Ecclesiological Implications of Gospel Language and Shorthand in 1 Peter1

Douglas Holm
Trinity College/University of Bristol
dcholm7@gmail.com
ETS Annual Meeting San Diego, Nov. 19, 2014
Ecclesiology: Biblical Theology
Even though the term ekklsia does not appear in 1 Peter, this theologically rich letter addressed
to Christian communities suffering persecution gives frequent attention to ecclesiological
concerns. One question that has been neglected in Petrine scholarship is how the authors
references to gospel language ( and ) and gospel-equivalent terminology
inform the nature, ethics, and mission of the early Christian communities in Anatolia.2 This
paper argues that the Petrine author refers to the gospel narrative to form the communitys
identity in solidarity with Christ and to instruct the recipients in ethical and missional
engagement. The argument unfolds in two movements. First, an examination of the four
appearances of gospel language in the letter (1 Pet 1:12, 25; 4:6, 17) reveals that the gospel is the
prophetic word of God that creates and sustains the community until final salvation through
the agency of the Holy Spirit. Next, an analysis of rhetorical shorthand that alludes to the gospel
narrative suggests that the communitys growth, ethics, and missional activity are founded upon
its imitation of Christ in his mission.
1. Gospel Language in 1 Peter
In the thanksgiving (1 Pet 1:3-12), 1 Peter 1:10 expands on the relationship between the
Christians salvation (cf. 1 Pet 1:5, 9) and OT prophetic oracles.7 The parallelism observed in 1
1

This paper is largely a reproduction of Douglas Holm, Holy Engagement: Doing Good and Verbal Witness as
Missional Activity in 1 Peter (Ph.D. diss., University of Bristol, 2014), 83-105.
2
First Peter contains the only appearances of gospel language ( and ) in the General Epistles.
Although the most frequent usage of gospel language ( and ) appears in the Gospels, Acts, and
the writings of Paul, the four occurrences of the word group in 1 Peter make up almost half of the remaining
appearances in the NT. Despite this fact, the function of gospel language in the letter has not been given much
attention in Petrine studies. The term also appears in Heb. 4:2, 6; Rev. 10:7; 14:6. The noun
appears in Rev 14:6.The emphasis on gospel studies in the Gospels, Acts, and Paul is justified by the usage. In the
NT, appears in 73 verses and appears in 52. The substantive appears 14 times and the verb
26 times in the Gospels and Acts. In the writings attributed to Paul, the substantival use is found in 57 verses and
the verbal form in 19 verses. Some works that address the gospel in 1 Peter are: John H. Elliott, 1 Peter: A New
Translation with Introduction and Commentary (New York: Doubleday, 2000), 801802; Joel B. Green, Narrating
the Gospel in 1 and 2 Peter, Interpretation 60 (2006): 262277; Armand Puig i Trrech, The Mission According
to the New Testament: Choice or Need? in Einheit der Kirche im Neuen Testament: Dritte europische orthodoxwestliche Exegetenkonferenz in Sankt Petersburg, 24-31 August 2005, ed. Christos Karakolis, Ulrich Luz, and
Anatoly Alexeev, Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 218 (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008),
231247.
7
Selwyn and Warden argue that the prophets in this passage are Christian prophets based on: a Gentile audience that
would have required a Christian interpretation of the events leading to the Messiah; the verbs and
that can refer to searching documents; Spirit of Christ in v. 11 as better understood as belonging to the
first century context; and as referring to the contemporary Christians suffering and not the
sufferings of Christ. Selwyn, The First Epistle of St. Peter, 124; Duane Warden, The Prophets of 1 Peter 1:1012, Restoration Quarterly 31 (1989): 112. The current consensus, however, views these as Old Testament

Peter 1:10-12 further strengthens the position that the author is seeking to unite the prophetic
utterances in the past with the events surrounding gospel proclamation in Asia Minor.8 The Holy
Spirit (Spirit of Christ) plays a key role by revealing Christs sufferings and glories to OT
prophets,9 while later making known this grace to the first-century readers through those who
have preached the gospel to them.
This first occurrence of gospel language informs the gospels nature, content, and
transmission, as well as Peters hermeneutic for reading the OT. The gospel is a message
characterized by grace. The agency of gospel communication is through unnamed missionaries
who herald the message through the Holy Spirit. The inclusion of the Spirit functions to assure
the readers of the reliability of the transmission of the gospel and its divine origin. Furthermore,
the mention of OT prophets who seek to understand this message connects the heralds of good
news in the poetic and prophetic literature with those who proclaim the gospel to the readers in
the Diaspora.10 The unity of the prophetic message of the OT and Christian gospel12 further
demonstrates the Christian communitys identification with OT Israel and the narrative of Gods
deliverance of his exiled people. Finally, Peter demonstrates a Christological hermeneutic by
which he not only interprets these OT prophecies as corresponding to Christ, but he views the
Christ event as the lens through which the identity and promises of OT Israel are now applied to
the readers.13
In the literary context of the second occurrence, 1 Peter 1:21-25 premises the call to intracommunity love upon the Anatolians new birth by means of the living and enduring word of
prophets. Achtemeier argues that the appearance of and a variant of in Ps 119:2 LXX provide a
lexical parallel to the inquiry into the Scriptures in 1 Pet 1:10. Furthermore, the prediction by OT prophets of the
sufferings and glory of Christ fits better the flow of the argument since the prophesying most likely refers to a past
event that has now reached the readers ( as depicting goal or result). In addition, the Spirit of Christ
testifying beforehand through these prophets suggests an event in the past. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 108; Donald P.
Senior, 1 Peter, Sacra Pagina 15 (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2003), 34; Vinson, Wilson, and Mills, 1 & 2 Peter,
Jude, 58; Michaels, 1 Peter, 41; Elliott, 1 Peter, 346348.
8
Though Michaels refers to the structure as chiastic, it is better viewed as antithetical parallelism because of the
lack of a focal point (c) in the pattern:
a Inquiries of prophets in the past 10-11
b Divine revelation to prophets in the past 12a
b' - Divine announcement to Christians in the present 12b
a' Inquiries of angels in the present 12c
Michaels, 1 Peter, 39.
9
It is probably best to interpret as an interrogative pronoun based on the predominance of this usage in the NT;
cf. G. D. Kilpatrick, 1 Peter 1:11: TINA H OION KAIRON, Novum Testamentum 28 (1986): 9192; Jobes, 1
Peter, 101102; for the term as an interrogative adjective, cf. Michaels, 1 Peter, 41.
10
This use of the substantival participle is similar to the language found in the LXX to refer
to the one who proclaims good news (cf. Ps 67:12; Isa 40:9, 52:7; Joel 3:5 LXX; Nah 2:1 LXX; Pss. Sol. 11:1).
Isaiah 52:7 LXX identifies the heralds of good news as the inhabitants of Jerusalem who are observing the return
from exile and declare Yahwehs reign and deliverance.
12
Jobes, 1 Peter, 97.
13
Schutter argues that 1 Pet 1:10-12 serves as a hermeneutical key representing the authors pesher-like
exegesis of OT texts throughout the letter. Schutter, Hermeneutic and Composition in 1 Peter, 100123.
Achtemeier, likewise, views this passage as paralleling other Christian traditions found in the NT that interpret
certain OT prophetic texts Christologically. Paul J. Achtemeier, The Christology of 1 Peter: Some Reflections, in
Who Do You Say That I Am?: Essays on Christology, ed. Mark Allan Powell and David R. Bauer (Louisville:
Westminster John Knox Press, 1999), 144147. Elliott agrees with Schutter that 1 Pet 1:10-12 is a hermeneutical
key or lens that demonstrates how the author reads and applies the OT to the sufferings and glories of Christ.
However, he dismisses Schutters argument that the Petrine author appropriates homiletical midrash to OT texts in
all of the allusions and citations in the letter as not cogently sustained (p. 352). Elliott, 1 Peter, 351352.

God.14 In verse 25, Peter explicitly equates the word of the Lord with the gospel that was
proclaimed to the readers ( ).15 Just as in other NT writings, the word of God is
synonymous with the gospel.16 In this context, the gospel functions to bring about the readers
conversion. Drawing support from Isaiah 40:6-8, Peter assures the readers of their eventual
deliverance from the trials they suffer due to the gospels eternal nature. Most likely the
author also has in mind the next verse, Isaiah 40:9, in which occurs twice referring to
the pronouncement in Jerusalem of the exiles return and Gods reign over all the earth (cf. Is
40:15-31). Even more explicit than 1 Peter 1:12, the Isaianic background of gospel proclamation
to the readers assures them of the transitory nature of their trials under imperial Rome and Gods
deliverance (cf. Rom 10:15). Therefore, the gospel is the eternal, prophetic word of the Lord
which engenders the readers conversion that is the foundation of the love ethic in the
community.
In the third passage, 1 Peter 4:1-6, the author exhorts the community to continue in their
Christian lifestyle despite pressure to apostatize because of coming eschatological judgment.
The vindication of the Christians at this judgment is the reason that the gospel has been
preached even to the dead. 17 This enigmatic phrase has two general lines of interpretation: 1)
the preaching of the gospel postmortem to those who have already died; 18 and 2) the preaching

14

Imperishable seed stands in contrast to perishable seed ( ); the latter refers to that which is
produced through human reproduction (cf. T. Reu. 2:8).
15
Another adaptation of the text of the LXX by the author of 1 Peter is in place of
. Since in 1 Peter, most often refers to Christ, this change seems to suggest that the author has taken the
liberty to specify for the readers that the word that was proclaimed to them from God was concerning Christ.
Scholars do not agree on whether should be taken as an objective or subjective genitive. Since Isaiah
40 is an oracle, the word of our God in Is 40:8 would most likely be a subjective genitive (i.e., the Lord speaks
the word); Elliott, 1 Peter, 391; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 141. Since in 1 Pet 1:25, however, the author makes it clear
that human agents proclaimed the gospel ( ) to those in Asia Minor, the objective genitive should
also be considered (i.e., the word that concerns the Lord); Dubis, 1 Peter, 41. The author of 1 Peter changes the
present tense found in Is 40:9 ( ) to the aorist in 1 Pet 1:25 suggesting that he adapts the oracle to
his situation in which the gospel had been already proclaimed to the Christians, whereas in the oracle the good
tidings are proclaimed in the present or future. This may be a case where both the subjective and objective use is
implied as is shown in the Petrine adaptation of Isaiah above.
16
Cf. Mark 1:14-15; 4:33; Acts 8:25; 1 Cor 1:18; Col 1:5. See the discussion below on the use of and
as shorthand for the gospel narrative.
17
The aorist passive verb in the third person plural does not indicate the agent of the gospel
proclamation and most likely is a personal use of the passive and not a rare use of the impersonal passive. This
reading is supported by the similar use of the verb in 1 Pet 1:12. Achtemeier suggests that the implied subject of the
verb is Christ because he is the object of the active form of the verb in other parts of the NT (cf. Acts
8:35; 11:20; Gal: 1:6). However, the other uses of the verb in 1 Peter do not support this interpretation. Achtemeier,
1 Peter, 287.
18
David G. Horrell, Who Are the Dead and When Was the Gospel Preached to Them? The Interpretation of 1
Pet 4.6, New Testament Studies 48 (2003): 74 n. 25. (A revised and expanded version of this article appears as
Already Dead or Since Died? Who Are the Dead and When Was the Gospel Preached to Them (1 Pet 4.6)?
Becoming Christian: Essays on 1 Peter and the Making of Christian Identity, 73-99). Horrell notes that Dalton
recognizes that some German commentators have not followed his preference for option 2[a] above, but they
understand the reference in verse 6 to gospel proclamation to the dead; c.f., Brox, Der erste Petrusbrief, 196201;
Feldmeier also concludes that 1 Pet 4:6 refers to postmortem preaching of the gospel. He relates verse 6 back to 1
Pet 3:18-22 as Christ preaching to those who suffered the judgment of the Deluge. He leaves open the question as to
whether verse 6 may refer more broadly to all that have died. Reinhard Feldmeier, Die Christen als Fremde: Die
Metapher der Fremde in der antiken Welt, im Urchristentum und im 1. Petrusbrief, Wissenschaftliche
Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 64 (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992).

of the gospel to people while alive who either (a) have since died, or (b) are still alive but
spiritually dead.19
Since each one of these positions has been defended elsewhere, I will refer the reader to
these works and briefly state my agreement with the position articulated by Dalton that the
reference here is to the preaching of the gospel to people who converted while they were living
but who had since died by the time of the letters writing. 20 Reasons to prefer this interpretation
include the lack of connection between verse 6 and the equally enigmatic reference in 1 Peter
3:18-22 which I believe refers to Christs proclamation of his victory while ascending into
heaven; the NT evidence of judgment after death of those who reject Christ without mention of
possible postmortem conversion (cf. Luke 16:26; Heb 9:27);21 and the exclusive use elsewhere of
dead in 1 Peter to refer to physical death and not spiritual death (cf. 1 Pet 1:3, 21; 3:18).
Furthermore, the coordinating conjunction links verse 6 with both verses 4-5. Thus, verse 6
responds to outsiders who contend that that the readers should turn back to their former lifestyle
because some in the community had already suffered physical death just like everyone else. The
mention, then, of deceased Christians who continue to live in the realm of the Spirit is an
encouragement to faithfulness for the living in the community, while a warning to their
detractors who face divine judgment.
Therefore, the gospel is not only the means of the readers conversion and entrance into
the community, but it also promises continued life in the realm of the Spirit after physical death.
Besides the gospels role in achieving life in the Spirit after death, two other implications for 1
Peters ecclesiology are that the gospel brings salvation to the faithful at the final judgment and
that the people of God include both the living and the dead.
Finally, in 1 Peter 4:17, the Christians suffering is an indication that eschatological
judgment has already begun, and in the future a more severe judgment awaits those who do not
obey the gospel of God.31 The only appearance of in the letter describes outsiders
19

Dalton mentions four main streams in the interpretive history of this passage: 1) Christs preaching to unbelievers
who died before his advent; 2) Christs announcement to OT saints of his work of salvation; 3) preaching of the
gospel to those who are spiritually dead; and 4) preaching of the gospel to those who responded to the message with
faith but who have since died. Dalton, Christs Proclamation to the Spirits, 4251.
20
Those who argue for the interpretation that the dead are Christians who had died include: Selwyn, The First
Epistle of St. Peter, 354; Kelly, A Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and of Jude, 174175; Dalton, Christs
Proclamation to the Spirits, 270272; Davids, The First Epistle of Peter, 153155; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 290291;
Elliott, 1 Peter, 733734; Schreiner, 1, 2 Peter, Jude, 206210.
21
Some who argue for postmortem conversion make reference to the baptism for the dead in 1 Cor 15:29. The
enigmatic nature of this reference suggests caution in marshalling it as evidence as a common practice in NT
congregations. Ciampa and Rosner argue that 1 Cor 15:29 is an ad hoc argument meant to remind factions in
Corinth of the vital significance of the resurrection and not a commendation of baptism for those already dead; cf.
Roy E. Ciampa and Brian S. Rosner, The First Letter to the Corinthians, Pillar New Testament Commentary (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010), 780786; Thiselton surveys 13 interpretations of this passage and concludes that it does
not refer to vicarious baptism but to baptism of friends and family of a loved one for the sake of seeing the
deceased in the afterlife. Anthony C. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek
Text, New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), 12421249. Other NT
references cited as referring to the descent of Christ to preach the gospel to the dead or postmortem conversion are
also disputed. For example, the descent in Eph 4:8 likely refers to the giving of the Spirit at Pentecost, and in
John 5:25-29 it may refer to the general resurrection of the dead.
31
OT and Jewish writings of the Second Temple attest to periods of judgment beginning with the Jewish people (cf.
Isa 10:11-12; Zech 13:8-9; Mal 3:1-6) and specifically their leaders in times of discipline (cf. Ezek 9:5-6; T. Benj.
10:8). However, in these references judgment comes upon the people because of their disobedience, while in 1 Peter
the readers suffer at the hands of persecutors on account of their distinctive Christian living. Achtemeier, 1 Peter,
315. Johnson summarizes the contrast of the believers present suffering to the judgment of their persecutors: The

as disobedient to the message.32 Peters use of gospel of God33 coincides with other NT
occurrences as the standard NT designation of the Christian message about Jesus Christ as
proclaimed to the Gentiles.34 Verse 17 contributes to the discussion by implying that those who
reject the gospel will not receive deliverance at eschatological judgment (cf. 2 Thess 1:7-8). In
contrast, those who obey the gospel and do good will experience eschatological salvation even
though they may suffer now.
2. Rhetorical Shorthand for the Gospel in 1 Peter
Scholarship has not recognized adequately ecclesiological implications of the numerous allusions
to the gospel narrative in 1 Peter. For this reason, this section will analyze gospel-equivalent
terminology that informs the nature, ethics, and mission of the Anatolian communities. In order
to accomplish this task, I will adapt Margaret Mitchells methodology in her analysis of
rhetorical shorthand for the gospel in the Corinthian correspondence. Mitchell argues that Paul
utilizes ancient techniques of rhetorical shorthand, which allow him to allude to the gospel and
incorporate it into particular argumentative contexts without reciting the whole all over again
each time.36
Mitchells methodology for interpreting shorthand for the gospel narrative includes
brevity of expression to refer to commonly held synonyms for the gospel (),
synecdoche to refer to expressions from the core of the kerygma that stand for the whole
(), and metaphor to refer to figurative language that draws on the gospel narrative for
the rhetorical purposes of the author (). The analysis of terms in 1 Peter to investigate
follows both Mitchell and Bultmanns identification of common terms and phrases in the NT
synonymous with or alluding to the gospel.38 Two significant reasons surface for proceeding
fire of Gods presence comes first to the house of God to purify and prove those who serve in his presence, and
then it moves out in the eschatological judgment to consume the godless and disobedient (1 Pet 4:17-18). Dennis E.
Johnson, Fire in Gods House: Imagery from Malachi 3 in Peters Theology of Suffering (1 Pet 4:12-19), Journal
of the Evangelical Theological Society 29 (1986): 289.
32
The most explicit reference is the description in 1 Pet 2:8 of those who are disobedient to the word as those
who stumble over Christ, the living stone. The noun and the verb are found in 1 Pet 1:2, 14, 22,
and 3:6, while the verb in the participial form is found in 1 Pet. 2:7 (), 8; 3:1, 20; 4:17. Except for 1 Pet
1:2; 3:6, 20, the object of obedience or disobedience is either the truth, the word, or the gospel.
33
The construction could be either a subjective or objective genitive. The phrase is
found also in Mark 1:14; Rom 1:2 [without the definite article]; 15:16; 2 Cor 11:17; 1 Thess 2:2, 8-9. See also
gospel of the kingdom of God (Luke 16:16), gospel of the grace of God (Acts 20:24), and the glorious gospel
of the blessed God (1 Tim 1:11). BDAG lists the usage in 1 Pet 4:17 and all other NT occurrences except Mark
1:14 as subjective genitivesGods proclamation of good news. BDAG, 403. Dubis argues, however, that the
object of the verbal noun seems to be more in line with the context of the rejection of this gospel message about the
one God. Mark Dubis, 1 Peter: A Handbook on the Greek Text (Waco: Baylor University Press, 2010), 155.
34
Michaels, 1 Peter, 272; Witherington further points out the Roman provenance of the expression that would
have brought to mind the imperial cult, cf. Witherington, Letters and Homilies, 216217.
36
Margaret Mitchell, Rhetorical Shorthand in Pauline Argumentation, in Gospel in Paul: Studies on Corinthians,
Galatians, and Romans for Richard N. Longenecker, ed. L. Ann Jervis and Peter Richardson, Journal for the Study
of the New Testament: Supplement Series 108 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), 65.
38
Mitchell determines the terms or phrases for brevity of expression or functional equivalence for the gospel
according to commonly identified synonyms for the gospel citing Rudolf Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament,
trans. Kendrick Grobel (New York: Scribner, 1970), 1:8789; see also the use of word as synonymous with
gospel in Graham Stanton, Jesus and Gospel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 47-49. Mitchell
analyzes the following functionally equivalent terminology for the gospel narrative: the testimony of Christ (1
Cor 1:6; 2:1), my word (1 Cor 2:4), the word of God (1 Cor 14:36), the word of the cross (1 Cor 1:18), [my]

with an analysis of rhetorical shorthand for the gospel in 1 Peter. First, similarities between
Pauline and Petrine language at certain points suggest that both drew upon a common tradition
that may have included standard allusions to the gospel.39 Second, shared references to
rhetorical shorthand for the gospel narrative may reveal how the theme of the gospel informs
Peters argumentation just as Mitchell has shown in her analysis for Pauls argumentation.40
a.
Rhetorical brevity represents an idea in a word or a functionally equivalent phrase.41
Consequently, terms that are familiar to both the author and audience are employed as
synonymous to the gospel in order to refer to the gospel narrative in a succinct manner. The
terms in 1 Peter that will be looked at under this heading are: grace () [1:10, 13; 5:12],
word (/) [1:23, 25; 2:8; 3:1-2], truth () [1:22], and proclaim
() [2:9].42
The key term grace () appears as a synonym for the gospel in 1 Peter 1:10, 13;
5:12.43 As mentioned above, grace in 1 Peter 1:10-11 that was testified about in advance
preaching (1 Cor 1:21; 9:27; 15:11, 12), to proclaim (1 Cor 2:1; 9:14; 11:26), and the mystery of God (1 Cor
2:1; 4:1: 13:2; 14:2; 15:51). For the category of synecdoche, Mitchell draws on terms that relate to the core of the
kerygma concerning Jesus life, death, and resurrection. Examples from Mitchell of synecdoche for the gospel are:
cross (1 Cor 1:23), crucified (1 Cor 2:2, 8), Christ our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed (1 Cor 5:7), God
raised the Lord (1 Cor 6:14), you were bought with a price (1 Cor 6:20; 7:23), the brother for whom Christ
died (1 Cor 8:11), you proclaim the Lords death (1 Cor 11:26), and he raised Christ (1 Cor 15:15). Mitchell
views Pauls use of metaphors that draw on the underlying gospel narrative as referring mainly to the apostles
proclamation of the gospel among the Corinthians and the resulting solidarity he seeks to build with them. The
metaphors Mitchell highlights are: giving birth to the Corinthians and feeding them (1 Cor 3:1-2; 4:15); planting
and sowing crops (3:6-9; 9:7, 11); founding the church as the master builder (3:10-17); and overseeing the
household (4:1; 9:17). The importance in 1 Peter of establishing the identity of the believers suggests metaphorical
language that refers to the gospel narrative may provide added insight into this strategy of the author. Mitchell,
Rhetorical Shorthand in Pauline Argumentation, 7075.
39
For example, compare the parallels found in the passages regarding submission to governing authorities in 1 Pet
2:13-17 and Rom 13:1-7. Green, 1 Pedro, 32.
40
The analysis of the above terms as rhetorical shorthand is only one approach to explain how the author may use
terms and phrases to allude to the larger narrative. Stanton looks to sociolinguistics to describe the commandeering
of terms such as and by the early Christians as an example of a sociolect (social dialect).
In the use of these terms and others, the Christians develop their own insider terminology, often by adapting the
vocabulary used by outsiders so radically that the language of the in-group is virtually incomprehensible beyond
its own boundaries. Though Stanton views shorthand as more of a sociolinguistic phenomenon than rhetorical, it
may be a case of looking at the same coin from different sides. For example, a term or phrase may be used as
shorthand for the gospel narrative while at the same time this term or phrase may have been adopted by primitive
Christian communities to have a particular meaning understood by those within the communities. Though this study
applies rhetorical analysis to this phenomenon of shorthand, further investigation of the use of sociolect in 1 Peter
could also be fruitful. Stanton, Jesus and Gospel, 5051.
41
Mitchell, Rhetorical Shorthand in Pauline Argumentation, 66.
42
The selection of these terms follows Mitchells analysis of commonly used terms in the NT literature synonymous
with gospel. The term could also be classified in this scheme as synecdoche, a sub-class of brevity, since
grace is a key element of the gospel message in the NT (cf. Rom 3:24). In these cases, I have categorized it as
brevity due to it use as functionally equivalent for the gospel.
43
The noun appears 10 times in the letter (cf. 1 Pet 1:2, 10, 13; 2:19-20; 3:7; 4:10; 5:5, 10, 12). The
significance of in 1 Pet 1:10, 13; 3:7; and 5:12 refers to Gods favor, gracious deed/gift, benefaction toward
the believer. Other references to in the letter include: a common epistolary greeting (1 Pet 1:2), the gift
() which is the eschatological life that will be inherited by the believers (1 Pet 3:7), an exhortation to the

() to the Spirit-led prophets refers directly to the gospel preached to the

Anatolian readers concerning the death and resurrection of Christ. Not only is this grace
relevant to the readers present situation, in 1 Peter 1:13 grace refers to the hope of future
salvation that awaits believers at the appearing of Jesus Christ (cf. 1:5, 9). As the letters
stated purpose in 1 Peter 5:12,44 Peter exhorts and testifies to the recipients that what he is
writing is the true grace of God. Previously, in 1 Peter 5:1, the authors self-description as a
witness of Christs sufferings, uses a cognate () along with the allusion to Christs
Passion to refer to the gospel. The implication in these verses is that Peter testifies to the
gospel, implying that the true grace of God refers to the grace revealed in the gospel
message.45 By alluding to the gospel narrative through some of its key components, the author
stresses that the primary function of the letter is to exhort the readers to stand firm in the gospel
while suffering.46
Two other examples of brevity are the use of truth and word as synonyms for the
gospel.47 The cultic term purify () links 1 Peter 1:22 back to previous cultic imagery
referring to Christs redemptive work on the readers behalf (cf. 1:2, 18-19), thereby giving
further support to truth as parallel to the gospel. As mentioned previously, word is explicitly
equated with the gospel preached to the readers which is the basis of their conversion,
deliverance, and love ethic.
Likewise, in 1 Peter 2:8 and 3:1 word also is synonymous for gospel. Both passages
make reference to those who disobey the word. Appointing in 1 Peter 2:8 is not to
disobedience, but to stumbling by the ones who disobey the word, a reference to rejecting
Christ who is at the center of the gospel.48 As a result, those disobedient to the gospel do not

Christians to exercise their charismatic gifts () that are manifestations of Gods grace for the good of the
communities (1 Pet 4:10), the favor God shows to the humble (1 Pet 5:5), and a description of God as the one who
is noted for any conceivable benefit or favor (1 Pet 5:10). BDAG, 1079-1080.
44
The antecedent of is most likely the letter as a whole (); cf. Brox, Der erste Petrusbrief, 244;
Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 352; Elliott, 1 Peter, 878; Dubis, 1 Peter, 176.
45
As Stanton observes in the Pauline literature, is a first cousin of , which may describe imperial
benefaction that early Christians applied to Gods cosmic initiative through Jesus Christ. Stanton acknowledges his
indebtedness to the investigation by Harrison of the use of in the imperial cult and the adaptation of the term
by Paul in describing the salvific action of God through Christ. Instead of using to translate the OT concept
of as the LXX often does, Paul adopted the term to describe Gods favor revealed in the gospel. Stanton,
Jesus and Gospel, 5152; James R. Harrison, Pauls Language of Grace in its Graeco-Roman Context,
Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 172 (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003).
46
The implicit command for the Christians to stand firm may refer to the personal belief of the
Christians or more generally to the Christian faith. If the latter, this could be a reference to the larger Christian
message and teaching that would include the gospel. However, in other uses in the letter (1 Pet:1:5, 7, 9, 21),
refers to the readers trust in God and so should be taken in the same way here (e.g., firm in your faith NRSV).
Knoch, Der erste und zweite Petrusbrief, 138; Elliott, 1 Peter, 860; Spicq concludes that the two meanings are les
deux acceptions sont le plus souvent indissociables (Ac 16, 5; 2 Tm 1, 13). Spicq, Les ptres de saint Pierre, 175.
47
For other occurrences of word in the NT that may be construed as synonymous for gospel, cf. Matt 13:19-23;
15:6; Mark 2:2; 4:14-17,18-20,33; 7:13; Luke 5:1; 8:11-13, 15, 21; 11:28; Acts 8:21; 13:44, 48-49; 15:35-36; 19:10;
2 Thess 3:1; Heb 4:12; 6:5; 13:7; 1 Pet 2:8; 3:1; Jas 1:18, 21; Rev 1:9; 6:9; 20:4.
48
The relative pronoun of the prepositional phrase is in the neuter case which indicates that the referent is the
entire previous clause and not just . Elliott helpfully explains the supposed reference to the
foreordination to condemnation of those who do not believe: That which is set or established by God is the
stumbling (to proskomma) resulting from not heeding the word, rather than the disobedience itself. Elliott, 1 Peter,
434; Craig L. Blomberg, From Pentecost to Patmos: An Introduction to Acts Through Revelation (Nottingham:
Apollos, 2006), 449450; Hillyer, 1 and 2 Peter, Jude, 64; pace Grudem who concludes that the reference is to

enter into the community described as a spiritual house (or temple) like those who believe.
Similarly, in 1 Peter 3:1 the unbelieving husbands disobedience to the word is not static, since
these men may be won over to the gospel.49 Thus, Peter stresses the response of some to reject
Christ and so disobey the gospel; however, this state is not static but dynamic as those who
previously rejected the gospel may be won over to it through the witness of the pure and
reverent conduct of those in the community.50
One final example of brevity is proclaim in 1 Peter 2:9. 51 The verb
signifies to proclaim or to report, and it typically refers to proclaiming Gods deeds in the
LXX. 52 The only other NT appearance of the verb occurs in the shorter ending of Mark 16:8;
the women report the events surrounding the empty tomb to the disciples. This usage provides
precedent for the use of the term outside of liturgical contexts which may parallel Peters usage.
In 1 Peter 2:9, the mighty deeds that are proclaimed specifically recall the readers conversion.
Thus, as I have argued elsewhere, the declaring of Gods mighty deeds includes both worship
and witness.54 In the case of the latter, the verb would be synonymous for proclaiming Gods
redemptive work in Christ, or in other words, the gospel, with implications for the authors desire
for the readers to engage in missional activity.

those who have been appointed to stumble over the cornerstone at the time of the composition of the letter. Still,
he does not leave out the future possibility that they may believe. Grudem, The First Epistle of Peter, 212214.
49
The first occurrence of in 3:1 refers to a message about Christ. The second occurrence describes the
manner in which the wives are to bear witness. The phrase is a general reference to speech, although the
specific reference is to speech in relating the gospel (see Chapter 5 D). Other occurrences of in the letter that
have meanings that are not related to the gospel are 1 Pet 3:15; 4:5, 11.
50
One of significant implications of this finding is that language of prophetic utterance (the word of the Lord) is
used to describe gospel proclamation. Thus, the good news of Jesus Christ carries the authority of an oracle of
God. For a survey of the synonymous usage of gospel language and word language along with an argument for
the Jewish background of this synonymous usage of word language in the prophetic tradition, cf. Michael W.
Pahl, The Gospel and the Word: Exploring Some Early Christian Patterns, Journal for the Study of the New
Testament 29 (2006): 211227.
51
The verb , which turns up in 1 Pet 3:18, appears in the NT frequently in reference to gospel
proclamation. As stated previously, in basic agreement with Dalton, the occasion of Christs proclamation in 1 Peter
3:18-22 is more likely at his ascension in which he declares his victory to fallen spirits. This declaration would
involve elements of the gospel narrative, but the purpose of the usage of in verse 19 represents Christs
vindication which is proclaimed in a general sense to these spirits and not gospel proclamation. From the 61
occurrences of in the NT, a sampling of the different usages that relate to the gospel can be categorized
according to whether the verb has an object or not. Examples of proclamation of the gospel without an object
include: Matt 4:17; Luke 8:39; Acts 10:42; Rom 10:14-15; Rev 5:12. Examples of proclamation with gospel or
another word as the object include: Matt 9:35 (gospel of the kingdom); Luke 4:18 (freedom for the prisoners);
Acts 20:25 (the kingdom); Phil 1:15 (Christ). Two meanings of found in the NT are a public
declaration or proclamation by a herald sent by God. BDAG, 543-544. In Mitchells analysis, the term appears
numerous times in 1 Corinthians in reference to the gospel (cf. 1 Cor 1:21, 23; 2:4; 9:27; 15:11-12, 14). Mitchell,
Rhetorical Shorthand in Pauline Argumentation, 7074; Dodd proposed that both the verb and noun were
technical terms that referred to the gospel formula, cf. C. H. Dodd, The Apostolic Preaching and Its Developments:
Three Lectures (Chicago; New York: Willett, Clark & Co., 1937).
52
Typically, in the LXX the contents of that which is proclaimed are the praises or works of God. Often,
renders from the MT , which can mean to count or to recount (cf. Ps 9:15; 71:15 [righteousness]; 72:28;
79:13; 106:22; 118:13; Sir 18:4; 39:10; 44:15).
54
Holm, Holy Engagement, 175-183.

b.
The rhetorical technique of synecdoche in reference to the gospel occurs when one event or
element of the gospel is briefly mentioned in order to allude to the entire narrative.58 Some
examples of synecdoche that allude to the gospel are: sprinkled with his blood/ precious
blood of a lamb (1 Pet 1:2, 19); resurrection of Jesus Christ/ raised him from the dead (1:3,
21; 3:21); suffering and glory (1:11; 3:18; 4:13; 5:1); he himself bore our sins in his body on
the tree (2:24); and suffered in the flesh (4:1).
The mention of blood in both 1 Peter 1:2 and 1:19 alludes to Christs sacrificial death on
the cross, a reference to the Passion that recalls the entire gospel narrative. In 1 Peter 1:2, the
reference to sprinkled with his blood alludes most likely to Moses consecration of the
Israelites after they swore an oath to obey the Law (Exod 24:3-8).59 In 1 Peter, the reference to
Christs sacrificial death brings together themes of election, sanctification, and new birth
through the gospel. A similar reference to the precious blood of Christ in 1 Peter 1:19 draws
upon the Passion narrative in order to explain the communitys redemption through imagery of a
lamb that is sacrificed.60 In the surrounding literary context, this cultic imagery of redemption
provides the grounds for the readers holy conduct (1:15-17) and conversion (1:22-25).
The references to Christs suffering and glory are synecdoches that recall parts of the
gospel to refer to the whole (1 Pet 1:11; 3:18; 4:13; 5:1). In the use of the motif, the rhetorical
strategy of the author is to recall the Passion, resurrection, ascension, and return of Christ in
order to reaffirm the persecuted communities that they suffer in solidarity with Christ and, as a
result, they will experience glory with him at his revelation. This connection is most clearly
stated in1 Peter 4:13, which describes believers reviled by outsiders as those who participate in
the sufferings of Christ with the hope of sharing in Christs future glory. Similarly, 1 Peter 3:18
recalls the gospel narrative through the motif in order to put forth Christ as the model for the
beleaguered Anatolian Christians in their suffering.61 In the two references to Christs suffering
58

Mitchell, Rhetorical Shorthand in Pauline Argumentation, 67.

In the contested grammar in this final prepositional phrase, I understand as telic, indicating the purpose or goal
of the Christians election, instead of causal, which would indicate the grounds of their election. This reading is
superior because the greater context of the letter ascribes the readers salvation to Gods grace (1 Pet 1:10, 13; 5:12).
Ezekiel 36:24-28 also contains similar language. In this passage, the returning exiles are purified through the
sprinkling of water. Though the return from exile motif and purification language (sprinkling in 1 Pet 1:2 and
Ezek 36:25 are from the same root of ) accord with central themes in the letter, Exod 24:3-8 is preferred
because the sprinkling is done with blood instead of water as in Ezek 36:25, and the obedience of the people is not
explicitly mentioned in Ezek 36:24-28 as it is in Exod 24:7. Brox, Der erste Petrusbrief, 5152; Achtemeier, 1
Peter, 8789; Dubis, 1 Peter, 34.
60
The imagery of the as likened to that of a lamb () is probably drawn from the sacrificial cult
because of lexical similarities (esp. ) found in the instructions about the sacrifice, e.g., Num 28:3, 9, 11.
Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 128129; though the reference is general, the Paschal lamb would also be included in the
imagery. But the reference should not be limited to the Passover; cf. Schreiner, 1, 2 Peter, Jude, 8687. Knoch also
views a general reference to sacrifice as well as Passover imagery. However, his insistence that Isa 52:1353:12
serves as the Hintergrund of vv. 19-20 based on the authors later use of the passage in 1 Pet 2:22-25 does not have
much lexical support. Knoch, Der erste und zweite Petrusbrief, 53.
61
The glory of Christs appearing is cause for rejoicing, even when suffering persecution, because trials indicate
that deliverance is near. The authors self-identification as a fellow elder and a witness of Christ's sufferings
demonstrates Peters example for the elders of a faithful witness to Christs Passion as they lead the persecuted
communities with the hope of sharing in Christs future glory (5:1).
59

without the mention of his glory (1 Pet 2:24; 4:1), Christ is an example of righteous suffering for
the community who must follow his model of doing good and not retaliating when wronged and
of refusing to abandon the faith.62
c.
The final category of rhetorical shorthand involves metaphors that characterize and accent a
particular feature of the ongoing history of the gospel for the hearers.63 Examples of metaphors
as shorthand for the gospel include 1 Peter 1:23; 2:2, 5, 9, 25. In 1 Peter 1:23, the language of
new birth (cf. also 1:3) refers to conversion and regeneration, and the imperishable seed as
the agent of conversion is equated with the word of the Lord or gospel. The function of these
metaphors is to strengthen social cohesion with conversion as the grounds for intra-community
love. In the infant metaphor in 1 Peter 2:2, the readers require the pure spiritual milk for
growth in salvation. Many commentators recognize the milk metaphor as encompassing the
word, or gospel, in 1 Peter 1:22-25 because of the related modifier .65 Thus, the pure
spiritual milk is the gospel that nourishes the readers growth and brings about ethical
transformation (2:1).67
Three other metaphors found in 1 Peter 2:5, 9, 25 further the authors argumentation
concerning the varied responses to Christ, the nature of the community, and the repentance of the
readers. In 1 Peter 2:4-10, the stone and building metaphors highlight the incorporation into the
community of those who believe in Christ, while those who reject Christ remain outside. The
community is defined as a new, spiritual temple made up of Christ and those who believe, in
contrast to the physical temple in Jerusalem. In addition, epithets of Israel are applied to the
readers who now perform spiritual sacrifices as Gods people. Finally, in 1 Peter 2:25 sheep
62

The referent of in 1 Pet 4:1 is most likely the individual believer and not Christ since the subject has
changed from Christ in the beginning of the verse to in the phrase preceding the participle. While a tradition
in the Jewish literature alludes to the sanctifying power of suffering (cf. 2 Bar. 13:10; 1 En. 67:9), the meaning here
in this slightly ambiguous reference lies more in the believers choice of enduring suffering instead of sinning. In
this way, the Christians could be described as having ceased from sin. Brox, Der erste Petrusbrief, 191193; pace
Spicq, Les ptres de saint Pierre, 143144.
63
Mitchell, Rhetorical Shorthand in Pauline Argumentation, 68.
65
As Elliott observes, the use of links the milk metaphor to the word or gospel that is not only the agent
of the Christians conversion, but this same word nourishes the believers to spiritual maturity. Elliott, 1 Peter,
401; Brox, Der erste Petrusbrief, 9193. Jobes argues that refers to a broader concept than the word of God
or gospel. She describes the significance as Gods life-sustaining grace in Christ. In addition, she highlights the
allusion to Ps 33:8 LXX and the reference to tasting that the Lord is good to previous themes found in the psalm
(Ps 33:3 LXX) and in 1 Peter as support. Still, it is difficult not to see the word of God as central to the
understanding of the metaphor because of the immediate literary context and the appearance of . Jobes, 1
Peter, 132141; Karen H. Jobes, Got Milk? Septuagint Psalm 33 and the Interpretation of 1 Peter 2:1-3,
Westminster Theological Journal 64 (2002): 114; see also the recent articles that include further development by
Jobes on her position and Liebengoods and Barbaricks arguments for understanding the milk metaphor in light of
Augustines writings on affections and Jesus as a moral exemplar to nourish the believer respectively. Karen H.
Jobes, Got Milk? A Petrine Metaphor in 1 Peter 2.1-3 Revisited, Leaven 20 (2012): 121126; Kelly D.
Liebengood, Augustine con leche: Reading the Milk Metaphor of 1 Peter 2.2 with Help from Augustines Insights
Regarding the Affections, Leaven 20 (2012): 127132; Cliff Barbarick, Craving the Milk in 1 Peter: The Pattern
of Christ as Salvific Nourishment, Leaven 20 (2012): 133140.
67
The second adjective that modifies is , a hapax legomenon that means unadulterated. If is a
metaphorical reference to word, then it refers to the word or gospel that is not corrupted by heresy.
Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 147. Since the literary context in the verse indicates growth in salvation, is often
rendered spiritual in English translations (cf. also Rom 12:1 NRSV).

10

and shepherd imagery reminds the readers that just as Christ modeled the proper response to
unjust suffering in his Passion, they must follow this model and behave righteously in light of
their former wandering in disobedience. The imagery further shows their subsequent restoration
through the suffering of Christ and their repentance () from their former ways.70 As
the author consoles the Christians, the metaphor of straying sheep returning to the shepherd
recalls their conversion and integration into a new community.
3. Conclusion
This analysis has shown that 1 Peters references to the gospel explicitly or through equivalent
terms inform the nature, ethics, and mission of the Anatolian communities. The author grounds
the communitys conversion, redemption, identity, growth, and eschatological salvation in the
gospel narrative. The gospel is the basis of intra-community love and those who obey its
message must persevere in doing good to all people even when they suffer. As a paraenetic
epistle, the gospel is foundational to the authors argumentation, which encourages faithfulness
in suffering by holding up Christs example of righteous suffering and instills hope in the present
in light of future deliverance at eschatological judgment. By highlighting the gospels role in
establishing the readers existence as the people of God in continuity with Israel and their
honorable conduct in imitation of Christs mission, the author portrays them as missional
communities that might influence outsiders toward conversion mainly through doing good, but
also through verbal witness at times. The importance of the gospel for Peters ecclesiological
concerns and conceptual framework suggests that more attention should be paid to the
contribution of this short and somewhat neglected NT epistle, particularly in the areas of the
function of good works and missional activity by the early Christian congregations.

70

The verb means to turn and can signify conversion in the NT (cf. Acts 3:19; 11:2;14:15; 15:19;
26:18; 1 Thess 1:9). BDAG, 382. Liebengood argues that the author of 1 Peter employing the exegetical technique
gezerah shavah, may have linked LXX Isa 53.5-6 with LXX Zech 10.2 via the catchwords and /
, so that the two texts and their wider text plots mutually interpret each other. Though Liebengood argues
against taking as referring to conversion and instead views it as the Shepherd-King of Zechariah
gathering and restoring the people, he acknowledges that it is possible that this could be a deponent form of the verb
that could refer to conversion. Kelly D. Liebengood, Zechariah 9-14 as the Substructure of 1 Peters
Eschatological Program (Ph.D. diss., University of St. Andrews, 2011), 83. It is more common to view the
background of the sheep/shepherd imagery here as allusions to Isaiah 53:3-6 and Ezekiel 34:4, 16. Michaels, 1
Peter, 150; Goppelt, 1 Peter, 215; Dubis, 1 Peter, 58.

11