Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 11e19

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Study on the improvement in continuously variable transmission

efciency with a thermal management system
Minje Park, Daebong Jung, Minjae Kim, Kyoungdoug Min*
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Seoul National University, Gwanak 599, Gwanak-ro Gwanak-Gu, Seoul 151-744, Republic of Korea

h i g h l i g h t s

A transmission model was developed for a thermal management system.

The transmission experiments under the steady-state condition and actual HEV transient cycle driving were executed.

Model prediction of oil temperature in the transmission showed good agreement with experimental results.

The effect of the fast warm-up using a waste heat recovery model was dominant at below the freezing point condition.

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 18 December 2012
Accepted 24 July 2013
Available online 3 August 2013

Recently, a thermal management system (TMS) was considered to improve fuel economy by reducing
energy loss and parasitic energy. Furthermore, the TMS includes waste heat recovery (WHR), which
warms up engine coolant or transmission oil and obtain electrical or mechanical energy. In particular, the
TMS is necessary to resolve the drawback of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), as the transmission oil heats
up more slowly compared to a conventional vehicle due to shorter engine operating time. In this report, a
TMS with a WHR system was applied to supply heat source to the continuously variable transmission
(CVT) oil of a HEV for a better operating region at the cold start condition. The research was performed
using a simulation model, which consists of a thermal mass model, heat transfer model, friction model
and waste heat recovery model with experimental data were used for validation. As a result, the
simulation results showed that the CVT efciency with the WHR model could be improved by as much as
2% with an oil temperature increase of 16  C in the urban dynamometer driving schedule (UDDS) mode,
and an additional 2e8% improvement in transmission efciency could be achieved by expansion of the
application area.
2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords:
Thermal management system
Continuously variable transmission
Waste heat recovery
Transmission thermal management

1. Introduction
The stringent requirements for the eet average emissions
legislation and compulsory standard on fuel economy have caused
a major transition to technological innovation such as hybrid
electric vehicles (HEVs), electric vehicles (EVs) and fuel cell electric
vehicles (FCEVs) [1]. In recent years, HEVs have been reasonably
successful in penetrating the mainstream because of their potential
for emission reduction and fuel consumption compared to other
systems. These next generation vehicles have been introduced by
applying state-of-the-art powertrain architectures and energy
storage components [2,3]. For example, the usage of energy, which
is recovered from the rejected energy ow by additional systems

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 82 2 880 1661; fax: 82 2 883 0179.

E-mail address: kdmin@snu.ac.kr (K. Min).
1359-4311/$ e see front matter 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.07.032

such as Rankine steam cycle, thermoelectric device, heat exchanger

and energy harvesting system. Many manufacturers have applied
these systems, especially a heat exchanger, to improve the efciency of the commercial vehicle for competitive price and performance. In this way, the overall recovery systems and their
associated strategies are collectively known as the thermal management system.
A TMS is one of the most promising energy recovery technologies to be utilized since propulsion systems of the vehicle have
changed from internal combustion engine to a complex hybrid
system. One purpose of the TMS is to optimize waste energy recovery and to efciently use that energy; furthermore, the TMS can
be used as an additional power source or increase the efciency of
the cooling and heating system [6]. Recently, manufacturers have
introduced a co-generation system using a thermodynamic cycle,
such as Rankine and Stirling, for supplying power to the electric
water pump [7e9].

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M. Park et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 11e19

To optimize TMS application, the suitable energy source

and target should be adopted to achieve a better efciency. For
example, the exhaust gas energy reuse is distinctly useful as the
portion of energy usage becomes high. Additionally, the application of the TMS in a HEV is quite feasible because the shorter
engine operation time can lead to unfavorable temperature
ranges of the engine and transmission during the warm-up
period [5,10].
The HEV has various characteristics that not only use an internal combustion engine as its primary power source but also
feature an electric system [11]. In addition, the CVT is attractive
equipment in the HEV as it guarantees the engine to work at the
optimal operating line (OOL) along with a small number of engine
cycles better than other transmissions; hence, the CVT system has
been applied to the HEV [12]. In these cases, previous researchers
focused on belt-pulley loss, hydraulic loss, gear ratio and line
pressure control [13e17]. Lee et al. showed a modied CVT ratio
control algorithm to improve the engine performance by considering the HEV powertrain response lag [18]. In addition, Akehurst
et al. presented a total loss mechanism that analyzed torque loss,
pulley deection loss and belt-slip loss in a pushing V-belt CVT
with dynamic equations [19]. However, the developed models in
previous studies did not consider the thermodynamic perspective.
In recent years, several researchers have worked on a thermal
network of vehicle components based on the TMS mechanism that
are more a signicant factor than ever before [4,20]. This is because
the performance of major powertrain components, such as the
engine and transmission, is affected by oil viscosity as a function of
temperature [21].
Christof and Andreas showed that the engine friction could be
2.5 times higher at the cold start condition, which means the
engine friction is directly linked with the coolant temperature
[22]. Therefore, many researchers have presented the fast warmup results with reduced emissions, focusing on modeling of engine characteristics related to the temperature and warm-up
methods of experimental approaches such as Rankine cycle and
thermal energy storage system [23e33]. The TMS has been widely
utilized in the innovate automotive technology [34e40]; in
particular, the transmission part has signicant potential in
terms of the heating rate of lubricant which is lower than the
engine because the heat source of the transmission is only internal friction loss with lower viscosity characteristics than any
other oil, hence, the TMS can be utilized to heat up the transmission in a short period of time [24]. Watanabe showed that the
fuel economy can be improved by 2.5% by the application of the
WHR on the transmission and engine. The reason for this
improvement can be explained by the reduction in mechanical
loss from engine and transmission due to the early powertrain
warm-up [5].
In this study, an integrated transmission thermal management
(TTM) model was developed, and diverse methodologies were
evaluated. The models were developed based on a Mild HEV with
CVT in Tables 1 and 2, which were validated at the UDDS driving
mode. In particular, the commercial Mild HEV was used to obtain a
temperature prole for the cold start condition. Additionally, the

Table 2
Specication of mild HEV for experiment of chassis dynamometer.
Component

Specication

Engine
Transmission
Motor
Battery

L4 LPi DOHC, 1591 cc, 151 Nm/4500 rpm

CVT
BLDC 15 kW, 105 Nm
180 V, LiPB

powertrain experiment with AC dynamometers was conducted to

acquire an efciency map of the CVT. First, a transmission model by
a lumped capacity method was developed with four sub models to
predict the CVT temperature with a transmission efciency map.
Next, the CVT model was validated by experimental data, which
were obtained using the HEV powertrain and commercial Mild HEV
experiment towards oil temperature in cold-start conditions.
Finally, a WHR model was used to reduce the CVT oil warm-up
period.
2. TTM model
The TTM model consists of the following four sub models: a
thermal mass model, a heat transfer model, a friction model and a
waste heat recovery model (Fig. 1). The thermal mass model considers transmission characteristics, such as weight, material property and size. The heat transfer model calculates conduction and
convection heat transfer quantities. The transmission internal loss,
which is obtained by experiment, is applied to the friction model
with specic equations. Total energy of transmission is determined
by sum of friction and heat transfer value and transferred to thermal mass, hence, oil temperature is decided. In addition, the waste
heat recovery model, which is designed to supply another heat
source to the CVT oil, is implemented using the simple heat exchangers and control strategies.
2.1. Thermal mass model
The model concept assumes that the mass of the body reaches
the thermal equilibrium condition by lumped capacity method. A
transmission consists of various parts, such as pulleys, belt, solenoid valve, hydraulic line, bearing, seal, nal drive, etc. To simplify
the modeling, this thermal mass model describes one object to
calculate the representative value of the transmission oil temperature via the lumped method assumption. Therefore, one equation
can be used as a representative of all the other equations, enabling
faster and simpler calculation as identied in Equation (1) which is
based on the law of energy conservation. Frictional energy is
applied to the thermal mass as it is generated. The temperature
variation equation is as follows:

dT

dt

n
 
X
d Q_ i
i1

m$c

(1)

where Q is the thermal energy transferred; C is the specic heat of

the transmission; m is the mass of the transmission; and dT/dt is the
temperature variation versus time domain.
Table 1
Specication of transmission for simulation model.
Transmission

CVT

Type
Weight(kg)
Diff. Gear ratio
Gear range

Belt-pulley
67
4.910
0.44e2.42

2.2. Friction model

The friction model calculates internal friction loss via an energy conservation equation with experimental results. Transmission efciency is substantially changed according to the oil
temperature and is hard to express in general function form.

M. Park et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 11e19

13

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of TTM model.

Thus, the map of transmission efciency based on the oil temperature was used in the simulation model. In the experiment, a
strip-down method was applied to measure the friction of the
parts to observe transmission efciency at various temperature
ranges that produce a 3-D efciency map along with torque and
gear ratio. The efciency and gear ratio (GR) equations are as
follows:

hCVT
GR

Pout
Tout uout

Pin
Tin uin

uin
uout

(2)

(3)

h is the CVT efciency which is expressed in terms of Pin and Pout. Pin
is the input power and Tin is the sum of the engine and motor input
torque at the transmission that corresponds to the engine-out
value. Pout and Tout are the output power and torque at the transmission which is passed to the drive wheels and u is the angular
velocity of each part.
The friction model uses input parameters and a 3-D efciency
map from the experimental results and then calculates the transmission friction loss according to Equations (2)e(6). Energy loss
(Ploss) is transferred to the thermal mass, which calculates the
transmission temperature as follows.

Ploss Pin  Pout Tin uin  Tout uout

(4)

Tin TEngine Tmotor

(5)

Tout Twheel

(6)

2.3. Heat transfer model

A heat transfer model is calculated based on conduction and
convection heat transfer Equations (7) and (8), which are shown as
follows: [41]

Q cond kAs

dT
dx

Q conv hAs Ts  TN

(7)

(8)

The conduction heat transfer occurs because of the temperature

difference between the engine and transmission. In this model,
coolant temperature represents the engine temperature according
to the lumped method assumption. A conduction coefcient, k, is
determined from an aluminum property. The convection heat
transfer to the ambient air is calculated by Equation (8); h is a
convection heat transfer coefcient, and As is the heat exchange
area. In this condition, the air velocity is varied to describe forced
convection during an actual driving period. The transmission shape
for determining the convection area is assumed to be a cylinder;
therefore, Nusselt number is expressed by Reynolds and Prandtl
number:

Nu 0:027Re0:805 Pr 0:333

(9)

Additionally, the convective heat transfer coefcient, h, is

calculated from the Nusselt number, thermal conductivity and hydraulic diameter.
2.4. Waste heat recovery model
The WHR model, which consists of a heat exchanger and several
valves, is additionally employed to demonstrate the improvement
in transmission efciency. Many researchers have applied an indirect type of the heat exchanger with coolant due to the distinct
advantages in terms of safety against burning lubricant [5]. However, the drawback of the system is that the heat transfer efciency
is drastically reduced because of the reduction of the overall heat
transfer coefcient [23]. Therefore, an appropriate method for
solving this trade-off problem that controls the exhaust gas ow
and uses fresh air to reduce the temperature of the exhaust gas
before it enters the heat exchanger is proposed. Two heat exchangers were used in this simulation model to cool and warm up
the system. First, the simple cooler, which is similar to an exhaust

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M. Park et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 11e19

gas recirculation cooler, is used to decrease the temperature of the

exhaust gas. The other heat exchanger model was selected after
consideration of the gaseliquid heat transfer; furthermore, counter
ow is assumed. The gas passes through the inner pipes of the heat
exchanger and liquid ows around the pipes. The temperatures in
the pneumatic and hydraulic volumes are state variables, along
with the temperature of the wall. The heat exchanger considers the
pneumatic and hydraulic volumes heat exchange through the wall
of the pipes by convection (Equations (10) and (11)). The Heat
transfer was calculated between these two capacities as follows:

dQcond

k
 As Tw1  Tw2
L

dQconv h  As Tl  Tw

(10)
(11)

Tw is the wall temperature at each point and L is the distance

between the two temperature points. The exhaust gas route is
determined by the path controller associated with the 200  C
boundary temperature. When the exhaust gas temperature is
higher than 200  C, it does not enter the heat exchanger; however,
it is emitted through the bypass. In contrast, when the exhaust gas
temperature is lower than 200  C, it ows into the heat exchanger,
and heat transfer occurs between the exhaust gas and transmission
oil. Thus, the WHR model was developed with various components,
data and strategies.
3. Development of correlation factor
The WHR effects cause overall improvement in the CVT efciency during the UDDS driving cycle. In addition, additional
improvement is predicted when the WHR is used at an extremely
low ambient temperature such as 0  C and 10  C. This improvement is because the kinematic viscosity of the CVT oil at 0  C
drastically increased, as much as 2.5 times than that at 25  C.
However, the developed simulation model was validated at 40e
80  C, a correlation factor is required to overcome this problem and
predict accurate friction loss. Therefore, the goal of this section is to
develop the correlation factor focusing on extremely low temperatures. The correlation factors between friction, viscosity, and
temperature were established as exponential functions reecting
several references. Kemp and Linden suggested a correlation between viscosity and temperature, which has an exponential relation as follows [21]:

Y 51:565 exp:0:1651T

(12)

In addition, the friction loss based on the temperature has a

similar relationship to oil viscosity, as shown by Andrews et al. [25].
To estimate the correlation factor at very low temperatures, the
polynomial function between the viscosity factor and the friction
loss factor was developed based on the experimental data and kinematic viscosity of the CVT oil as follows:

y 0:019x2 0:987x 0:078

(13)

Viscosity factor and friction factor were normalized viscosity

and friction value versus temperature condition. Friction value was
obtained from powertrain experiment and viscosity value with
temperature was obtained from the manufacturer. According to the
relationship between these values, the modied correlation factor
versus temperature was developed and expressed by an exponential function via the CVT oil viscosity factor and the well-dened
polynomial function as follows:

Corr_ factor 3:416 exp0:024T

(14)

Therefore, the WHR application was expanded to include the

low temperature region.
4. Experiment
4.1. Experimental setup
In this study, two essential experimental set-ups were constructed for CVT efciency and oil temperature prole. The rst
section is the dynamometer test system using the hybrid powertrain, including the LPG liquid phase injection engine, CVT, BLDC
motor, and two AC dynamometers for obtaining the 3-D transmission efciency map to apply the friction model during steadystate conditions. The other section is the Mild HEV test under a
driving cycle to verify the transmission temperature prole of the
simulation model. Fig. 2 shows the experimental schematic diagram along with 300 kW MEIDEN AC dynamometers, data
acquisition tools and control apparatus. The two dynamometers
can simulate the road load effect by considering the resistance of a
real vehicle. Transmission input and output power were measured
by a torque transducer (HBM, T10F), which was mounted between the engine and motor, and by dynamometers torque and
speed sensors. In addition, an oil temperature controller with a heat
exchanger was applied to describe the steady temperature condition. A dynamometer controller was used as a data acquisition
system module.
The Mild HEV was tested on the UDDS driving schedule using
the chassis dynamometer with 200 kW AC motors and 48 inch
single roll to obtain simulation input data, such as engine torque,
RPM, gear ratio, etc. These data were measured by the control area
network (CAN) signal port from the vehicle. The transmitted CAN
signals in the actual car were obtained by ETAS ES-591. To measure
the exhaust gas temperature, k-type thermocouples were installed
in front of and behind the mufer. The exhaust ow was calculated
with fuel injection mass and equivalent ratio data in the chassis
dynamometer test, which used the simulation input parameter to
implement the WHR model.
4.2. Experimental conditions
Table 3 shows the experimental condition. The transmission
efciency at steady state was measured by different vehicle speeds,
throttle valve opening ratio and oil temperatures.
The transient driving mode is UDDS, including a cold-start with
the initial transmission temperature. In this condition, the
measured transmission friction energy was converted into thermal
energy of lubricant. Fig. 3 shows the UDDS driving cycle mode. The
actual vehicle drove in the UDDS mode in chassis dynamometer
under cold-start conditions.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Experiment
Fig. 4 (a) to (d) shows the CVT efciency at various oil temperature ranges. The efciency trend was obtained at steady-state
conditions versus oil temperature. The strip-down method was
used which measured the efciency of each component by using a
dynamometer. Transmission efciency was also calculated using
principles from the several Equations (2)e(6). Engine output torque
was obtained by torque transducer which was mounted between
engine and motor. Dynamometer torque and angular velocity
sensors acquired the transmission output value. In addition, ETAS
equipment received the various CAN signal such as injection mass
ow, gear ratio, motor power, engine rpm, etc.; therefore, the

M. Park et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 11e19

15

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram for experiment of HEV powertrain.

efciency is calculated by the experimental data. The results show

that the transmission performance is greater at gear ratio 1 and the
input torque is higher than in other conditions. At gear ratio 1,
tension on both sides of the pulley has approximately the same
value when compared to other gear ratios, which means the difference in the tension is nearly negligible in this case. Fig. 4 shows
that the efciency of the CVT increases with rising CVT oil temperature. This increase occurs because oil viscosity is a function of
temperature, which causes a decrease in the hydraulic resistance as
the temperature rises. Therefore, transmission efciency varies
approximately 10e20%, depending on the transmission oil temperature. The results of the driving test were used to demonstrate
the input conditions, such as gear ratio, input torque and vehicle
velocity. Figs. 5 and 6 shows the results of the chassis dynamometer
test using a commercial vehicle operating under UDDS cycle.

overall heat transfer in the lubricant oil takes a long time [25].
Nevertheless, the simulation model of the TTM was developed and
well dened to predict temperature proles in these circumstances.
5.2.2. Hot start
Before applying the waste heat recovery model, the simulation
model should be validated at the hot start condition. Previous
studies showed an approximately 5% improvement in the average
transmission efciency when the initial temperature was higher
than that of the cold start condition [42]. Furthermore, the
enhancement in transmission performance with the WHR can be
estimated because the maximum efciency is calculated with the
result of the hot start condition. Thus, the hot start condition is
executed for predicting maximum warm-up effect. The simulation
results at the cold start and hot start conditions are compared in
this section. The hot start is similar to the full warm-up condition

5.2. Simulation
5.2.1. Cold start
The simulation was conducted with the same UDDS, and the
simulation results were compared with the actual Mild HEV
experimental results. Fig. 5(a) and (b) shows the input conditions of
the driving mode, which were obtained from the experimental
data. The simulation result agrees well with the experiment result,
except for several points shown in Fig. 6. This variation occurs
because the actual oil temperature is slightly different in each part
inside the transmission depending on the location of measurement.
It has been shown above that there are equivalent thermal gradients in the sump oil during the cold start warm-up because an

Table 3
Steady-state conditions for measurement of transmission efciency.
Parameter

Condition

VSPD (km/h)
Throttle valve opening ratio (%)
Oil temperature ( C)

10e100
10e100
40e80

Fig. 3. Velocity prole in UDDS driving mode.

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M. Park et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 11e19

Fig. 4. Analysis of CVT efciency with experiment on temperature distribution: steady-state experiment, respectively, for (a) T 50  C, (b) 60  C, (c) 70  C, and (d) 80  C conditions.

that was evaluated at 75  C. Fig. 7(a) and (b) presents the difference
in friction loss between the cold and hot start conditions, which
suggest that the transmission performance changes in accordance
with the temperature condition. In addition, the CVT average efciency of the hot start condition is approximately 5% higher than
the cold start condition, which implies that a WHR system is
necessary to improve transmission efciency.
5.2.3. WHR application
The effect of waste heat recovery model on the transmission
efciency was applied and studied in the validated simulation
model as a way to present improvement in the CVT efciency. The
exhaust gas ow and temperature were obtained from the chassis
dynamometer experiment, which used the WHR input parameters.
Fig. 8 shows the simulation results with a WHR model and developed TTM model. The transmission oil with WHR warms up faster
than the conventional case without WHR, and the lower friction

Fig. 5. Experimental results: (a) as the sum of engine and motor torque (b) gear ratio
in UDDS driving cycle.

Fig. 6. Validation of CVT temperature in UDDS driving cycle.

M. Park et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 11e19

17

Fig. 7. Simulation results: (a) difference of friction loss cold and hot start conditions
and (b) as histogram in UDDS driving cycle.

loss could additionally save an additional decrease of 6.5%. In

addition, the amount of conduction heat transfer from the engine to
transmission decreased because the oil temperature increased
more rapidly than in the conventional condition. As a result,
simulation result shows that the CVT efciency increased 2%, with
an improvement in average efciency with the WHR model
application.
5.2.4. Inuence of development methods
Fig. 9(a) and (b) shows the inuence of the WHR with the
developed correlation factor on extremely low temperatures, 0  C
and 10  C, to predict improvement potential of the transmission
The distinct effect of the WHR showed that oil temperature rapidly
increased more than conventional conditions with a difference of
nal temperature. The time to reach 50  C is decreased from 20 to
13 min, and a 4.7 MJ friction loss was reduced in the UDDS cycle
with 0  C initial temperature. In the case of 10  C, the warm-up
time to reach 50  C was reduced by 8 min when compared with
the normal system, which resulted in the average transmission
efciency in the UDDS cycle improved up to 8%. Therefore, the oil
temperature prole and initial temperature condition have a signicant impact on transmission efciency.

Fig. 9. Inuence of WHR system with correlation factor on extremely low temperature: (a) effect of the initial temperature at 0  C and (b) effect of the initial temperature
at 10  C.

6. Conclusions
An integrated TTM model for hybrid electric vehicles with CVT
was developed to estimate the effects in improving transmission
efciency. The simulation model includes a friction model, a thermal mass model, a heat transfer model and a WHR model. The
suggested simulation model was validated with actual vehicle
experimental data under the UDDS driving cycle. This study could
have a signicant impact on how the WHR system is extensively
utilized.
The main results are summarized as follows:

Fig. 8. Comparison of CVT Temperature about cold start and WHR system.

(1) The thermal management model of transmission was developed based on the lumped capacity method for thermal mass
model and estimates of the heat generation. This model can
predict temperature variation under driving conditions, and
achieves a good compatibility with experimental data.
(2) The experiment of the transmission under steady-state condition and actual HEV transient cycle driving was executed to
verify simulation results. The transmission 3-D map was
identied with temperature based upon the input torque and
gear ratio. The CVT efciency improved as the temperature and
the input torque increased; this was caused by a decrease in

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M. Park et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 11e19

pump and mechanical friction loss. Input parameters of the

simulation model and validation data were obtained from the
experiment of the commercial HEV driving test.
(3) The waste heat recovery model was applied to the TTM system
for better CVT efciency at the cold start condition. The simulation results show that CVT efciency was improved by 2%,
which means the fuel consumption is potentially reduced in
this case. The complete warm-up time is reduced, and the nal
temperature is increased up to 76  C.
(4) The expansion of the WHR system was evaluated to predict the
improvement at below the freezing point conditions, such as
0  C and 10  C. The scalability of WHR was veried up
to 10  C through a correlation factor, and hence, the CVT efciency was improved by up to 8%. Therefore, the fuel economy
will be also estimated about 6e7% with reducing the warm-up
period.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Hyundai Motor Company, the
second stage of Brain Korea 21 Project, and the Seoul National
University Institute of Advanced Machinery and Design.
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Abbreviations
A: area
Cp: specic heat of the transmission
D: diameter
GR: gear ratio
h: convection heat transfer coefcient
k: thermal conductivity
m: mass
L: distance between two temperature points
Nu: Nusselt number
Ploss: total power loss of transmission
Pin: input power of transmission
Pout: output power of transmission
Q: heat ow
Pr: Prandtl number
Re: Reynolds number
S: heat exchange area
t: time
T: temperature
Tin: input torque
Tmotor: motor torque
Tout: output torque
Twheel: wheel torque
Tg: gas temperature

M. Park et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 11e19

Tl: liquid temperature
Tw: wall temperature
Tw1: temperature of rst thermal solid capacity
Tw2: temperature of second thermal solid capacity
uin: input speed

uout: output speed

Y: Brookeld viscosity
hCVT: CVT efciency
3 : emissivity
s: StefaneBoltzmann coefcient

19