring
damage and unsafe braking. Many disc brake pads will include
some sort of soft steel spring or drag tab as part of the pad
assembly, which is designed to start dragging on the disc when
the pad is nearly worn out. The result is a moderately loud
metallic squealing noise, alerting the vehicle user that service
is required, and this will not normally scar the disc if the brakes
are serviced promptly. A set of pads can be considered for
replacement if the thickness of the pad material is the same or
less than the thickness of the backing steel. In Pennsylvania,
the standard is 1/32".
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 63
CRACKING
Cracking is limited mostly to drilled discs, which may develop
small cracks around edges of holes drilled near the edge of the
disc due to the disc's uneven rate of expansion in severe duty
environments. Manufacturers that use drilled discs as OEM
typically do so for two reasons: appearance, if they determine
that the average owner of the vehicle model will prefer the look
while not overly stressing the hardware; or as a function of
reducing the unsprung weight of the brake assembly, with the
engineering assumption that enough brake disc mass remains
to absorb racing temperatures and stresses. A brake disc is a
heat sink, but the loss of heat sink mass may be balanced by
increased surface area to radiate away heat. Small hairline
cracks may appear in any cross drilled metal disc as a normal
wear mechanism, but in the severe case the disc will fail
catastrophically. No repair is possible for the cracks, and if
cracking becomes severe, the disc must be replaced.
RUSTING
The discs are commonly made from cast iron and a certain
amount of what is known as "surface rust" is normal. The disc
contact area for the brake pads will be kept clean by regular
use, but a vehicle that is stored for an extended period can
develop significant rust in the contact area that may reduce
braking power for a time until the rusted layer is worn off again.
Over time, vented brake discs may develop severe rust
corrosion inside the ventilation slots, compromising the
strength of the structure and needing replacement.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 64
CALIPER
Disc brake caliper (twin-piston,

floating) removed from brake pad for
changing pads
The brake caliper is the assembly which houses the brake pads
and pistons. The pistons are usually made of aluminium or
chrome-plated steel.
Calipers are of two types, floating or fixed. A fixed caliper does
not move relative to the disc and is thus less tolerant of disc
imperfections. It uses one or more single or pairs of opposing
pistons to clamp from each side of the disc, and is more
complex and expensi A floating caliper (also called a "sliding
caliper") moves with respect to the disc, along a line parallel to
the axis of rotation of the disc; a piston on one side of the disc
pushes the inner brake pad until it makes contact with the
braking surface, then pulls the caliper body with the outer
brake pad so pressure is applied to both sides of the disc.
Floating caliper (single piston)expensive than a floating caliper.
A floating caliper (also called a "sliding caliper") moves with
respect to the disc, along a line parallel to the axis of rotation of
the disc; a piston on one side of the disc pushes the inner brake
pad until it makes contact with the braking surface, then pulls
the caliper body with the outer brake pad so pressure is applied
to both sides of the disc. Floating caliper (single piston).
Designs are subject to sticking failure, caused by dirt or
corrosion entering at least one mounting mechanism and
stopping its normal movement. This can lead to the caliper's
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 65
pad's rubbing on the disc when the brake is not engaged or

engaging it at an angle. Sticking can result from infrequent
vehicle use, failure of a seal or rubber protection boot allowing
debris entry, dry-out of the grease in the mounting mechanism
and subsequent moisture incursion leading to corrosion, or
some combination of these factors. Consequences may include
reduced fuel efficiency, extreme heating of the disc or
excessive wear on the affected pad. A sticking front caliper may
also cause steering vibration.
PISTONS AND CYLINDERS

The most common caliper design uses a single hydraulically
actuated piston within a cylinder, although high performance
brakes use as many as twelve. Modern cars use different
hydraulic circuits to actuate the brakes on each set of wheels
as a safety measure. The hydraulic design also helps multiply
braking force. The number of pistons in a caliper is often
referred to as the number of 'pots', so if a vehicle has 'six pot'
calipers it means that each caliper houses six pistons.
Brake failure can result from failure of the piston to retract,
which is usually a consequence of not operating the vehicle
during prolonged storage outdoors in adverse conditions. On
high-mileage vehicles, the piston seals may leak, which must
be promptly corrected. The brake disc must have enough
surface to perform well, and the coefficient of friction is the
most important factor to be considered when designing a brake
system.
BRAKE PADS
Brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad
material embedded in the disc in the process of bedding while
wearing evenly. Friction can be divided into two parts: Adhesive
and abrasive.
Depending on the properties of the material of both the pad
and the disc and the configuration and the usage, pad and disc
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 66
wear rates will vary considerably. The properties that determine

material wear involve trade-offs between performance and
longevity.
The brake pads must usually be replaced regularly (depending
on pad material), and some are equipped with a mechanism
that alerts drivers that replacement is needed, such as a thin
piece of soft metal that rubs against the disc when the pads are
too thin causing the brakes to squeal, a soft metal tab
embedded in the pad material that closes an electric circuit and
lights a warning light when the brake pad gets thin, or an
electronic sensor.
Generally road-going vehicles have two brake pads per caliper,
while up to six are installed on each racing caliper, with varying
frictional properties in a staggered pattern for optimum
performance.
BRAKE SQUEAL
Sometimes a loud noise or high pitched squeal occurs when the
brakes are applied. Most brake squeal is produced by vibration
(resonance instability) of the brake components, especially the
pads and discs (known as force-coupled excitation). This type of
squeal should not negatively affect brake stopping
performance. Simple techniques like adding chamfers to
linings, greasing or gluing the contact between caliper and the
pads (finger to backplate, piston to backplate), bonding
insulators (damping material) to pad backplate, inclusion of a
brake shim between the brake pad and back plate, etc. may
help to reduce squeal. Cold weather combined with high earlymorning humidity (dew) often worsens brake squeal, although
the squeal stops when the lining reaches regular operating
temperatures. Dust on the brakes may also cause squeal; there
are many commercial brake cleaning products that can be used
to remove dust and contaminants. Finally, some lining wear
indicators, located either as a semi-metallic layer within the
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 67
brake pad material or with an external squealer "sensor", are

also designed to squeal when the lining is due for replacement.
The typical external sensor is fundamentally different because
it overall brake squeal can be annoying to the vehicle
passengers, passers-by, pedestrians, etc. especially as vehicle
designs become quieter. Noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH)
are among the most important priorities for today's vehicle
manufacturers.
Apart from noise generated Brake judder
Brake judder is usually perceived by the driver as minor to
severe vibrations transferred through the chassis during
braking.
The judder phenomenon can be classified into two distinct
subgroups: hot (or thermal), or cold judder.
Hot judder is usually produced as a result of longer, more
moderate braking from high speed where the vehicle does not
come to a complete stop. It commonly occurs when a motorist
decelerates from speeds of around 120 km/h (74.6 mph) to
about 60 km/h (37.3 mph), which results in severe vibrations
being transmitted to the driver. These vibrations are the result
of uneven thermal distributions, or hot spots. Hot spots are
classified as concentrated thermal regions that alternate
between both sides of a disc that distort it in such a way that
produces a sinusoidal waviness around its edges. Once the
brake pads (friction material/brake lining) comes in contact with
the sinusoidal surface during braking, severe vibrations are
induced, and can produce hazardous conditions for the person
driving the vehicle.
Cold judder, on the other hand, is the result of uneven disc
wear patterns or disc thickness variation (DTV). These
variations in the disc surface are usually the result of extensive
vehicle road usage. DTV is usually attributed to the following
causes: waviness and roughness of disc surface, misalignment
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 68
of axis (runout), elastic deflection, wear and friction material

transfers.
BRAKE DUST
When braking force is applied, the act of abrasive friction
between the brake pad and the rotor wears both the rotor and
pad away. The "brake dust" that is seen deposited on wheels,
calipers and other braking system components consists mostly
of rotor material. Brake dust can damage the finish of most
wheels if not washed off. Generally brake pad that aggressively
abrades more rotor material away, such as metallic pads, will
create more brake dust.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 69
ADVANTAGE OF DISC BRAKES

(a) Main advantage of disc brakes is their resistance to wear as
the discs remain cool even after repeated brake applications.
(b) Brake pads are easily replaceable.
(c) The condition of brake pads can be checked without much
dismantling of brake system.
DISADVANTAGE OF DISC BRAKES

(a) More force is needed be applied as the brakes are not self
emerging.
(b) Pad wear is more.
(c) Hand brakes are not effective if disc brakes are used in rear
wheels also.
(Hand brakes are better with mechanical brakes).
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 70
AIR BRAKE
Truck air actuated disc brake.

Air brakes or more formally a compressed air brake system is a
type of friction brake for vehicles in which compressed air
pressing on a piston is used to apply the pressure to the brake
pad needed to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are used in large
heavy vehicles, particularly those having multiple trailers which
must be linked into the brake system, such as trucks, buses,
trailers, and semi-trailers in addition to their use in railroad
trains. George Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use
in railway service. He patented a safer air brake on March 5,
1872. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his
air pressured brake invention, which led to various forms of the
automatic brake. In the early 20th century, after its advantages
were proven in railway use, it was adopted by manufacturers of
trucks and heavy road vehicles.
DESIGN AND FUNCTION
Compressed air brake systems are typically used on heavy
trucks and buses. The system consists of service brakes,
parking brakes, a control pedal, air storage tank. For the
parking brake, there is a disc or drum brake arrangement which
is designed to be held in the 'applied' position by spring
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 71
pressure. Air pressure must be produced to release these

"spring brake" parking brakes. For the service brakes (the ones
used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the
brake pedal is pushed, routing the air under pressure (approx
100120 psi or 690830 kPa) to the brake chamber, causing the
brake to reduce wheel rotation speed. Most types of truck air
brakes are drum units, though there is an increasing trend
towards the use of disc brakes in this application. The air
compressor draws filtered air from the atmosphere and forces it
into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 psi (830 kPa). Most
heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating
the availability of air pressure for safe vehicle operation, often
including warning tones or lights. Setting of the
parking/emergency brake releases the pressurized air pressure
in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the
brakes, thus actuating the (spring brake) parking braking
hardware. A sudden loss of air pressure would result in full
spring brake pressure immediately.
A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system
and a control system. The supply system compresses, stores
and supplies high-pressure air to the control system as well as
to additional air operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift
control, clutch pedal air assistance servo, etc.).
SUPPLY SYSTEM
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 72
Highly simplified air brake diagram on a commercial road

vehicle (does not show all air reservoirs and all applicable air
valves).
The air compressor is driven by the engine either by crankshaft
pulley via a belt or directly from the engine timing gears. It is
lubricated and cooled by the engine lubrication and cooling
systems. Compressed air is first routed through a cooling coil
and into an air dryer which removes moisture and oil impurities
and also may include a pressure regulator, safety valve and a
smaller purge reservoir. As an alternative to the air dryer, the
supply system can be equipped with an anti freeze device and
oil separator. The compressed air is then stored in a reservoir
(also called a wet tank) from which it is then distributed via a
four way protection valve into the front and rear brake circuit
air reservoir, a parking brake reservoir and an auxiliary air
supply distribution point. The system also includes various
check, pressure limiting, drain and safety valves.
CONTROL SYSTEM
The control system is further divided into two service brake
circuits: the parking brake circuit and the trailer brake circuit.
This dual brake circuit is further split into front and rear wheel
circuits which receive compressed air from their individual
reservoirs for added safety in case of an air leak. The service
brakes are applied by means of a brake pedal air valve which
regulates both circuits. The parking brake is the air operated
spring brake type where its applied by spring force in the spring
brake cylinder and released by compressed air via hand control
valve. The trailer brake consists of a direct two line system: the
supply line (marked red) and the separate control or service
line (marked blue). The supply line receives air from the prime
mover park brake air tank via a park brake relay valve and the
control line is regulated via the trailer brake relay valve. The
operating signals for the relay are provided by the prime mover
brake pedal air valve, trailer service brake hand control (subject
to a country's relevant heavy . vehicle legislation) and the
prime mover park brake hand control.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 73
ADVANTAGES OF AIR BRAKES

Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which
are used on lighter vehicles such as automobiles. Hydraulic
brakes use a fluid (hydraulic fluid) to transfer pressure from the
brake pedal to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air brakes
have several advantages for large multitrailer vehicles:
The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never
run out of its operating fluid, as hydraulic brakes can. Minor
leaks do not result in brake failures.
Air line couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic
lines; there is no danger of letting air into the hydraulic fluid. So
air brake circuits of trailers can be attached and removed easily
by operators with no training.
Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also
stores potential energy. So it can serve to control the force
applied. Air brake systems include an air tank that stores
sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor fails.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 74
Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an

air brake system can be designed with sufficient "fail-safe"
capacity to stop the vehicle safely even when leaking.
BLEEDING OF BRAKES
When air enters, into the brake system and any brake line
is disconnected, bleeding of brakes has to be done. Since
air is compressible so any presence of air inside brake
lining does not allow to transmit brake force to apply
brakes. Therefore, the system must be free from presence
of air. Bleeding is the process of removal of air from the
braking system.
BLEEDING PROCEDURE
Following steps are followed for bleeding of brakes :
(a) Remove all dirt from the master cylinder filler plug.
Then fill the master cylinder upto lower edge of the filler
neck by removing the filler plug.
(b) Clean all the bleeding connections provided on all
wheel cylinders .
(c) After this bleeder hose and fixture is connected to that
wheel cylinder which has longest brake line. The other
rend of bleeder hose is placed in a glass jar, and submerge
this end in the brake fluid.
(d) How bleeder valve is opened by half to three quarter
turn.
(e) Then press the foot pedal and allow it to return back
slowly.
(f) This pumping action must be continued till all the air
along with some brake fluid comes out through bleeding
hose.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 75
(g) After this bleeding operation is carried out on all wheel

cylinders. This completes the bleeding operation. At the
end master cylinder is filled with brake fluid to required
level.
BRAKE TESTER
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 76
There are at least 3 different types of brake tester used to

calculate the braking efforts and efficiencies of a motor vehicle.
Roller brake testers, which consist of a chassis with a driven
roller system; plate brake testers, which consist of 2 parallel
measuring plates, and decelerometers which are usually hand
held devices.
ROLLER BRAKE TESTERS

A roller brake tester is a method of allowing the dynamic
assessment of the braking system of a motor vehicle, whilst the
vehicle itself is in a static condition. These type of brake tester
are normally used in UK garages when used as part of an
inspection lane for the MOT test.
Roller brake testers consists of a mechanical floor unit which
contains electrical motors, two independent sets of three
measuring rollers, brake force transducers and additional safety
sensors.
The driving rollers operate at a low (known) speed using a
gearbox and motor arrangement and during a test
measurements of the maximum braking force are taken by
applying the vehicle brakes which induces a reaction force on
the electric motor itself. An electric transducer with strain
gauges then measures the individual induced forces which are
acting during the deceleration phase in order to calculate the
individual braking forces for each wheel.
In order to minimise any inaccuracy and variation in the
measurement, the roller diameter is sufficiently large to reduce
the effects of the mechanical relaxation, or flexing, of the tyre
itself. A special coating on the rollers is designed to be very
wear resistant and provide good friction values, both in wet and
dry conditions.
A third smaller roller, on each side between the driving rollers,
has two functions: The first is to detect if a vehicle is present in
the roller bed (a built in safety device to prevent the motor
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 77
from starting up unless a vehicle is in the brake tester), the

second function is to detect when and if tyre slippage occurs in
order to make the measurement before a maximum, predefined
value of time passes.
During the test, the computer measures the brake force values
and the system will calculate the imbalance between the left
and right brake forces of an axle, as well as the brake efficiency
of the service brake and the parking brake provided that a
vehicle weight is either inputted manually or by using an
integrated weighing system.
PLATE BRAKE TESTERS

A plate brake tester is a method of measuring a vehicles
braking system in a dynamic test. The unit consists of two
moving parallel plates mounted on force transducers. A
measurement of the braking force is made when a vehicle
passes over the plates and then applies its brakes. The braking
action causes the individual plates to slip forwards allowing a
calculation of braking force to be made. Brake imbalance
between the left and right hand side can also be measured by
the differences in voltage measured on each of the force
transducers under the chassis. Due to the nature of it dynamic
operation, plate brake testers are far less common than roller
brake testers in UK garages although they are also an
extremely accurate method of measurement.
DECELEROMETER
A decelerometer is a hand held device for measuring dynamic
braking forces during a vehicle road test . A vehicle
decelerometer operates as if it were, and it could also be known
as, an accelerometer.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 78
FUTURE
OF
HYDRAULIC
BRAKE
The future of hydraulic brakes is starting to look bright. The

need to recycle cars is forcing manufacturers to investigate
electric brake systems. The huge current demands for high
speed electric disc brakes is limiting progress and without
42V systems looks impossible. By 2005 we have seen
electric parking brake systems and electric drum brakes for
rear Conti-Teves called the EWB by Siemens they predicted
production for 2010, Continental may have other ideas
though as all details have disappeared from the website.
The design is a disc brake caliper, similar to a production
hydraulic caliper but the inboard pad is applied by a series
of rollers on ramps. The biggest drawback of servo brakes,
the sensitivity to locking is now used as an advantage. The
brake requires minute amounts of energy to apply it
because the brake factor is extremely high. The output
torque is then monitored and controlled by high speed
motors.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 79
CONCLUSION
Brake System is an important mechanism for usage of any
vehicles. The above is an attempt to give the relevant
information in as simple manner as possible. There are much
technical concepts used in designing of brakes .All are welcome
to post relevant queries and comments.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 80
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R.K RAJPUT A TEXTBOOK OF AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEERING,Laxmi Publication.
HIETNER A TEXT BOOK OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING.
V. GANESHAN A TEXTBOOK OF I.C ENGINE.
R.S KHURMI &J.K GUPTA THEORY OF MACHINES .
WEBSITE EXPLORED
WWW.howhtaffwork.com
www.mhhe.com/ganeshan/ice4e
www.mhhe.com/hietner/ae4e
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
P a g e 81

Fyp-Hydraulic Brakes

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Fyp-Hydraulic Brakes

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

HYDRAULIC BRAKES

era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep

to skids, which increases maintenance costs and leads to

FUNCTIONS OF VEHICLE BRAKING

PRINCIPLE OF VEHICLE BRAKING

(a) Foot brake (also called service brake) operated by foot

On the Basis of Mode of Operation

SHORT NOTES ON MISCELLANEOUS

A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused

with purely mechanical systems for decades. Some designs

Back plate made in the pressing shop.

Cut-away section of a wheel cylinder.

Sectional layout showing the push rods, nut adjuster and

is fully mechanical and completely by passes the hydraulic

DRUM BRAKE DESIGNS

Rendering of a drum brake

the reverse direction of motion. A further advantage of using a

Shimano Nexus front hub with roller brake

steel liner on the inner surface of the drum, bonded or riveted

systems use a parking brake in which the piston in the caliper is

brakes, a drum brake self-applying nature, large friction surface

3. Excessive brake drum heating can cause the brake fluid to

Another disadvantage of drum brakes is their relative

Hydraulic brakes work on the principle of Pascals law which

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF

When brake pedal in pressed, the force is transmitted to the

The fluid filled in the hydraulic brake system is known as brake

A master cylinder from a Geo Storm

a.k.a. a rotor) until the stationary brake pad(s) create friction

The wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder that has two pistons,

FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES

Good thermal capacity and

Hydrolytic stability / water

Proper viscosity to minimize

polyalkylene glycols (PAG), phosphate esters (e.g.

BIODEGRADABLE HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Aircraft hydraulic fluids fall under various specifications:

formulation led in 1978 to the current version, Skydrol

performance capabilities of Type V fluids, including high

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

MECHANICAL DRUM BRAKES

Adjust the wheel bearings by tightening the spindle nut until

Check the override/park brake cable is adjusted correctly. The

MECHANICAL BRAKE ADJUSTEMENTS AND

A. Before commencing adjustment - ensure that the

forwards. Slacken adjuster until drum turns freely in the forward

D. Repeat - on other brake units on the trailer.

H. Brake rod - should pass through the centre of the anchor

I. Spring cylinder - if fitted with a ratchet handbrake adjust

J. If fitted with an over centre handbrake - remove any

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF

HOW BRAKE ARE APPLIED AND RELEASED

shoes in original position and brakes are released multiplies the

Ausco-Lambert very reliable and powerful, but admit its

mouthing", and trap worn lining material within the assembly,

The brake disc is the disc component of a disc brake against

MOTORCYCLES AND SCOOTERS

A drilled motorcycle brake disc

Mountain bike front disc brake

Rear disc brake caliper and rotor on a mountain bike

introduced to help avoid heat fade on fast alpine descents.