SKELETAL SYSTEM

Skeleton
Greek for dried up body
Internal framework: Strong yet light (perfectly adapted for its
functions of body protection and motion)
Bones, joints, cartilage and ligaments (fibrous cords that bind the
bones together at joints)
Bone tired our brain not bones convey feelings of fatigue
Bag of bones - indeed more prominent in some without it we
would creep like slugs
206 bones adult skeleton
Two Divisions of the skeleton:
Axial
Form longitudinal axis of the body
Protect the organs of the head, neck, and trunk
Skull, ribs, vertebrae and sternum
Appendicular
Bones of the limbs and girdles
anchors the appendages to the axial skeleton
Bones of the upper and lower extremities, shoulder and pelvic
girdles
Functions of the Bones
SUPPORT
steel grinders and reinforced concrete
Form the internal framework that supports the body and cradles
soft organs
EX.
Bones of legs- at as pillars to support body trunk
Rib cage supports thoracic wall
PROTECTION
Protect soft body organs
EX.
Fused bones of the skull- provide snug enclosure for the
brain
Vertebrae- surround spinal cord
Rib cage- vital organs of the thorax
MOVEMENT
Skeletal muscles attached to bones by Tendons use the bones as
levers to move body and its parts
STORAGE
Fat- stored in the internal(yellow marrow) cavities of the bones
Storehouse of minerals (Calcium and Phosphorous)
Calcium- deposited in bones as calcium salts but some of its ion
form (Ca2+) must be present in the blood for NS to transmit
message for muscle contraction and blood clotting
Hormones- control the movement of calcium to and from the
bones and blood acc to the needs of the body
BLOOD CELL FORMATION
Hematopoiesis
Occurs within the red marrow cavities of certain bones
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
TWO BASIC TYPES OF OSSEOUS TISSUE
Compact or Cortical Bone
Dense, smooth and homogenous
Forms the outer shell of all bone and also the shafts in long bones
Spongy or Cancellous Bone

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SHAPE

1. Long Bones
Longer than they are wide
Have shafts with heads on both ends
Mostly compact bones
All bones of the limbs except the patella (kneecap) and wrist and
ankle bones
Ex. Humerus
2. Short Bones
Generally cube-shaped
Mostly spongy bones
Bones of the wrist and ankle
Include special type of short bone called sesamoid bones (form
within tendons;; ex. patella)
3. Flat Bones
Thin, flattened, usually curved
Have two thin layer of compact bone sandwiching a layer of
spongy bone
Skull, ribs and sternum
4. Irregular Bones
Spinal column and hip bones
STRUCTURE OF BONE
GROSS ANATOMY OF A LONG BONE
Diaphysis/Shaft
makes up most of bones length
compact bones
marrow cavity
covered and protected by Periosteum (fibrous
connective tissue membrane)
Perforating/Sharpeys Fibers secure the periosteum to
the underlying bone
Epiphyses
Ends of long bone
Thin layer of compact bone enclosing area filled with
spongy bone (mostly spongy bone)
Articular Cartilage covers external surface (glassy
hyaline cartilage, provides smooth slippery surface that
decreases friction at joint surfaces)
Epiphyseal line
Thin line of bony tissue spanning the epiphysis that
looks a bit different from the rest of the bone in that area
Remnant of epiphyseal plate seen in a young growing
bone
flat plate of hyaline cartilage
causes lengthwise growth of a long bone
during puberty, it has been completely
replaced by bone leaving only epiphyseal
lines to mark previous location
Medullary Cavity
Cavity of the shaft
Yellow Marrow (adult) storage of adipose tissue
In infants, this area forms blood cells and red marrow
In adult bones, red marrow is confined to the cavities in
the spongy bone of flat bones and epiphyses of some
long bones

Small needle like pieces of bone with open space

Found at the expanded heads of long bones and fills most
irregular bones
Bone Markings
Bone surfaces are scarred with bumps, holes and ridges
Reveal where muscles, tendons and ligaments were attached and
where blood vessels and nerves passed
Two categories of Bone Markings
Projections/Processes
Grow out (protrusions) of bone surface
All term begin with T
Depression/Cavities
Indentations in the bone
All terms begin with F (except facet)

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF COMPACT BONES

To the naked eye, spiky bone has a spiky open appearance
whereas compact bone appears to be very dense
Has complex structure
Riddles with passageways carrying nerves, blood vessel and the
like, which provide the living bone cells with nutrient and a route
for garbage disposal
Osteocytes mature bone cells;; found within Lacunae
Lacunae tiny cavities that is arranged in concentric circles called
Lamellae around central (Haversian) Canals
Central (Haversian) Canals run lengthwise through the bony
matrix carrying blood vessels and nerves to all areas of the bone
Osteon/Haversian System each complex consisting of central
canal and matrix rings;; have a central Haversian canal which
carries blood and lymphatic vessels and nerve branches
Canaliculi tiny canals that radiate outward from the central
canals to all lacunae;; it forms a transportation system that
connects all the bone cells to the nutrient supply through the hard
bone matrix
Bone cells are well nourished and bone injuries heal quickly and
well
Perforating (Volkmanns) Canal- completes communication
pathway from the outside of the bone to its interior which run into
the compact bone at right angles to the shaft
Bone is one of the hardest malt in the body and had ability to
resist tension and other forces
Bone matrix composed of calcium salts(hardness which resist
compression) and collagen (flexibility and great tensile strengthability to be stretched without breaking)
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SPONGY BONES
Spongy bone consists of a lattice of thin threads of bone called
trabeculae and is less dense than compact bone
BONE FORMATION, GROWTH AND REMODELLING
Bone Formation
Cartilage and Bone Tissue two of the strongest and most
supportive tissues in the body
In embryos, the skeleton is primarily composed of hyaline
cartilage but in a young child most has been replaced by bone
Cartilage remains only in isolated areas (bridge of nose, pats of
ribs and joints)

a.
-

The enclosed hyaline cartilage model is digested away

opening up a medullary cavity within the newly formed bone
By birth, most hyaline cartilage models have been converted to
bone except for the articular cartilage(cover bone ends) and
epiphyseal plate
New cartilage is formed continuously on the external face of the
articular cartilage and on the epiphyseal plate surface that faces
the bone end, at the same time the old cartilage abutting the
internal face of AC and medullary cavity is broken down and
replaced by bony matrix
Bone Widening while lengthening Osteoblasts in periosteum
add bone tissue to the external face of the diaphysis a cells called
osteoclasts in the endosteum remove bone from the inner face of
the diaphysis wall
Appositional growth bone increase in diameter
Growth hormone hormone that controls long bone growth
Sex hormone during puberty
Ends during adolescence when epiphyseal plates are completely
converted to bone
Intramembranous ossification
Connective tissue forms in sheets at sites where flat
bones will eventually be
These connective tissue sheets are highly invested with
blood vessels and some of the cells differentiate into
osteoblasts
Osteoblasts begin lay down the bone extracellular
matrix, forming spongy bone
The connective tissue sheets in the periphery, form the
bone's periosteum; But the newer osteoblasts made by
the periosteum cannot enter the spongy bone
Instead, they accumulate on the edges of the spongy
bone, laying down a harder matrix (compact bone)

Bone Remodeling
Bone is a dynamic and active tissue
Remodeling is the replacement of old bone tissue by new bone
tissue which mainly occurs in the adult skeleton to maintain bone
mass
Bone remodeling factors:
a. Calcium levels in the blood
PTH determines when or if bone is to be broken down
or formed in response to the need for more or fewer
calcium ions in the blood
Calcium is also needed for muscle contraction (Tetanee)
b. Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
Determines where bone matrix is to be broken down or
formed so that the skeleton can remain as strong and
vital as possible
Parathyroid glands (PTH;; located in throat) activate when blood
calcium levels drop to release Parathyroid hormone into the blood
which activates Osteoclasts (giant bone destroying cells) into the
bones to break down bone matrix and release calcium ions in
blood
Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium level) calcium is deposited

Most bones develop using hyaline cartilage structures as their

models
Ossification process of bone formation
Two Major phases:
Hyaline cartilage is completely covered with bone matrix ( a bone
collar) with Osteoblasts (bone forming cells)
Clinical Conditions
Rickets
Disease of children
Bones fail to calcify caused lack of calcium or vitamin D (absorbs
calcium into the bloodstream)
Bones soften and the weight bearing bones of the legs show a
definite bowing
Milk & bread are fortified by vit D
Can happen to infants nursed by mothers who become vit d
deficient over long ray winter
Bone fractures
In youths, results from exceptional trauma that twists or smashes
the bones
In old age, bones thin and weaken and fractures occur more
Common types of fracture:
Closed/Simple
Bone breaks cleanly but does not penetrate the skin
6-8 weeks healing time
Open/Compound
Broken bone ends penetrate through the skin
Comminuted
Bone breaks into many fragments (common in elders
because they have brittle bones)
Compression
Bone is crushed (common in porous bonesosteoporotic bones)
Depressed
Broken bone portion is pressed inward (skull fracture)
Impacted
Broken bone ends are forced to each other (occurs
when someone breaks fall with outstretched arms)
Spiral
Ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces
are applied to the bone (sports fracture)
Greenstick
Bone breaks incompletely, much in a way a green twig
breaks (common in children bec more flexible bones)
Reduction treatment in which the realignment of the broken
bone ends
Closed Reduction bone ends are coaxed back into
their normal position through physicians hands
Open Reduction surgery is performed and secured
with pins or wires
Immobilized in cast/traction to allow healing process to begin
Repair of bone fracture involves four major events
Hematoma forms
Blood filled swelling
Blood vessel are ruptured when the bone breaks
Bone cells deprived of nutrition die
Fibrocartilage Callus forms
Growth of new capillaries (granulation tissue) into the clotted
blood at the site of the damage and disposal of dead tissue by
phagocytes

4.
-

as hard calcium salts

Essential if bones are to retain normal proportions and strength
Bones become thicker and form large projections to increase their
strength in areas where bulky muscles are attached
Bones of bed ridden people lose mass and to atrophy bec they no
longer subject to stress
Bone remodeling occurs
Over the next few weeks/months, the bony callus is remodeled in
response to the mechanical stresses placed on it so that it forms a
patch at the fracture site

AXIAL SKELETON
Longitudinal axis of the body
Three parts of Axial Skeleton
1. Skull
2. Vertebral Column
3. Thoracic Cage
Skull
Sutures- interlocking immovable joints that connects all bones of
the skull (except mandible)
Mandible (jaw bone) attached to the rest of the skull by free
movable joint
1. Cranium- boxlike and encloses and protects brain tissue
Composed of 8 large flat bones (all single bones except for 2
paired bones, the parietal and temporal)
a. Frontal Bone- forehead, the bony projections under
eyebrows and superior part of eyes orbit
b. Parietal Bone(paired)- form most of superior and lateral walls
of the cranium;; meet at the midline of the skull (Sagittal
Suture and meet at frontal bone at Coronal Suture;; inferior
to parietal bone is the Squamous Suture
c. Temporal Bone- lie inferior to the parietal bone, they join
them at the Squamous Suture;; has several important bone
markings
External Acoustic Meatus- canal that leads to
eardrum and middle ear (route of sounds)
Styloid Process- needlelike projection inferior to
EAM;; attachment for neck muscles
Zygomatic Process- thin bridge of bones that joins
with cheek bone (zygomatic bones) anteriorly
Mastoid Process- full of air cavities(mastoid
sinuses);; posterior and inferior to EAM;; also
provides attachment to neck muscles;; close to the
middle ear(high risk spot of infection) that it can be
infected too (Mastoiditis- can spread to brain)
Jugular Foramen- junction of occipital and temporal
bone;; allows passageway for jugular vein (largest
vein of the head which drains the vein
Internal Acoustic Meatus- transmits cranial nerves
VII and VIII (facial and vestibulocochlear nerves)
Carotid Canal- passageway of internal carotid
artery (supply blood to most of the brain)
d. Occipital Bone- most posterior bone of the cranium;; forms
the base and back wall of the skull;; joins the parietal bone at
the Lambdoid Suture;;

2.

Mass of repair tissue that various connective tissues form

(Fibrocartilage Callus) that contains: some cartilage matrix, some
bony matrix, and collagen fibers and acts as a splint to the
broken bone closing the gap
Bony Callus forms
Fibrocartilage callus is gradually replaced by the bony callus
made of spongy bone
Happens as more osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate to the area
and multiply
Foramen Ovale posterior end of ST which is a large
oval opening which allows fibers of cranial nerve
V(Trigeminal Nerve) to pass through the chewing
muscles of the jaw (mandible)
Optic Canal- passage of the optic nerve
Superior Orbital Fissure- cranial nerves controlling eye
movements pass (III, IV & VI;;oculomotor, trochlear and
abducens nerves)
Sphenoidal Sinuses- air cavities
f. Ethmoid Bone- irregularly shaped and anterior to the
sphenoid;; forms the roof of nasal cavity and part of medial
walls of orbits
Crista Galli- on the superior surface which is the cocks
comb and the outer most covering of the brain attaches
to it
Cribriform Plate- holey areas which is a passage of
olfactory nerves to the brain
Superior and Middle Nasal Cochlea form part of the
lateral wall of nasal cavity and increase the turbulence
of air flowing through the nasal passages
Facial Bones- hold the eyes in anterior position and allow facial
muscle to move;; composed of 14 bones (12 paired, mandible and
vomer unpaired
a. Maxillae 2 maxillae fuses to form upper jaw/Maxillary
Bone;; All facial bones except mandible join it thus they are
the main or keystone bones of the face
Alveolar Margin/Process- Cary upper teeth
Palatine Process- form anterior part of the hard palate
of mouth
Sinuses- drain nasal passages
Paranasal Sinuses- lighten the skull bones and amplify
the sounds we make (Sinutitis-infection;; headache or
upper jaw pain)
b. Palatine Bones - forms posterior part of the hard palate (Cleft
Palate- failure for palatine process to fuse medially)
c. Zygomatic Bones cheekbones and form lateral portions of
the orbits
d. Lacrimal Bones fingernail sized bones that form medial part
of the orbits;; has a groove passageway for tears (Lacrimatears)
e. Nasal Bones- form the bridge of the nose (lower part of nose
is made up of cartilage)
f. Vomer Bone plow which refers to its shape;; forms most
of the nasal septum
g. Inferior Nasal Conchae- thin curved bones projecting
medially from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity
h. Mandible(lower jaw)- largest and strongest bone of the face;;
joins the temporal bones at each side of the face forming the

e.

Foramen Magnum - At the base which surrounds the

lower part of the brain and allows the spinal cord to
connect with the brain
Occipital Condyles- lateral to FM on each side which
rest on the first vertebra of the spinal column
Sphenoid Bone- butterfly shape that spans the width of the
skull;; part of the floor of the cranial cavity;;
Sella Turcica/Turks Saddle - on the midline which is a
small depression which holds the pituitary gland

Horseshoe shaped with a body and two horns/cornua (greater and

lesser)
Serves as movable base for the tongue and as an attachment
point for then neck muscles for swallowing and speaking

Fetal Skull
Skull is large compared to the total body length (adult1/8 infant )
Fontanels- fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bone;; soft
spots (pulse can be felt here) (fontanel little fountain);; allows
skull to be compressed slightly during birth and allow brain to
grow
Anterior Fontanel diamond shaped and largest fontanel
Closed by 22-24 months after birth
Vertebral Column/Spine
Axial support of the body
Extends from skull, which it supports, to the pelvis, where it
transmits the weight of the body to the lower limbs
26 irregular bones connected and reinforces by ligament in such
a way that a flexible, curved structure results
Spinal Column running through the central cavity
33 bones before birth but 9 fuse to form 2 composite bones (5
sacrum; 4 coccyx) and the other 24 bones are single (7
cervical/neck (C1-7); 12 thoracic (T1-12); 5 lumbar (L1-5))
Intervertebral Discs- flexible fibrocartilage that separates
vertebrae that cushions and absorb shocks while allowing
flexibility
As person ages discs have lower water content and harder and
less compressible (Herniated Discs dried disks)
Discs and S-shaped structure work together to prevent shock to
the head when walking or running and make body trunk more
flexible
Spinal Curvatures
a. Primary- thoracic and sacral regions;; present since birth (cshaped spine of baby)
b. Secondary- cervical(baby raises head) and lumbar
region(baby begins to walk);; develop sometime after birth
Types of Abnormal Spinal Curvatures: Scoliosis, Kyphosis and
Lordosis (Causes: congenital, disease, poor posture or unequal
muscle pull)
Common Features of all Vertebrae
a. Body/Centrum- disc-like, weight-bearing part
b. Vertebral Arch- formed by laminae and pedicles (posterior
extensions)
c. Vertebral Foramen- canal where spinal cord passes
d. Transverse Process- 2 lateral projections from vertebral arch
e. Spinous Process- single midline posterior projection
(actually the fused laminae)
f. Superior and Inferior Articular Processes- paired projections

only feely movable joints in the skull

Body- chin (horizontal part)
Pair of Rami extend from the body to connect the
mandible to temporal
Alveolar Process/Margin lower teeth
Hyoid Bone
Not really part of the skull
Closely related to the mandible and temporal bones
Only bone in the body that does not articulate directly with any
other bone
Suspended in the midneck region (2cm/1inch) above the larynx
c. C3-C7- typical, smallest and lightest
Divided short spinous process
Transverse process has Foramina: passage of the
vertebral arteries
2. Thoracic Vertebrae (12 T1-T12)
All typical
Larger than cervical vertebrae and articulate with the ribs
Heart shaped body with 2 costal facets (articulating processes)
Long spinous process that hooks downward (giraffes head from
side)
3. Lumbar Vertebrae (5 L1-L5)
Massive blocklike bodies
Short, hatchet shaped spinous process (moose head)
Sturdiest of all the vertebrae
Where most stress occur
4. Sacrum
Formed by fusion of five vertebrae
Alae- articulate laterally with the hip bones forming the sacroiliac
joint
Forms the posterior wall of the pelvis
Median sacral crest- fused spinous process of sacral vertebrae
Posterior sacral foramina flanks MSC
Sacral hiatus- terminates in a large inferior opening called
5. Coccyx
Fusion of 3 to 5 irregular coccygeal bones
Human tailbone
Thoracic Cage
Bony Thorax
Forms protective cone shape cage of slender bones
a. Sternum
Fusion of manubrium, body and xiphoid process
Attached to the first 7 pairs of ribs
Three Important Landmarks:
1. Jugular Notch- concave upper border of the
manubrium;; at level of T3
2. Sternal Angle- manubrium and body meet at a
slight angle to each other;; provides a handy
reference point for counting ribs to locate the
second intercostal space for listening to certain
heart valves
3. Xiphisternal Joint- point where sternal body an
xiphoid process fuse;; level at T9
Easy to get samples of blood forming tissue
(hematopoetic)
Sternal Puncture- needle is inserted to marrow of
sternum

lateral to vertebral foramen

Unique Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae
1. Cervical Vertebrae (7)
Neck region to spine
a. C1/ATLAS- no body
Superior surface of transverse processes contain large
depressions for occipital condyle
Antlantooccipital joint- yes joint (nod)
b. C2/AXIS- pivot for rotation of atlas
ODONTOID PROCESS/DENS: upright projection
Antlantoaxial joint: no joint (rotate)
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
126 bones of the limbs and the pectoral and pelvic gridles, which
attach the limbs to the axial skeleton
Bones of Shoulder Girdle
1. Clavicle/Collarbone
Attaches to the manubrium of the sternum medially and to the
scapula laterally
Acts as a brace to hold arm away from the top of the thorax and
helps prevent shoulder dislocation
2. Scapulae/Shoulder Blades
Triangular and commonly called wings because they flare
Two Important Processes:
1. Acromion- enlarged end of the spine of the scapula;;
connects the clavicle laterally with the acromioclavicular joint
2. Coracoid- points over the top of the shoulder and anchors
some muscles of the arm
Suprascapular Notch- nerve passageway
Not directly attached to axial skeleton, it is loosely held in place by
Trunk Muscles
Three Borders:
1. Superior
2. Medial(Vertebral)
3. Lateral(Axillary)
Three angles:
1. Superior
2. Inferior
3. Lateral
Glenoid Cavity- shallow socket that receives the humeral head
Very light and allow upper limb exceptionally free movement
Each shoulder girdle attaches to the axial skeleton at only one
point (Sternoclavicular Joint)
Loose attachment of the scapula allows it to slide back and forth
against the thorax as muscles act
Glenoid Cavity is shallow and the shoulder joint is poorly
reinforced by ligaments
Shoulder girdle is very easily dislocated
Bones of Upper Limbs
1. Arm
Formed by single bone called Humerus (long bone)
a. Head- rounded to fit the glenoid cavity
b. Anatomical Neck- slight constriction inferior to head
c. Greater and Lesser Tubercles- two bony projections which
are sites of muscle attachment;; separated by Intertubercular
Sulcus
d. Surgical Neck- most frequent fractured part of humerus

b.

Ribs
12 pairs
All ribs articulate with vertebral column
True Ribs- First 7 pairs; attach directly to sternum
False Ribs- last 5 pairs; attach indirectly to sternum or
not at all (Floating Ribs- last two pair)
Intercostal Spaces (spaces between ribs) are filled with
the intercostal muscles which aid in breathing

e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
2.
-

3.

Radioulnar Joints- radius and ulna connection (Interosseous

Membrane- one the connects both bones)
Head of radius forms a joint with capitulum of humerus
Radial Tuberosity- below the head where the tendon of the bicep
muscle attaches
Ulna
Proximal end: anterior coronoid process and posterior
olecranon process separated by trochlear notch
Hand
a. Carpals (8)- arranged in two irregular rows pf four bones
each;; form part of the hand called Carpus/Wrist
b. Metacarpals(5)- palm of the hand, head of the
carpals(knuckles)
c. Phalanges(14)- fingers;; three bones in each finger
(proximal, middle and distal) except thumb (proximal and
distal)

Bones of Pelvic Girdle

Pelvic Girdle: formed by two coxal/ossa bones(hip bone) and
sacrum
Pelvis- formed by 2 coxal bones, sacrum and coccyx
Large and heavy
Attached securely to Axial skeleton via Sacral attachment to lower
most lumbar Vertebra
Have deep and heavily reinforced ligaments sockets which
receive hip bone
Main function: Bear weight bec total weight of upper body rests on
pelvis
Other function: Protects the genitourinary system and part of the
large intestines
Hip bone is formed by fusion of:
a. Ilium- connects to sacrum (Sacroiliac joint)
Alae- wing-like portion, the one you touch when you
place hands on hips
Iliac crest- intramuscular injections
Anterior Superior Iliac & Posterior Superior Iliac
b. Ischium- sit down bone bec forms most inferior parts
Ischial Tuberosity- receives body weight when sitting
Ischial Spine- narrows the outlet of pelvis (pregnant)
Greater Sciatic Notch- sciatic nerve (pelvis to thigh) butt
c. Pubis- most anterior part
Obturator Foramen- fusion of pubis and ischium and an
opening that allows blood vessels and nerves to pass
into the anterior thigh

Deltoid Tuberosity- where deltoid muscle attaches

Radial Groove- marks the course of radial nerve
Trochlea- looks like a spool;; articulate with bones of forearm
Capitulum- ball-like;; articulate with bones of forearm
Coronoid Fossa- depression above trochlea
Olecranon fossa- both fossa allow corresponding process of
ulna to move freely
k. Medial and Lateral Epicondyles flanks two fossa
Forearm
Formed by two bones: Radius & Ulna
When body is in anatomical position, radius is the lateral
bone(thumb side of the forearm), ulna is medial bone(little finger)
When hand is rotated so that palm faces backward, distal end of
radius crosses over and ends up medial to ulna

Bones of Lower Limbs

Carry our total body weight when we are erect
Thicker and stronger than upper limbs
1. Femur/Thigh bone
Heaviest and strongest bone in the body
Proximal end: ball-like head, neck, greater and lesser trochanters
(separated by intertrochanteric line)
Gluteal Tuberosity- site for muscle attachment
Neck of femur is a common fracture site especially for old people
Slants medially (brings knees in line with center of gravity)
Distal end: lateral and medial condyle (articulate with tibia)
separated by intercondylar fossa posteriorly
Patellar Surface- forms a joint with the patella or kneecap
2. Leg
connected by interosseous membrane
Two bones:
a. Tibia/Shinbone
Larger and more medial
Proximal end: medial and lateral condyle separated by
intercondylar eminence (knee)
Patellar(kneecap) Ligament- encloses patellar and
attaches to Tibial Tuberosity
Distal end: medial malleolus forming inner ankle
Anterior Border- sharp ridge not protected by muscle
b. Fibula
Thin and stick-like
Has no part in knee joint
Distal end: lateral malleolus forming outer ankle
3. Foot
Two important Functions:
1. Supports body weight
2. Serves as a lever that allows us to propel our body
Composed of:
a. Tarsal (7)
Calcaneus(heel bone) and Talus- largest tarsals that
carry most body weight
b. Metatarsal (5)
Form the sole
c. Phalanges (14)
Toes (each have 3 phalanges except greater toe which
has 2)
Arranged to form three strong arches: 2 longitudinal and one
transverse
Ligaments- bind foot bones together
Tendons- help to hold the bones firmly in arched position but still

Pubic Symphysis- cartilaginous joint where pubic bones

fuse
Acetabulum- deep socket where ilium. Ischium and pubis fuse;;
vinegar cup that receives head of femur
Two regions:
1. False Pelvis- superior to true pelvis
2. True Pelvis- inferior to ilia and pelvic brim (where infants
head pass through)
Outlet- inferior opening between ischial spine
Inlet- superior opening between left anf right sides of
pelvic brim
Differences in man and woman:
Female inlet is larger and circular and outlet is larger
Female pelvis is shallower and male are lighter and
thinner
Female ilia flare more laterally
Female sacrum is shorter and less curved
Female pubic arch id more rounded so greater angle
2. Structural
a. Fibrous
b. Cartilaginous
c. Synovial

Fibrous Joints
United by fibrous tissue
Immobile: Sutures of skull (short fibers) and Gomphosis
(periodontal ligament)
Immobile and Slightly Mobile: Syndesmosis (long fibers) connecting fibers are longer than sutures thus joint has more
give (distal tibiofibular joint)
Cartilaginous Joints
Connected by fibrocartilage
Slightly movable (symphysis): pubic symphysis or pelvis and
intervertebral joints of spinal column
Immovable (synchondrosis): epiphyseal plates of long bones and
joints between the 1st ribs and sternum
Synovial Joints
Joints in which articulating bone ends are separated by a joint
cavity containing synovial fluid
All joints in the limbs
Four Distinguishing features:
1. Articular Cartilage- covers ends of the bones forming the joint
2. Articular Capsule- fibrous connective tissue lined with
synovial membrane
3. Joint Cavity- enclosed in Articular cavity which contains
lubricating synovial fluid
4. Reinforcing Ligaments
Bursae and tendon are not part of synovial joint
Bursae- flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane and
containing a thin film of synovial fluid (common where theres
rubbing)
Tendon Sheath- elongated bursa that wraps tendon subjected to
friction
Types of Synovial Joints based on Ssape
a. Plane- flat articular surface and short gliding movements are
allowed
Non-Axial- gliding does not involve rotation

allow a certain amount of give or springiness

Fallen Arches/ Flat Feet- weak arches

Joints/Articulation
Every bone in the body forms a joint (except hyoid bone)
Sites where 2 or more bones meet
Two functions:
1. Hold bones together securely
2. Give the rigid skeleton mobility
Two Classification:
1. Functional- focusses on the amount of movement the joint
allows
Synarthroses- immovable (axial)
Amphiartroses- slightly movable (axial)
Diarthrose- freely movable
f.

Ball and Socket

Spherical head of the bone fits into a round socket in
another
Multiaxial- movement on all axes (including rotation)
Most free moving synovial joints
Ex: Shoulder and Hip joints

Clinical Conditions
Dislocation- bone is forced out of its normal position in the joint
cavity
Reduction- process of returning the bone to proper position
1. Bursitis
water on the knee
Inflammation of bursae or synovial membrane
Falling on ones knee
2. Sprain
excessive stretching of ligaments/tendons or torn away from the
bone
heal slowly and painful because tendons and ligaments have poor
blood supply (Dense connective tissue)
3. Arthritis
inflammatory or degenerative disease that damage the joints
Initial symptoms: pain, stiffness and swelling of joints
Acute forms are caused by bacterial invasion and treated with
antibiotic dugs
Synovial membrane thickens and fluid production decreases
leading to increased friction
a. Osteoarthritis
Most common
Chronic degenerative condition affecting the aged
wear and tear arthritis that affects the articular
cartilage
As disease progresses--- BONE SPURS develops
which restricts movement
Crepitus- crunching noise
Fingers, cervical and lumbar joints, knee and hip
Slow and irreversible but rarely crippling
Rubs capsaicin or glucosamine sulfate
b. Rheumatoid
Chronic inflammatory disorder
Any age but common in 40-50 years, 3xF> M
Fingers, wrist, ankles and feet (affected at the same

b.

c.

d.

e.

Ex: Intercarpal Joints (wrist)

Hinge
Cylindrical end fits into a trough shape on another bone
Angular movement I allowed in just one plane
Ex: elbow, ankle, interphalangeal joints
Unaxial- allow movement around one axis only
Pivot
Rounded end of one bone fits into a sleeve or ring bone
Unaxial joints
Ex. proximal radioulnar, atlantoaxial joints
Condylar
knuckle like
Egg-shaped articular surface of one bone fits into an
oval concavity in another
Biaxial- movement on two axes (back and forth and side
to side, cant rotate)
Saddle
Has concave and convex areas like a saddle
Biaxial (back and forth and side to side, cant rotate)
Ex. Carpometacarpal joint in thumb

time and symmetrical manner)

Marked by remissions and flare-ups
Autoimmune disorder Immune system tries to destroy
its own tissue
Unknown trigger but can be bacterial/viral infection
Synovial membrane thickens into a Pannus(rag;;
abnormal tissue that clings to and erodes articular
cartilages)
May lead to ankyloses
Gouty Athritis
Uric acid(waste product of nucleic acid metabolism)
accumulates in the blood and may be deposited as
needle shaped crystals in soft tissue joints
Painful attack that typically affects single joint (great toe)
M>F; >30 years old
May be genetic
Bone ends fuse and become immobilized

c.