Basic Mathematical Formulas

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Hemisphere Definition:
A hemisphere is half of a sphere.
Hemisphere Formula :
Volume of Hemisphere = (2/3)r
Curved Surface Area(CSA) of Hemisphere = 2r
Total Surface Area(TSA) of Hemisphere = 3r
where
r = radius
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Hemisphere Example :
Case 1: Find the volume, curved surface and total surface area of a hemisphere with the given radius
3.
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Step 1: Find the volume.

Volume = (2/3)r = (2/3) * 3.14 * 3 = 0.67 * 3.14 * 27 = 56.8.
Step 2: Find the curved surface area(CSA).
Curved Surface Area(CSA) = 2r = 2 * 3.14 * 3 = 6.28 * 9 = 56.52
Step 3: Find the total surface area(CSA).
Total Surface Area(TSA) = 3r = 3 * 3.14 * 3 = 9.42 * 9 = 84.78
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Volume, Curved Surface Area(CSA),
Total Surface Area(TSA) of a Hemisphere manually.
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This tutorial will help you dynamically to find the Math area problems.
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a) Right Angled Triangle :

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- Right angle triangle is a triangle with one of its angle exactly equal to 90.
- As shown in the picture.

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a) Obtuse Triangle :
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- Obtuse angle triangle is a triangle with one of its angle greater than (>) 90.
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- Acute angle triangle is a triangle with all three angle less than (<) 90.
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Square Definition:
A square is a regular polygon with four sides. It has four right angles and parallel sides.
Square Formula :
Area of Square = (a)
Perimeter of Square = 4(a)
Diagonal of Square = (a)(sqrt(2))
where
a = side
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Square Example :
Case 1: Find the area, perimeter and diagonal of a square with the given side 3.
Step 1: Find the area.
Area = (a) = (3) = 9.
Step 2: Find the perimeter.
Perimeter = 4(a) = 4 * 3 = 12.
Step 3: Find the diagonal.
Diagonal = (a)*(sqrt(2)) = 3 * 1.41 = 4.23.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Area, Perimeter and Diagonal of a
Square manually.
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a) Equilateral Triangle :
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- Equilateral triangle is a triangle that has equal length on all three sides.
- All Equilateral triangle are equiangular triangles.
- So, Equilateral triangle has three congruent sides and three congruent angles.
- As shown in the picture. (x=y=z & a = b = g).
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b) Isosceles Triangle :
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Image or Diagram
- Isosceles triangle is a triangle with two equal length sides.
- Isosceles triangle also has two equal angles (two congruent angles and sides).
- Misspelled as isoseles, isoceles, isaceles.
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c) Scalene Triangle :
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- Scalene triangle is a triangle with all no equal side.

- Scalene no equal angles too.
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Rectangle/Parallelogram Tutorial
Rectangle Definition:
A rectangle is defined as a quadrilateral where all four of its angles are right angles. It has two
pairs of parallel sides. It is a parallelogram.
Rectangle Formula :
Area of Rectangle = bh
Perimeter of Rectangle = 2(b) + 2(h)
where
b = breadth, h = height
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ectangle/Parallelogram Example :
Case 1: Find the area and perimeter of a rectangle for the breadth 4 and the height 3.
Area = bh = 43 = 12.
Perimeter = 2(b) + 2(h) = 2(4) + 2(3) = 8 + 6 = 14.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Area and Perimeter of a Rectangle
manually.
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Triangle Definition:
A triangle has three corners or vertices and three sides or edges which are straight line segments.
Equilateral Triangle Definition:
Equilateral triangle is a triangle that has equal length on all three sides.
SAS Triangle Definition:
If two sides and the included angles of two triangles are correspondingly equal, the two triangles
are congruent. This is called SAS Triangle.
Triangle Formula :
Area of Triangle = l * b/2
Perimeter of Triangle = a + b + c
Area of Equilateral Triangle = (Sqrt(3) / 4) * l
Area of SAS Triangle = * l * b * SinC
where
l = length, b = breadth
a, b, c = sides of triangle
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Triangle Example :
Case 1: Find the area of a triangle from the given length 3 and breadth 4.
Area = l * b/2 = 3 * 4/2 = 12/2 = 6.
Case 2: Find the perimeter of a triangle from the given side 1, 2, 3.
Perimeter = a + b + c = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6.
Case 3: Find the area of a equilateral triangle from the given length 3.
Area = (Sqrt(3) / 4) * l = (1.73 / 4) * 3 = 0.43 * 9 = 3.87.
Case 4: Find the area of a SAS triangle from the given length 3 and breadth 4 and angle 28 degree.
Area = * l * b * SinC = 0.5 * 3 * 4 * Sin(28) = 6 * 0.27 = 1.62.
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Rhombus Definition:
A rhombus is a four-sided polygon in which every side has the same length. It is an equilateral
quadrilateral.
Rhombus Formula :
Base Times Height Method : Area of Rhombus = b * h
Diagonal Method : Area of Rhombus = * d1 * d2
Trigonometry Method : Area of Rhombus = a * SinA
Perimeter of Rhombus = 4(a)
where
a = side, b = breadth, h = height, d1, d2 are diagonals
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Rhombus Example :
Case 1: Find the area of a rhombus with the given base 3 and height 4 using Base Times Height
Method.
Area = b * h = 3 * 4 = 12.
Case 2: Find the area of a rhombus with the given diagonals 2, 4 using Diagonal Method.
Area = * d1 * d2 = 0.5 * 2 * 4 = 4.
Case 3: Find the area of a rhombus with the given side 2 using Trigonometry Method.
Area = a * SinA = 2 * Sin(33) = 4 * 1 = 4.
Case 4: Find the perimeter of a rhombus with the given side 2.
Perimeter = 4(a) = 4 * 2 = 8.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Area, Perimeter of a Rhombus
manually.
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Trapezium Definition:
A trapezium is a shape with four sides, that has one set of parallel sides.
Trapezium/Trapezoid Formula :
Area of Trapezium = (a + b)h
where
a, b = sides, h = height
Perimeter of Trapezium = a + b + c + d
where
a, b, c, d = sides
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Trapezium/Trapezoid Example :
Case 1: Find the area of a trapezium using the sides length as 3, 4 and the height 2.
Area = * (a + b) * h = * (3 + 4) * 2 = * 7 * 2 = 7.
Case 2: Find the perimeter of a trapezium using the sides length as 3, 4, 5, 6.
Perimeter = a + b + c + d = 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 18.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Area and Perimeter of a Trapezium
manually.
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Polygon Definition:
A polygon is a plane figure that is bounded by a closed path or circuit, composed of a finite
sequence of straight line segments.
Polygon Formula :
Using length of a side :
Area of Polygon = ((side) * N) / (4Tan( / N))
Perimeter of Polygon = N * (side)
Using radius (circumradius) :
Area of Polygon = * R * Sin(2 / N)
Using apothem (inradius) :
Area of Polygon = A * N * Tan( / N)
where A = R * Cos( / N)
Using apothem and length of a side :
Area of Polygon = (A * P) / 2
where A = side / (2 * Tan( / N))
where,
N = Number of sides, A = Apothem, R = Radius, P = Perimeter
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Polygon Example :
Case 1: Find the area and perimeter of a polygon with the length 2 and the number of sides is 4.
Area = ((side) * N) / (4Tan( / N))
= ((2) * 4) / (4 * Tan(3.14 / 4))
= (4 * 4) / 4 * Tan(0.785)
= 16 / 4 * 0.999
= 16 / 3.996
Area = 4.
Perimeter = (N * (side) = 4 * 2 = 8
Case 2: Find the area of a polygon with the given radius 2 and the number of sides is 5.
Area = * R * Sin(2 / N)
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= (0.5) * 2 * Sin(2 * 3.14 / 5)

= 0.5 * 4 * Sin(6.28 / 5)
= 2 * Sin(1.26)
= 2 * 0.95
Area = 1.9.
Case 3:Find the area of a polygon with the given radius 2 and the number of sides is 5 using
Apothem.
Step 1: Find the apothem.
Apothem = R * Cos( / N)
= 2 * Cos(3.14 / 5)
= 2 * Cos(0.63)
= 2 * 0.81
Apothem = 1.62.
Area = A * N * Tan( / N)
= 1.62 * 5 * Tan(3.14 / 5)
= 2.62 * 5 * Tan(0.63)
= 13.1 * 0.73
Area = 9.5.
Case 4: Find the area of a polygon with the length 2 and the number of sides is 4 using Apothem.
Step 1: Find the apothem.
Apothem = side / (2 * Tan( / N))
= 2 / (2 * Tan( / 4))
= 2 / (2 * Tan(0.785))
= 2 / (2 * 0.999)
= 2 / 1.998
Apothem = 1.
Perimeter = (N * (side) = 4 * 2 = 8
Area = (A * P) / 2
= (1 * 8) / 2
=8/2
Area = 4.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Area, Perimeter of a Polygon
manually.
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Kite Definition:
A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides that are congruent. The diagonals of a
kite are perpendicular.
Kite Formula :
Diagonal Method : Area of Kite = * d1 * d2
Trigonometry Method : Area of Kite = a * b * SinC
Perimeter of Kite = 2(a + b)
where
a = length, b = breadth, d1, d2 are diagonals
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Kite Example :
Case 1: Find the area of a kite with the given diagonals 2, 4 using Diagonal Method.
Area = * d1 * d2 = 0.5 * 2 * 4 = 4.
Case 2: Find the area of a kite with the given length 2 and breadth 3 using Trigonometry Method.
Area = a * b * SinC = 2 * 3 * Sin(33) = 6 * 1 = 6.
Case 3: Find the perimeter of a kite with the givenlength 2 and breadth 3.
Perimeter = 2(a + b) = 2(2 + 3) = 2(5) = 10.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Area, Perimeter of a Kite manually.
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Prism Definition:
A prism is a polyhedron made of an n-sided polygonal base, a translated copy, and n faces joining
corresponding sides.
Triangular Prism Definition:
A Triangular Prism is a polyhedron made of a triangular base, a translated copy, and 3 faces
joining corresponding sides.
Triangular Prism Formula :
Area of Base(A) = * a * b
Perimeter of Base(P) = s1 + s2 + s3
Surface Area of Prism = ab + (s1 + s2 + s3)h = ab + Ph
Volume of Prism = * a * b * h = Ah
where
a = altitude, b = base, h = height and s1, s2, s3 are sides
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Triangular Prism Example :

Case 1: Find the surface area and volume of a triangular prism with the given altitude 2, base 3,
height 4 and the sides 1, 2, 3.
Step 1: Find the area of the base.
Area of the base(A) = * a * b = 0.5 * 2 * 3 = 3.
Step 2: Find the perimeter of the base.
Perimeter of the base(P) = s1 + s2 + s3 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6.
Step 3: Find the surface area of prism.
Surface Area of Prism = ab + Ph = (2 * 3) + (6 * 4) = 6 + 24 = 30.
Step 4: Find the volume of prism.
Volume of Prism = Ah = 3 * 4 = 12.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Volume, Surface Area, Perimeter of a
Triangular Prism manually.
Next : Rectangular Prism
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Rectangular Prism/Cuboid Definition:

A Rectangular Prism/Cuboid is a solid figure bounded by six rectangular faces, a rectangular box.
All angles are right angles, and opposite faces of a cuboid are equal. It is also a right rectangular
prism.
Rectangular Prism/Cuboid Formula :
Area of Base(A) = l * w
Perimeter of Base(P) = 2l + 2w
Surface Area of Prism = 2(lw) + (2l + 2w)h = 2A + Ph
Volume of Prism = lwh = Ah
Diagonal of Prism = Sqrt(l + w + h)
where
l = length, w = width, h = height
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Rectangular/Cuboid Prism Example :

Case 1: Find the surface area, volume and diagonal of a rectangular prism/Cuboid with the given
length 2, width 3, height 4.
Area of the base(A) = l * w = 2 * 3 = 6.
Perimeter of the base(P) = 2l + 2w = (2 * 2) + (2 * 3) = 4 + 6 = 10.
Surface Area of Prism = 2A + Ph = (2 * 6) + (10 * 4) = 12 + 40 = 52.
Step 5: Find the diagonal of prism.
Diagonal of Prism = Sqrt(l + w + h) = Sqrt(2 + 3 + 4) = Sqrt(4 + 9 + 16) = Sqrt(29) =
5.39.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Volume, Surface Area, Diagonal
Perimeter of a Rectangular Prism/Cuboid manually.
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Square Prism/Square Cuboid Definition:

A Square Prism is a right prism with square bases.
Square Prism/Square Cuboid Formula :
Area of Base(A) = s
Perimeter of Base(P) = 4s
Surface Area of Prism = 2s + 4sh = 2A + Ph
Volume of Prism = sh = Ah
where
s = side, h = height.
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Square Prism/Square Cuboid Example :

Case 1: Find the surface area and volume of a square prism with the given side 2 and height 4.
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Area of the base(A) = s = 2 = 4.
Perimeter of the base(P) = 4s = 4 * 2 = 8.
Surface Area of Prism = 2A + Ph = (2 * 4) + (8 * 4) = 8 + 32 = 40.
Square Prism/Square Cuboid manually.
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Pentagonal Prism Definition:

The pentagonal prism is a prism having two pentagonal bases and five rectangular sides.
Pentagonal Prism Formula :
Area of Base(A) = * a * 5 * s
Surface Area of Prism = 5as + 5sh = 5as + Ph
Volume of Prism = (5/2)ash = Ah
where
a = apothem length, s = side, h = height.
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Pentagonal Prism Example :

Case 1: Find the surface area and volume of a pentagonal prism with the given apothem length 2,
side 3 and height 4.
Area of the base(A) = * a * 5 * s = 0.5 * 2 * 5 * 3 = 15.
Surface Area of Prism = 5as + Ph = (5 * 2 * 3) + (15 * 4) = 30 + 60 = 90.
Pentagonal Prism manually.
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Next : Hexagonal Prism
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Hexagonal Prism Definition:

A hexagonal prism is a prism composed of two hexagonal bases and six rectangular sides.
Hexagonal Prism Formula :
Area of Base(A) = * a * 6 * s = 3as
Surface Area of Prism = 6as + 6sh = 6as + Ph
Volume of Prism = 3ash = Ah
where
a = apothem length, s = side, h = height.
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Hexagonal Prism Example :

Case 1: Find the surface area and volume of a hexagonal prism with the given apothem length 2, side
3 and height 4.
Area of the base(A) = 3as = 3 * 2 * 3 = 18.
Surface Area of Prism = 6as + Ph = (6 * 2 * 3) + (18 * 4) = 36 + 72 = 108.
Hexagonal Prism manually.
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Pyramid Definition:
A pyramid is a polyhedron with one face as base, a polygon and all the other faces triangles
meeting at a common polygon vertex as the apex.
Triangular Pyramid Definition:
A Triangular Pyramid is a pyramid having a triangular base.
Triangular Pyramid Formula :
Area of Base(A) = * a * s
Surface Area of Pyramid = ( * a * s) + ((3/2)sl) = A + ((3/2)sl)
Volume of Pyramid = (1/6)abh
where
a = apothem length, s,b = side, h = height and l = slant height
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Triangular Pyramid Example :

Case 1: Find the surface area and volume of a triangular pyramid with the given apothem length 2,
side 3, height 4 and the slant height 5.
Area of the base(A) = * a * s = 0.5 * 2 * 3 = 3.
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Step 2: Find the surface area of pyramid.

Surface Area of Pyramid = A + ((3/2)sl) = 3 + ((3/2) * 3 * 5) = 3 + (1.5 * 15) = 3 + 22.5 =
25.5.
Step 3: Find the volume of pyramid.
Volume of Pyramid = (1/6)abh = (1/6) * 2 * 3 * 4 = 0.17 * 24 = 4.08.
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The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Volume, Surface Area of a Triangular
Pyramid manually.
Next : Square Pyramid
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Square Pyramid Definition:

A Square Pyramid is a pyramid with a square base.
Square Pyramid Formula :
Area of Base(A) = s
Surface Area of Pyramid = s + 2sl = A + 2sl
Volume of Pyramid = (1/3)bh
where
s,b = side, h = height and l = slant height
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Square Pyramid Example :

Case 1: Find the surface area and volume of a square pyramid with the given side 3, height 4 and the
slant height 5.
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Area of the base(A) = s = 3 = 9.
Surface Area of Pyramid = A + 2sl = 9 + (2 * 3 * 5) = 9 + 30 = 39.
Volume of Pyramid = (1/3)bh = (1/3)bh = (1/3)* 3 * 4 = 0.33 * 9 * 4 = 12.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Volume, Surface Area of a Square
Pyramid manually.
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Pentagonal Pyramid Definition:

A Pentagonal Pyramid is a pyramid with a pentagonal base.
Pentagonal Pyramid Formula :
Area of Base(A) = (5/2)as
Surface Area of Pyramid = (5/2)as + (5/2)sl = A + (5/2)sl
Volume of Pyramid = (5/6)abh
where
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Pentagonal Pyramid Example :

Case 1: Find the surface area and volume of a pentagonal pyramid with the given apothem length 2,
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Area of the base(A) = (5/2)as = 2.5 * 2 * 3 = 15.
Surface Area of Pyramid = A + (5/2)sl = 15 + ((5/2) * 3 * 5) = 15 + (2.5 * 15) = 15 + 37.5 =
52.5.
Volume of Pyramid = (5/6)abh = (5/6) * 2 * 3 * 4 = (0.833) * 24 = 20.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Volume, Surface Area of a Pentagonal
Pyramid manually.
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Hexagonal Pyramid Definition:

A Hexagonal Pyramid is a pyramid with a Hexagonal base.
Hexagonal Pyramid Formula :
Area of Base(A) = (6/2)as = 3as
Surface Area of Pyramid = 3as + 3sl = A + 3sl
Volume of Pyramid = abh
where
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Hexagonal Pyramid Example :

Case 1: Find the surface area and volume of a hexagonal pyramid with the given apothem length 2,
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Area of the base(A) = 3as = 3 * 2 * 3 = 18.
Surface Area of Pyramid = A + 3sl = 18 + (3 * 3 * 5) = 18 + 45 = 63.
Volume of Pyramid = abh = 2 * 3 * 4 = 24.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Volume, Surface Area of a Hexagonal
Pyramid manually.
Prev : Pentagonal Pyramid
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Circle Definition:
A circle is the set of all points in a plane at a fixed distance, called the radius, from a given point,
the center.
Circle Formula:
Area of Circle = r
Diameter of Circle = 2r
Circumference of Circle = 2r = d
Area of Sector = r(/360)
where
r = radius
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Circle Example:
Case 1: Find the area, diameter and circumference of a circle with the given radius 3.
Area = r = 3.14 * 3 = 3.14 * 9 = 28.26.
Step 2: Find the diameter.
Diameter = 2r = 2 * 3 = 6.
Step 3: Find the circumference.
Circumference = d = 3.14 * 6 = 18.84.
Case 2: Find the area of sector with the given radius 3 and theta 30.
Area =r(/360) = 3.14 * 3 * (30/360) = 3.14 * 9 * 0.083 = 2.35.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Area, Diameter and Circumference of
a Circle, Area of Sector manually.
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Cone Definition:
A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape consisting of all line segments joining a single point
to every point of a two-dimensional figure.
Cone Formula:
Slant height of Cone(l) = Sqrt(r + h)
Volume of Cone = (1/3)rh
Curved Surface Area(CSA) of Cone = rl
Total Surface Area(TSA) of Cone = r(l + r)
where
r = radius, l = slant height, h = height
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Cone Example :
Case 1: Find the volume, curved surface and total surface area of a cone with the given radius 3 and
height 4.
Step 1: Find the slant height.
Slant height(l) = Sqrt(r + h) = Sqrt(3 + 4)= Sqrt(9 + 16) = Sqrt(25) = 5.
Volume = (1/3)rh = (1/3) * 3.14 * 3 * 4 = 0.33 * 113.04 = 37.68.
CSA = rl = 3.14 * 3 * 5 = 47.1.
Step 4: Find the total surface area(TSA).
TSA = r(l + r) = 3.14 * 3(5 + 3) = 3.14 * 3(8) = 3.14 * 24 = 75.36.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Volume, Curved Surface and Total
Surface Area of a Cone manually.
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Cube Definition:
A cube is a three-dimensional solid object bounded by six square faces, facets or sides, with three
meeting at each vertex.
Cube Formula :
Volume of Cube = a
Surface Area of Cube = 6a
Diagonal of Cube = Sqrt(3)*a
where
a = side
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Cube Example :
Case 1: Find the volume, surface area and diagonal of a cube with the given side 3.
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Volume = a = 3 = 27.
Step 2: Find the surface area.
Surface Area = 6a = 6 * 3 = 6 * 9 = 54.
Step 3: Find the diagonal.
Diagonal = Sqrt(3)*a = Sqrt(3) * 3 = 1.73 * 3 = 5.19.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Volume, Surface Area and Diagonal
of a Cube manually.
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Cylinder Definition:
A cylinder is a solid bounded by a cylindrical surface and two parallel planes.
Cylinder Formula :
Volume of Cylinder = rh
Curved Surface Area(CSA) of Cylinder = 2rh
Total Surface Area(TSA) of Cylinder = 2r(h + r)
where
r = radius, h = height
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Cylinder Example :
Case 1: Find the volume, curved surface and total surface area of a cylinder with the given radius 3
and height 4.
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Volume = rh = 3.14 * 3 * 4 = 3.14 * 9 * 4 = 113.04 .
CSA = 2rh = 2 * 3.14 * 3 * 4 = 75.36.
Step 3: Find the total surface area(TSA).
TSA = 2r(h + r) = 2 * 3.14 * 3(4 + 3) = 6.28 * 3(7) = 6.28 * 21 = 131.88.
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Volume, Curved Surface and Total
Surface Area of a Cylinder manually.
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Ellipse Definition:
A ellipse is a locus of points in a plane such that the sum of the distances to two fixed points is a
constant.
Ellipse Formula :
Area of Ellipse = r1r2
Volume of Ellipse = (4/3)r1r2r3
Perimeter of Ellipse = 2Sqrt((r1 + r2) / 2)
where
r1, r2 and r3 = radii
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Ellipse Example :
Case 1: Find the area and perimeter of an ellipse with the given radii 3, 4.
Area = r1r2 = 3.14 * 3 * 4 = 37.68 .
Perimeter = 2Sqrt((r1 + r2) / 2) = 2 * 3.14 * Sqrt((3 + 4) / 2)
= 6.28 * Sqrt((9 + 16) / 2) = 6.28 * Sqrt(25 / 2)
= 6.28 * Sqrt(12.5) = 6.28 * 3.53 = 22.2.
Case 2: Find the volume of an ellipse with the given radii 3, 4, 5.
Volume = (4/3)r1r2r3= (4/3) * 3.14 * 3 * 4 * 5 = 1.33 * 188.4 = 251
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Area, Perimeter and Volume of an
Ellipse manually.
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Sphere Definition:
A sphere is a solid figure bounded by a spherical surface.
Sphere Formula :
Volume of Sphere = (4/3)r
Curved Surface Area(CSA) of Sphere = 4r
where
r = radius
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Sphere Example :
Case 1: Find the volume and curved surface area of a Sphere with the given radius 3.
Volume = (4/3)r = (4/3) * 3.14 * 3 = 1.33 * 3.14 * 27 = 113.
Curved Surface Area(CSA) = 4r = 4 * 3.14 * 3 = 12.56 * 9 = 113
The above example will clearly illustrates how to calculate the Volume, Curved Surface Area(CSA)
of a Sphere manually.
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9/17/2012 2:58 PM
Triangle Angle Sum Theorem Proof
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Triangle Angle Sum Theorem Proof

The Theorem states that the sum of all the three angles of a triangle is always
equal to 180 degrees.
Alternate Interior Angles Theorem

Alternate Angle Segment Theorem
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Triangle Angle Sum Theorem
Statement:
A triangle with the interior angles MNS.
To prove:
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Construction:
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Proof:
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MN is a transversal.
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Similarly,
--->(2)
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is a straight line and sum of the angles at M is equal to 180.
>From (1) and (2), We get
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The measure of interior angles of a triangle or the two right angles are equal to 180 degrees.
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9/17/2012 3:01 PM
Law of Tangents Theorem, Sine and Cosine Triange Angles Proof
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Law of Tangents Theorem, Sine and Cosine

Triange Angles Proof
The theorem determines the relationship between the tangents of two angles of
a plane triangle and the length of the opposite sides. It can be proved using the
law of sine and cosine of triangle angles.

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Law of Tangents Theorem, Sine and Cosine Triangle Angles
Statement:
If A and B are angles in a triangle having a and b as its opposite sides respectively,
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then
Proof:
Let s be denoted as (A+B)/2 and d be denoted as (A-B)/2 respectively.
Law of Tangents can be proved from the Law of sines

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Parallel Axis Theorem, Moment of Inertia Proof
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Parallel Axis Theorem, Moment of Inertia Proof

The theorem determines the moment of inertia of a rigid body about any given
axis, given that moment of inertia about the parallel axis through the center of
mass of an object and the perpendicular distance between the axes.

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Parallel Axis Theorem
Statement:
The moment of inertia about Z-axis can be represented as:
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Where
Icmis the moment of inertia of an object about its centre of mass
m is the mass of an object
r is the perpendicular distance between the two axes.
Proof:
Assume that the perpendicular distance between the axes lies along the x-axis and the centre of mass lies at
the origin. The moment of inertia relative to z-axis that passes through the centre of mass, is represented as
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Moment of inertia relative to the new axis with its perpendicular distance r along the x-axis, is represented
as:
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We get,
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The first term is Icm,the second term is mr2and the final term is zero as the origin lies at the centre of mass.
Finally,
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9/17/2012 3:02 PM
Polynomial Remainder Theorem Proof
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Polynomial Remainder Theorem Proof

The theorem states that, if a polynomial f(x) is divided by x-b, then the
remainder is the value of f(x), at x = b i.e., Remainder = f(b).
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Polynomial Remainder Theorem
Statement:
On dividing a polynomial f(x) by x-b, the remainder will be f(b).
Proof:
Let p(x) be a polynomial divided by (x-b).
Let q(x) be the quotient and R be the remainder.
By division algorithm,
Dividend = (Divisor x quotient) + Remainder
p(x) = q(x) . (x-b) + R
Substitute x = b,
p(b) = q(b) (b-b) + R
p(b) = R (b - b = 0, 0 - q (b) = 0)
Hence Remainder = p(b).
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Evaluating a polynomial for a given value of x can be obtained from the proof of Polynomial Remainder
Theorem.
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9/17/2012 3:02 PM
Daniel Bernoulli's Principle Theorem
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Bernoulli's theorem explores the behaviour of the ideal fluid flowing through the
pipe. This important principle in fluid mechanics is found by Daniel Bernoulli in
1738

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STATEMENT
Bernoulli's theorem states that when a liquid is flowing, the total of the pressure energy, kinetic energy
and potential energy per unit mass should be constant.
EQUATION OF BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
The equation is
+
+gh=constant.
ASSUMPTION
Let us assume a streamline flow of liquid which has a density
.It passes through a pipe XY. Assume that
the pressures are denoted as P1 and P2. The cross sectional areas of the pipe are a1 and a2. These cross
sectional areas are at the point X and Y. Let v1 be the velocity of the liquid which enters the pipe through
X and v2 be the velocity of the liquid which leaves the pipe through Y. In this case when the height of the
Y is greater than X, the liquid is accelerated. This acceleration should be forced against the force of
gravity. Hence the pressure P1 is greater than the pressure P2
DERIVATION OF BERNOULLI PRINCIPLE:
Consider the mass m which is to be passed into the pipe, then
a1v1
=a2v2
=m
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Dividing the equation by
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we get,
=V
Force acting on liquid at X = p1a1

Force acting on the liquid at Y = p2a2
Work done per second at X = p1a1X v1=p1V
Work done per second at Y= p2a2XW2=p2V
Total work performed per second on the liquid by the pressure starting from X to Y =p1V-p2V
If the mass of the liquid is m, then the potential energy per second on the liquid from X to Y is equal to
mgh2-mgh1
Now the increase of kinetic energy per second= mv22- mv12
The work energy principle states that the work done per second by the pressure is equal to adding the
increase in potential energy per second with the increase in kinetic energy per second.
P1V-P2V=(mgh2-mgh1)+
P1V+mgh1+ mv12= P2V+mgh2+ mv22
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On dividing by m throughtout,
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+gh1+ v12=
Fluid Flow Velocity

Math
+gh2+ v22
+gh2+ v22
+gh1+ v12=
+gh+ v2=constant
When dividing by g, the term becomes

+
+h=constant
Here the terms
,h are called pressure head,velocity head and gravitational head respectively.
Hence the Daniel Bernoulli's principle theorem is proved..
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9/17/2012 3:03 PM
Basic proportionality Theorem Proof
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Basic Proportionality Theorem Proof

If a given line passes through the two sides of the given triangle and parallel to
the third side, then it cuts the sides proportionally. This is called the Basic
Proportionality theorem..

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Basic Proportionality Theorem Proof
STATEMENT
A line parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other two sides into parts of equal proportion..
Given:
In triangle ABC, a line drawn parallel to BC cuts AB and AC at P and Q respectively.
Image/Diagram:
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To Prove:
AP/PB = AQ/QC
Let the point P divide AB in the ratio of l: m where l and m are natural numbers. Divide AP into 'l' and PB
into 'm' equal parts. Through each of these points on AB, draw lines parallel to BC to cut AC.
PROOF:
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
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Step 4:
Step 5:
Step 6:
Cut AP into equal parts and draw lines through these points parallel to BC
By intercept theorem,AQ is cut into equal parts
By Step 1,QC is cut into m equal parts
By construction,AP/PB=l/m
By step 2 and 3,AQ/QC=l/m
By step 4 and 5,AP/PB=AQ/QC
Hence the proof..
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9/17/2012 3:03 PM
Stewart's or Apollonius Theorem Proof
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Stewart's or Apollonius Theorem Proof

The theorem states the the relation between the length of sides of a triangle
and the segment's length from a vertex to a point on the opposite side.This is
also referred as Apollonius Theorem.

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Stewart's or Apollonius Theorem
Diagram:
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Proof:
Let
be the angle
Applying cosine's law on triangle AXB, we get
and so,
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Applying the cosine's law on triangle AXC,

we get
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and thus
we get ,
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From the above expressions we obtain,
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By cancelling 2p on both sides and collecting, the equation can be obtained as,
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From above equation we consider that

Where,a=m+n
From this we conclude that,
a(mn+p2)=b2m+c2n
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Chebyshev's Inequality Theorem, Proof, Example
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Chebyshev's Inequality Theorem, Proof,

Example
Chebyshev's inequality theorem was named after Russian mathematician,
Pafnuty Chebyshev. In breif it states that, for a population or sample, not more
than 1/k2 of the distribution's values can be more than 'k standard deviations'
away from the mean.

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Chebyshev's Inequality Theorem Proof, Example
Statement
For any real number k>0 and a random variable x with expected value and variance 2
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Proof by example
Let A be any event.
IA be the indicator random variable of A-------------------------->(1)
From (1) IA=1 if A occurs or IA=0,otherwise.
Then,
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Hence the proof.
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9/17/2012 3:04 PM
Ramsey's Number Theorem Proof
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Ramsey's Number Theorem Proof

Ramsey's Theorem states that for every positive integers say k1 and k2, there
exists an integer R(k1, k2) known as ramsey number, such that any graph with
R(k1, k2) nodes contain a clique with atleast 'k1' nodes or independent set with
atleast 'k2' nodes.

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Ramsey's Number Theorem
Proof:
w->(w)nk
is proven by induction of 'n'.
If n=1, then it just states that any partition of an infinite set into a finite number of subsets must include an
infinite set; (i.e.,the union of a finite number of finite sets is finite).
This would be easier to prove, as there are finite number of sets, there is the largest set of size x. Let the
number of sets be 'y'. Then the size of the union is not more than xy.
If w->(w)nk
then it can be represented as, w->(w)n+1k

Let 'f' be some coloring of [S]n+1 by k, Where 'S' is an infinite subset of 'w'.
The value of x can be defined as:
fx:[Sx]n->k by fx(X)=f(x U X).
As 'S' is infinite, by the induction hypothesis, this is said to have an infinite homogeneous set.
Sequence of Integers (ni)i w and Sequence of Infinite Subsets of w , (Si)i w can be defined by induction.
Let n0=0 and let S0=w.
Given ni and Si for i<=j we can define Sj as an infinite homogeneous set for fni:[Sj1]n->k and njas the least
element of Sj . Obviously N=
each ji .
ni is infinite, and it is also homogeneous, since each ni is contained in Sj for
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Cyclic Quadrilateral Ptolemy's Theorem Proof
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Cyclic Quadrilateral Ptolemy's Theorem Proof

The Theorem states that the product of the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral is
equal to the sum of the products of opposite sides.

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Cyclic Quadrilateral Ptolemy's Theorem
Given
A cyclic quadrilateral ABCD, with a,b,c,d as the length of the sides and e,f as the diagonals. Then, ac+bd =
ef
The binomial coefficient (r,c)=0 if c > r.
Proof:
Given that a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD, extend CD to P such that
Since quadilateral ABCD is cyclic,
However,
is also supplementary to,
Hence
Now,
, so
by AA similarity, and
(subtend the same arc) and

,so
This yields
However,CP=CD+DP.Substituting in our expressions for CP and DP

Multiplying by AB yields
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9/17/2012 3:04 PM
Alternate Angle Segment Theorem Proof
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Alternate Angle Segment Theorem Proof

The theorem states that the angle between the tangent and its chord is equal
to the angle in the alternate segment.
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Statement:
An angle between a tangent and a chord through the point of contact is equal to the angle in the alternate
segment
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Proof:
A tangent makes an angle of 90 degree with the radius of the circle.So, we know that <OAC + x = 90.
The angle in a semi-circle is 90, so <BCA = 90.
The angles in a triangle add up to 180, so <BCA + <OAC + y = 180
Therefore 90 + <OAC + y = 180 and so <OAC + y = 90
But OAC + x = 90, so <OAC + x = <OAC + y
Hence x = y
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9/17/2012 3:05 PM
Similar or Congruence Triangles Theorem Proof
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Similar or Congruence Triangles Theorem

Proof
The theorem states that the two triangles are said to be similar if the
corresponding sides and their angles are equal or congruent.
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Similar or Congruence Triangles Theorem
Statement:
If the corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional, then their corresponding angles are equal and
the triangles are similar.
Two triangles ABC and DEF Such that AB/DE = BC/EF = AC/DF
To prove:
ABC similar to DEF
Construction:
Mark points P and Q on DE and DF respectively such that DP = AB and DQ = AC, join PQ.
Proof:
Since AB/DE = AC/DF and AB = DP, AC = DQ Therefore DP/DE = DQ/DF.
This implies that PQ is parallel to EF
So, Triangle DPQ similar to triangle DEF (By AA similarity) --(1)
So, DP/DE = PQ/EF Or AB/DE = PQ/EF (since DP = AB)
But AB/DE = BC/EF
BC/EF = PQ/ EF
This implies that BC = PQ
Now AB = DP, AC = DQ and BC = PQ
This implies that ABC and DPQ (SSS congruence) --2)
From 1 and 2, we get
ABC similar to DEF
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The online proof of finding the similar or congruence triangles is made easier here.
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Alternate Interior Angles Theorem Proof
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http://easycalculation.com/theorems/alternate-angle.php
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home > theorems > alternate-angle

The alternate angles theorem states that if two parallel lines are cut by a
transversal, then each pair of alternate interior angles are equal.
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STATEMENT
If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then each pair of alternate interior angles are equal.
Given:
AB||CD and EFGH is a transversal.
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To Prove:
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PROOF:
(Vertically opposite angles)
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From (i) and (ii),
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Hence the proof.
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Converse of Alternate Interior Angles Theorem Proof
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home > theorems > converse-alternate
Converse of Alternate Interior Angles Theorem

Proof
Converse alternate interior angles theorem states that if two lines and a
transversal form alternate interior angles that are congruent, then the two lines
are parallel.

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Converse of Alternate Interior Angles Theorem Proof
STATEMENT:
If a transversal intersects two lines in such a way that a pair of alternate interior angles are equal, then
the two lines are parallel.
Given:
Transversal EFGH intersects lines AB and CD such that a pair of alternate E are equal.
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To prove:
AB||CD
PROOF:
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(Vertically opposite angles)

(corresponding angles)
Since the corresponding angles of the lines AB and CD are equal, the lines are parallel.
Thus the converse of alternate interior angles theorem is proved.
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9/17/2012 3:05 PM
Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem
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home > theorems > converse-of-basic-proportionality-theorem

If a line intersects any two sides of a triangle in equal ratio, then the line is
parallel to the third side.
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Statement
If a line divides any two sides of a triangle () in the same ratio, then the line must be parallel (||) to the
third side.
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Given
In ABC, D and E are the two points of AB and AC respectively,
such that, AD/DB = AE/EC.
To Prove
DE || BC
Proof
In ABC,
given, AD/DB = AE/EC ----- (1)
Let us assume that in ABC, the point F is an intersect on the side AC.
So we can apply the Thales Theorem, AD/DB = AF/FC ----- (2)
Simplify, in (1) and (2) ==> AE/EC = AF/FC
Add 1 on both sides, ==> (AE/EC) + 1 = (AF/FC) + 1
==> (AE+EC)/EC = (AF+FC)/FC
==> AC/EC = AC/FC
==> EC = FC
From the above, we can say that the points E and F coincide on AC.
i.e., DF coincides with DE.
Since DF is parallel to BC, DE is also parallel BC
Hence the Converse of Basic Proportionality therorem is proved.
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9/17/2012 3:06 PM

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