Comfort Properties of Nonwoven Fabrics in Extremely Hot and Cold Environments

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Comfort properties of nonwoven fabrics in extremely hot and

cold environments
Woo, Sang Sun, Ph.D.

North Carolina State University, 1989
Copyright 1989 by Woo, Sang Sun. All rights reserved.
300 N. Zeeb Rd.

Ann Arbor, MI 48106
COMFORT PROPERTIES OF
NONWOVEN FABRICS IN EXTREMELY HOT AND COLD
ENVIRONMENTS
by
Sang Sun Woo
A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of

North Carolina State University
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Fiber and Polymer Science
Program
Raleigh
1988
Approved By:
Chairmaw of Advisory Committee
ABSTRACT
WOO, SANG SUN. Comfort Properties of Nonwoven Fabrics in Extremely Hot and Cold
Environments. (Under the direction of Dr. Roger L. Barker)
The comfort properties of protective barrier nonwoven fabrics, including
nonwovens used in surgical gowns, chemical protective clothing, and cold weather
insulation are compared over a range of environmental conditions. A specially prepared
group of polypropylene meltblown samples, having systematic variations in structural
characteristics was included in this evaluation to study the effects of fabric structural
variables on comfort properties.
A computerized thenn&J analyzing system was developed for measuring
simultaneous heat and moisture transfer through fabrics under varying conditions of
temperature and humidity. A dynamic transient heat conduction measuring system was also
developed to assess the thermal sensation generated by body contact with fabric.
The model of thermal conductivity and vapor transmission advanced by this
research effectively explain the relationships between fabric structural properties and the
contribution of transfer mechanisms to total heat transmission. Fabric thickness, fiber
volume fraction, and fiber shape are shown to be influential parameters controlling heat and
moisture transfer. Interactions with environmental variables including ambient humidity,
temperature, and air velocity are examined. Skin-clothing models developed by this
program proved to be useful for simulating real conditions. Multiple layer models are used
to study layered effects and to predict the benefits of using fabric components with different
levels of hydrophilicity and porosity next to the skin.
A simple subjective test is used to verify the predictive validity of analytical models
developed to predict comfort from laboratory measurements.
This research suggests the way in which fabrics and clothing systems can be
designed to optimize comfort performance in clothing worn in hot and humid or extremely
cold environments.
11
BIOGRAPHY
The author, Sang Sun Woo, was born in Choong Buk, Korea, on November 3,
1949. He graduated from Cheong Joo High School in Cheong Joo, Choongbuk-do,
Korea, in February, 1968. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Textile Engineering
from Seoul National University in February, 1972. Following his graduation, he was
employed as production engineer by Hankook Wool Spinning Ind., Co., Ltd. in Seoul. He
had also worked as researcher at Central Research Institute of Tonyang Nylon Co., Ltd.
for eleven years since July, 1974. He had extensive research experience in industry.
In August, 1985, he came to the United States to pursue studies towards a Ph.D.
degree in Fiber and Polymer Science at North Carolina State University.
He is married to the former Young Aie Park, and they have a son, Jung Yup, and a
daughter, Hyun Chong.
Ill
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to Dr. Roger L. Barker,
Chairman of his Advisory Committee, for his advice, genuine interest and assistance
throughout the course of this work. Appreciation is also extended to the other members of
his advisory committee, Drs. W. K. Walsh, M. H. Mohamed, B. S. Gupta, and R. T.
Chern for their suggestions and encouragement.
This research was conducted as part of a consortium program on research using
Kawabata instruments sponsored by a number of industrial organizations. The author
gratefully acknowledges the support of participating members of that consortium, many of
whom supplied test samples for this study. The author is also grateful to Dr. L. C.
Wadsworth of the University of Tennessee for producing test samples of melt-blown
fabric.
In addition, the author would like to thank Mr. Clay Adams and Mr. F. Flank for
their helps in building the thermal analyzing system, Mr. V. Chahal for helpful
discussions, Mr. S. An for his assistance, and the staff and graduate students participated
in subjective tests.
Finally, the author would like to express his sincere thanks to his mother, to his
wife's parents, to his wife Young Aie, son Jung Yup, daughter Hyun Chong, for their
patience and sacrifices during the entire course of his graduate work. To them this thesis is
dedicated.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS OR ABBREVIATIONS
xiii
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OBJECTIVES AND APPROACHES OF THIS RESEARCH
2.1. Objectives
2.2. Approaches
3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Thermoregulatory Model of Human Body
3.2.1. Nature of Human Skin
3.2.2. Skin Models of Thermoregulation and Energy Balance
3.3. Comfort Theory
3.3.1. Comfort Criterion
3.3.2. Woodcock and Goldman's Approach
3.3.3. Fanger's Approach
3.4. Thermal and Evaporative Heat Transfer Mechanisms
3.4.1. Simultaneous Thermal and Evaporative Heat Transfer Mechanisms
without Internal Reactions
3.4.2. Simultaneous Thermal and Evaporative Heat Transfer with Internal
Reactions
3.4.3. Water Transport (Wicking) Mechanisms
3.4.4. Thermal Conductivity and Water Diffusivity and their Relationships to
Fabric Structure
3.4.5. Boundary Heat and Moisture Transfer Coefficients and their Interactions
with Environmental Variables
3.5. Transient Heat Conduction as a measure of warm/cool sensation
3.5.1. Warm/Cool Sensoiy Model
3.5.2. Theoretical Analysis of Transient Heat Conduction
3.6. Methodology, Evaluating Parameters and Clothing Comfort
3.6.1. Control and Measurement of Environmental Variables
3.6.2. Levels of Physical Activities
3.6.3. Clothing Parameters
3.6.4. Human Subjective Evaluation of Clothing Comfort
3.7. Summary and Conclusions
4. A THEORETICAL MODEL DESCRIBING THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
AND MOISTURE DIFFUSIVITY OF FIBROUS MATERIALS
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Thermal Conductivity and Water Vapor Diffusivity Models
4.2.1. Thermal Conductivity Model
4.2.2. Water Vapor Diffusivity Model
4
5
9
9
10
10
11
13
13
17
19
23
24
28
33
36
51
57
57
57
61
61
64
66
71
73
76
76
76
76
93
4.3. Experimental Procedures

4.3.1. Sample Preparation
4.3.2. Test Methods
4.4. Result and Discussion
4.4.1. Structural Properties
4.4.2. Validity of Thermal Conductivity Model
4.4.3. Validity of Water Vapor Diffusivity Model
5. SIMULTANEOUS THERMAL AND EVAPORATIVE HEAT TRANSFER
THROUGH FABRICS UNDER VARIED ENVIRONMENT
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Theoretical background
5.2.1. Steady State Models
5.2.2. A Non-Steady State Models
5.2.3. Relationships of Energy Dissipation to Fabric Structure and
Environmental Variables
5.2.4. Prediction of Thermal Comfort
5.3.1. Test Methods
5.3.2. Test Materials
5.4. Results and Discussion
5.4.1. Effect of Environmental Variables
5.4.2. Effect of Skin Wetness and Skin-Clothing Configuration
5.4.3. Effect of Internal Reactions
5.4.4. Effect of Fabric Properties
5.4.5. Effect of Multiple Layer Combination
5.4.6. Predicting Comfort from Measured Fabric Properties
6. TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION AS A MEASURE OF DYNAMIC
WARM/COOL SENSATION GENERATED BY FABRICS
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Theoretical Background
6.2.1. Human Warm/Cool Sensory Model
6.2.2. Theoretical Analysis of Transient Heat Conduction within Human Skin
6.3.1. Test Methods
6.3.2. Test Samples
6.4.1. Comparisons among Three Methods
6.4.2. Relationships of qmax to Boundary Conditions and fabric Properties
6.4.3. Relations of q(t) to Transient Energy Loss and Temperature Change .
6.4.4. Correlations of qmax with Subjective Test
7. SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION OF CLOTHING COMFORT
7.1. Introduction
7.2.1. Preparation of Test Samples
100
100
102
106
106
109
134
148
150
150
151
151
154
159
163
165
165
172
175
175
184
192
202
213
217
227
231
231
232
232
233
241
241
248
250
250
253
258
264
267
269
269
270
270
vi
7.2.1. Test Methods
272
276
284
8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
286
9. RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
291
10. LIST OF REFERENCES
292
11. APPENDICES
304
Vll
LISTS OF TABLES
page
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
Thermal Conductivity Models for Fibrous Materials

a) Anisotropic Thermal Conductivity of Fibers
b) Orthotropic Thermal Conductivity of Biaxially Drawn Polystyrene Film..
Summary of Various Radiative Conduction Models
Radiative Modes
Parameters Affecting Thermal Comfort
Metabolic Rate for Different Activities
39
42
42
44
46
62
65
4.1.
Test Samples: a) Barrier Nonwovens and

100
b) Polypropylene Meltblown Webs
101
4.2.
Structural Properties: a) Barrier Nonwovens and
107
b) Meltblown Webs
108
4.3.
Experimental Data on Thermal Conductance, Thermal Resistance, and Thermal
conductivity
115
4.4.
Calculation of Thermal Conductivity of Meltblown Nonwovens
116
4.5.
Estimation of Polar Orientation parameters
120
4.6.
Regression Formulae Fitted to Various Barrier Fabrics
121
4.7.
Contribution of Various Conduction Modes to The Thermal Conductivity: .. 124
4.8.
Experimental Data of Water Vapor Diffusion
135
4.9.
Prediction of Water vapor Diffusivity from Fabric Structure
136
4.10. Comparisons of Predicted Values with Measured values and Analysis on the
Contributions of Structure Modes
142
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
5.6.
5.7.
5.8.
5.9.
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.
7.1.
7.2.
7.3.
Chamber Temperature and Humidity Program Patterns

167
Effects of Ambient Temperature on Diy Heat Transfer Rate
179
Effects of Ambient Humidity on Dry Heat Transfer Rate
179
Effects of Ambient Temperature and Humidity on Simultaneous Heat and
Moisture Transfer Rate
180
Effects of Sweat Wetted Area on Energy Dissipation and the distributions of
Water Vapor Pressure and Temperature between Fabric Layers:
a) Skin Contacting Model and
186
b) Skin/Space Model
187
Effect of Water Vapor Absorption on Energy Dissipation Rate
197
Physical and Structural Properties of Barrier Nonwovens
204
Energy Transport through Multiple Layer Clothing: a) Cold Weather Insulators,
-6C, 0% RH and b) Hot Environment use
214
Comfort Range of Barrier Nonwovens: a) Single Layer Samples and
218
b) Multiple Layer Samples
219
Thermal and Structural Properties of Barrier Nonwovens
249
Comparisons of qmax among the Dynamic Method, Self-Heating Method, and
Preheated Method
254
Effects of Sample Beds on qmax Measured Using Dynamic Model
256
Transient Heat loss and Temperature Change
260
Comparisons of Laboratory Measurement to Subjective Results
265
Test Samples used for Subjective Evaluation: a) Selected Samples and b) Single
and Multiple Combinations
271
Summary of Procedure in the Wear Protocol
274
Subjective Comfort Rating scales
274
Vlll
7.4.
A.1.
A.2.
A.3.
A.4.
A.5.
A.6.
A.7.
A.8.
Subjective Comfort Evaluation
277
IR-Transmittance, Reflectance, and Emittance of Barrier Nonwoven Materials 305

Experiment on Up-and Down Heat Flow Test
314
Calculation of Famworth's Combined Conduction and Radiation Model
315
Calculation of Conductive Conductivity from Measured Structural Properties 317
Calculation ofWater Vapor DifJusivity from WVT
318
Calculation of Water Vapor Diffusivity from Measured Structural Properties 319
Effect of Orientation Parameter on Thermal Conductivity
320
Effect of Air Velocity and Air Space on Thermal and Evaporative Heat
Transfer
321
A.9. Regression between Dry Heat1ransfer Rate or Evaporative Heat Transfer Rate
and Air Velocity
323
A.10. Effect of Ambient Temperature on Energy Dissipation
324
A.11. Predicted Comfort Range under Varied Environments: Air Velocity; Ambient
Humidity; Ambient Temperature; and Air layer Thickness
325
A.12. Individual Subjective Warm/cool Ratings
328
ix
LISTS OF FIGURES
Page
1.1.
1.2.
The Fields of Clothing Comfort

Diagram of Heat and Moisture Exchange
2
3
2.1.
Diagram of Procedures of Experiment and Analysis
3.1.
Diagrammatic Representation of Relationships between Heat Production,

Evaporative and Nonevaporative Heat Loss
3.2.
Mclntyre's Comfort Curve
3.3.
Illustration of the Vapor Pressure, P, and the Saturation Vapor Pressure, Ps,
as a Function of Position within a Clothing System
3.4.
Contribution of Each Mode of Heat Transfer through Fibrous Material
3.5.
Fabric Structural Models of Thermal Conductivity
3.6.
Natural Convection in Horizontal Layers
3.7.
A Model for the Transient heat conduction in skin
3.8.
Temperature at the Sensory spot in skin for Various Heat Capacities of
Contact Object
3.9. Transient Heat Conduction, v(0.5,t), According to Various Heat Capacities
3.10. Clothing Physiology Test Methods
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.
4.7.
4.8.
4.9.
4.10.
4.11.
4.12.
4.13.
4.14.
4.15.
4.16.
4.17.
4.18.
4.19.
Unit Structural Model for Thermal Conductivity: a) Ideal Model and b) Real
Model
Multiple Structural Model for Thermal Conductivity: a) Ideally Parallel Laid
Model and b) Polar Oriented Model
Relationships between Various Conduction Modes, and a) Fiber Volume
Fraction and b) Fabric Thickness
Relationships between Thermal Conductivity and Polar Orientation Parameter:
a) Effects on Various Conduction Modes and b) Effects of Fiber Volume
Fraction
Relationships between Thermal Conductivity and Anisotropy Factor: a) Effects
on Various Conduction Modes and b) Effects of Fiber Volume Fraction ....
Effects of Fiber Thermal Conductivity of Fiber on Fabric Thermal
Conductivity
Effects of Fiber Diameter on Thermal Conductivity
A Model for Water Vapor Diffusion: a) Structural Model and b) Minimum
Pathway
Predicted Effects of Fiber Volume Fraction on Water Vapor Diffusivity ....
Predicted Effects of Shape Coefficient on Water Vapor Diffusivity
Predicted Effects of Fiber Fineness on Water Vapor Diffusivity
Predicted Effects of Fabric Thickness on Water Vapor Diffusivity
Thermal Conductivity Measuring System
Moisture Diffusion Tester: a) Specimen-Dish Assembly.and b) Turntable ...
SEM Observation of Pore Distribution and Anisotropy of Fiber Orientation .
Relationships between the Structural Properties and the Production Variables
of Meltblown Nonwoven: a)Measured at 6.0 gf/cm2 pressure load and
b) Measured at 0.5 gf/cm2 pressure load
Comparisons of Experiment to Theory (Meltblown)
Relationship between Thermal Conductivity and Fiber Volume Fraction:
a) Meltblown Webs and Barrier Nonwovens
Comparisons of Three Radiative Conductivity Models: a) Meltblown Webs
and b) Barrier Nonwovens
15
22
31
37
40
49
59
60
60
63
79
82
89
90
91
92
92
95
98
98
99
99
102
105
110
114
118
119
123
4.20. Contribution of Various Structural Modes

4.21. Effects of Web Thickness of Meltblown Nonwoven on Thermal Conductivity
4.22. Relationship between Thermal Resistance and Fabric Thickness:
a) Meltblown Webs and b) Barrier Nonwovens
4.23. Effects of Fiber Directionality on Thermal Conductivity (Meltblown):
a) Effects of Polar Orientation Parameter and b) Effects of Anisotropy Factor
4.24. Effects of Fiber Diameter on Radiative Conductivity
4.25. Calculation of Combined Water Vapor Resistance of Air Layer and Air
Boundary
4.26. Relationship between Resistance at Water Temperature 22 C and Resistance
at 32 C
4.27. Calculation of Vapor Resistance of Air
4.28. Comparisons of Experimental Results with Theoiy: a) Meltblown Webs and
b) Barrier Nonwovens
4.29. Comparisons of Experimental Results with Predicted Values on Each
Diffusivity Mode: a) Meltblown Webs and b) Barrier Nonwovens
4.30. Relationships between Water Vapor Diffusivity and Fiber Volume Fraction:
a) Meltblown Webs and b) Barrier Nonwovens
4.31. Effects of Shape Coefficient on Water vapor Diffusivity (Barrier Nonwovens)
4.32. Effects of Fabric Thickness on Water vapor Diffusivity (Meltblown)
4.33. Relationship between Water Vapor Diffusivity and Fiber Finen^rs
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
5.6.
5.7.
5.8.
5.9.
5.10.
5.11.
5.12.
5.13.
5.14.
5.15.
5.16.
5.17.
5.18.
5.19.
5.20.
125
127
129
131
133
134
138
138
140
144
145
146
147
147
Temperature and Water Vapor Pressure Distribution within the Clothing

Systems
152
3-Dimensional View of the relationship among Metabolism (Mn), Thermal
Resistance (I), and Permeability index (im)
164
Thermal Analyzing System
165
Schematic Diagram of the Sweating Hot Plate
169
Four Simulated Skin Models: a) Dry Model; b) Dry/space Model; c) Wet
Model; and d) Wet/space Model
170
Partially Wetted Skin Model
171
Block Diagram of Measurements of Temperature and Humidity Distribution
171
A Model of Cold Weather Insulation and Possible Internal Reactions
173
Multilayer Designs for Studying the Effects of Hydrophilicity
174
Multilayer Designs for Studying the Effect of Porosity
174
Relationships between Dry Heat Transfer Rate and Air Velocity: a) Dry/
Contact Skin Model and b) Dry/Space 2 (3.5 mm air gap) skin Model
176
Relationships between Evaporative Heat Transfer Rate and Air Velocity:
a) Wet/Contact Skin Model, b) Wet/Space 2 (3.5 mm air gap) Skin Model.... 177
Effects of Ambient Temperature on Thermal Energy Dissipation (dry Heat
Loss) under Extremely Cold Weather Condition
182
Effects of Combined Ambient Temperature and Vapor Pressure on Total
Thermal Energy Dissipation (Dry + Evaporative Heat Loss) under Extremely
Hot Weather Condition
182
Effects of Ambient Temperature on Thermal Resistance
183
Effects of Relative Humidity on Total Energy Dissipation (Diy+Evaporative
Heat Loss)
183
a) Effects of Sweat Wetted Area in Wet/Contact Model and b) Effects of
Sweat Wetted Area in Wet/Space 4.5 Model
188
Water Vapor Pressure Profiles in Partially Wet/Space Model
190
Temperature Profiles in Partially Wet/Space Model
191
Effect of Skin-Clothing Air Gap on Thermal Energy Dissipation: a) Dry Heat Loss
and b) Dry + Evaporative Heat Loss
193
xi
5.21. Multiple Layer Model of Cold Weather Insulator and Detecting Temperature
and Vapor Pressure Gradients
195
5.22. Profiles of a) Energy Dissipation, b) Water Vapor Pressure, and
c) Temperature at Each Fabric Layer during a Period of Simulate Sweating .
195
5.23. TTiermal Energy Dissipation Curves in Changing Humidity Environment.... 198
5.24. a) Vertical Wicking of Barrier Nonwovens and b) the Relationship between
Measured and Predicted Wicking Heights
201
5.25. a) Models to Investigate the Effect of Condensation in Multiple Fabric Ensembles
and b) Effects of Wicking of Condensed Water
203
5.26. Relationships between Overall Thermal Resistance and Intrinsic Thermal
Resistance of the Fabric
206
5.27. Relationships between Overall Water Vapor Resistance and Intrinsic Water
Vapor Resistance of the Fabric
206
5.28. Relationships between Thermal Resistance and the Fabric Thickness
208
5.29. Effects of the Thickness of Air Layer on Overall Thermal Resistance
208
5.30. Relationships between Water Vapor Resistance and Fabric Thickness
209
5.31. Effects of the Thickness of Air Layer on Water Vapor Resistance
209
5.32. Effect of Fiber Volume Fraction on Thermal Resistance
210
5.33. Effect of Fiber Volume Fraction on Water Vapor Resistance
210
5.34. Effect of Optical Porosity on Water Vapor Resistance
212
5.35. a) Multilayer Models to Investigate the Effect of Combination of the Fabrics Having
Different Water Vapor Diffusivity and b) Effect of Combination of the Fabrics
Having Different Water Vapor Permeability
216
5.36 Predicted Comfort Range: a) Surgical Gown Fabrics; b) Chemical Protective
Nonwovens; and c) Cold Weather Insulators
222
5.37 Predicted Comfort Range for Multiple Layer Models: a) Surgical Gown
Fabrics and Chemical Protective Nonwovens and b) Cold Weather Insulators 225
6.1.
6.2.
6.3
Simplified Diagram of Human Warm/Cool Sensory

Two Layer Slab Model for Analyzing the Transient Heat Conduction in Skin
Skin Simulators for Warm/cool Assessment: a) Self-Heating Skin Simulator
and b) Thermolabo Preheated Skin Simulator
6.4.
Diagram of Dynamic Body Motion Simulator (Dynamic Transient Heat
Conduction Measuring System)
6.5.
Diagram of Subjective Evaluation Procedure
6.6.
a)Profiles of the Rate of Energy Density Change, q(t), Temperature Change,
T(t), Energy Transfer Rate, H(t) measured according to Self-Heating Method
and Preheated Method and b) Profiles of the Rate of Energy Density Change,
q(t), Temperature Change, T(t), Energy Transfer Rate, H(t), and
Compression Load, P(t) measured according to the Dynamic Method
6.7.
a) Regression between the Self-Heating Method and Preheated Method and
b) Regressions between the Dynamic Method and Manual Methods (SelfHeating Method and Preheated Method)
6.8.
Effects of Sample Beds on qmax: a) Selected Nonwovens and b) Barrier
nonwovens
6.9. -Effects of Fabric Physical Properties on qmax
6.10. Effects of Contacting Pressure on qmax
6.11. a) Relationships between qrr.^x and Hmax in Manual Loading Model and
b) Relationships between qmax and Hmaxl and Hmax2 in Dynamic Loading
Model
6.12. a) Relationships between Hmax and Tmax in Manual Model and
b) Relationships between Hmax and Tmaxl and Tmax2 in Dynamic Loading
Model
234
234
242
244
247
251
256
257
259
259
261
262
xii
6.13
a) Effects of the Number of Cycle on Hmax and b) Effects of the Number of

Cycle on Tmax
263
6.14. Regression between Subjective Ranking and qmax Ranking Measured, using:
a) Dynamic Model; b) Manual Self-Heating Model; and c) Manual Preheated
Model
266
7.1.
7.2.
7.3.
Sleeve Sample
Subjective Evaluation System
Relationship between Subjective Comfort Ratings and Predicted Metabolic
273
273
Elate
281
7.4.
7.5.
7.6.
Relationship between Warm/Cool SCR and Skin Temperature

Relations of Wet/Dry SCR to Water Vapor Pressure on Skin Surface
Effects of Fabric Properties (Permeability and Hydrophilicity) on SCR
281
283
283
A.l.
A.2.
A.3.
A.4.
A.5.
Calculation of Shape Coefficients

Meltblown Process
Experimental Design
Polar Oriented Structure of Meltblown Web
Subjective Comfort Rating Chart
307
309
309
313
329
xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS OR ABBREVIATIONS

a
c
d
e
f
g
he
hcv
he
hv
hs
hrd
i
im
k
j
1
m
mo
o
q
qmax
r
s
t
v
w
x
y
z
A
Adu
Aev
Ai
Ap
Aw
BD
C
Cd
Cv
D
Da
Dm
Da
Dl
D2
DCD
E
Absorption coefficient or Subscript symbol represent ing air or ambient,

Heat capacity.
Fiber diameter
Extinction coefficient
Hermann's optical orientation factor or Subscript symbol representing fibers,
Gravitational constant.
Boundary heat transfer coefficient.
Convective heat transfer coefficient
Moisture transfer coefficients or Boundary moisture transfer coefficient.
Overall evaporative heat transfer coefficient.
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Radiative heat transfer coefficient.
Subscript symbol representing ith layer.
Permeability Index.
Thermal conductance or Capillary sorption coefficient.
Coefficient of effective evaporation area.
Thickness of boundary layer, Characteristic dimension of the body, or Pore size
Water vapor diffusion rate or Subscript symbol representing material,
Mass per unit time per unit area of sweat produced.
Subscript symbol representing origin or initial time.
Rate of energy density change.
Maximum peak value of q(t) as a measure of warm/cool feeling.
Radius of fibers, Effective capillary radius, or Reflectance.
Shape coefficient or Subscript symbol representing skin.
Time or Transmittance.
Air velocity or Rate of energy density change.
Fabric weight or Energy unit (watt).
Coordinate.
Coordinate or Temperature of contact object.in Kawabata's model
Coordinate.
Area covered by the spreading liquid.
Total skin surface area (or Adu Dubois area).
Wet skin area.
Projected area of ith specific surface or object.
Air permeability.
Wicked area of next-to-skin layer.
Bulk density.
Water vapor concentration, kg/m3 or Heat loss by convection (w/m2) from the
outer surface of the clothed body.
Conductive heat transfer rate.
Convective heat transfer rate.
Overall water vapor diffusivity.
Water vapor diffusivity of air.
Water vapor diffusivity of fiber material transverse to fiber axis.
Water vapor diffusivity of fiber material along the fiber axis.
Water vapor diffusivity through open air space.
Water vapor diffusivity through air tunnels.
Die to collector distance in meltblown extrusion system.
Overall evaporative heat transfer rate and Internal energy production due to
exercise and/or shivering.
xiv
Ed
Ee
Er
Emax
Ereq
Es
Fci
Fe
G
Ha
Hmax
Hn
HSI
H(t)
AHvap
I
Id
Ib
K
K*
Ka
Kapp
Kcv
Ki
Krd
Ks
Kh
Kv
Kn
Ki
Kxx
Kyy
Kzz
L
M
Mn
Mi
Mvi
Ml
Mai
Mw
Mfi
Mo
Ms
Mp
N
Nu
Os
P
Heat loss by water vapor diffusion through the skin.

Dry respiration heat loss from the body due to the difference in temperature
between expired and inspired air.
Latent respiration heat loss by convection and evaporation from the mucosal
lining of the respiratory tract.
Evaporative energy required to maintain comfort when fully wetted skin.
Evaporative energy required heat transfer to maintain energy balance.
Evaporative heat loss due to sweating.
Ratio of the surface area of the clothed body to the surface area of the nude body.
Effective radiation area factor.
Sensible heat transfer rate.
The heat of sorption.
Maximum heat flow rate at peak.
The latent heat of condensation.
Heat Stress Index.
The rate of transient energy transfer.
The latent heat of vaporization.
Overall thermal resistance in clo.
Intrinsic thermal resistance of clothing in clo.
Thermal resistance of boundary layer in clo.
Overall thermal conductivity.
Thermal conductivity without interstitial fluid movement.
Effective thermal conductivity due to air conduction.
Apparent thermal conductivity.
Effective thermal conductivity due to convection.
Effective thermal conductivity due to interaction of air and fiber.
Effective thermal conductivity due to radiation.
Effective thermal conductivity due to solid (fiber).
Fabric thermal conductivity of structural mode parallel to fiber axis.
Thermal conductivity of structural mode perpendicular to fiber axis.
Fiber thermal conductivity parallel to fiber axis.
Fiber thermal conductivity perpendicular to the fiber axis.
Thermal conductivity of the ideal fiber assembly in the direction x
Thermal conductivity of the ideal fiber assembly in the direction y.
Thermal conductivity of the ideal fiber assembly in the direction z.
Thickness or Wicking length.
Metabolic rate.
Net metabolic rate.
Total mass per unit area of water present in the ith layer.
Vapor mass within fabric layer.
Condensed liquid.
Water absorbed by hygroscopic fibers.
Mass of a water molecule.
Mass of the fabric.
Mass per unit area on the skin.
Mass per unit time per unit area of sweat produced.
Water transport rate by wicking.
Scattering coefficient
The Nusselt Number.
Polar orientation parameter.
Water vapor pressure, Optical porosity, or Absorption coefficient.
XV
Ps
Pa
Pr
Q
Q(t)
Qci
Qxi
Qrd
R
Ra
Ra*
Rc
Rd
Re
Rh
Ri
Rv
Sh
SWA
T
Ta
Tb
Tel
Td
Ts
Tm
Tmax
Tmrt
Tsub
V
w
a
P
e
4>
7
T1
e
p
a
D
o
Water vapor pressure on the skin surface or Saturated water vapor pressure.
Water vapor pressure in the atmosphere.
The Prandtl number.
Total heat flow rate.
Heat flow rate due to internal reactions.
Total heat transfer through a fabric.
Heat transfer by conduction only.
Net radiant heat exchange.
Heat loss by radiation from the outer surface of the clothed or The Boltzmann
constant.
The Raleigh number.
The Modified Raleigh number.
Outer boundary thermal resistance.
Radiative heat transfer rate.
Water vapor resistance and The Reynolds number.
Thermal resistance.
Interface thermal resistance.
Water vapor resistance.
The Sherwood number.
Sweat wetted area.
Temperature.
Ambient temperature.
Average body temperature.
Cloth surface temperature.
Temperature at dew point
Skin surface temperature.
Mean temperature in the insulation.
Maximum temperature change at peak.
Mean radiant temperature.
Subjective temperature.
Liquid water volume which penetrates the substrate.
External mechanical work.
Thermal diffusivity Anisotropy factor or Optical porosity.
Volume expansion coefficient
Emissivity
Polar orientation angle of fiber and Advancing contact angle of capillary wicking.
The surface tension of liquid.
External mechanical efficiency.
Viscosity of fluid.
Azimuthal orientation angle.
Density.
The Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Kinematic viscosity of the fluid
Rate of change of water vapor concentration per unit volume within system in
g/m3.
Rate of heat generation per unit volume within system in w/m3.
1. INTRODUCTION
Clothing is defined as the extension of body physiology enabling the wearer to
accommodate changes in environment without a sense of stress [1]. The term " without a
sense of stress" is the main concept of clothing comfort. However, in the most general
usage of the term, comfort is determined by a complex array of factors which includes
social situations, environmental conditions, fabric properties, garment fit, physiological
conditions, and psychological preferences, among others [2].
Figure 1.1 illustrates the relationships among three major factors of clothing
comfort; physical, physiological, and psychological factors. On the physiological side,
clothing has two major components -tactile and thermal-which interact with themselves and
with the psychological factors. Tactile comfort is based on the mechanical and thermal
sensation while thermal comfort is based on thermodynamics between human body with
clothing as a barrier and its environment. Though tactile comfort is more affected by
psychological factors, heat and moisture exchange plays an important role in determining
both tactile and thermal comfort.
The importance of heat and moisture exchange in clothing system is schematically
described in figure 1.2. Essentially, clothing fabrics act as buffers or barriers between the
wearer and the environment. The special demands made on clothing as protective barriers
arise from the fact that the metabolic and sweat production of the body vary substantially
with changes in body exercise [1]. Likewise shifts in environmental conditions such as
sun, wind, and rain impose further demand on the effectiveness of the clothing barrier.
Therefore, it is important to study heat and moisture transfer properties of fabrics under a
variety of environmental conditions to estimate the contribution of materials to comfort of
clothing worn in different situations. It is particularly important to analyze protective
apparel systems since, as a result of the their protective requirements, chemical barrier,
surgical gown, thermal protective clothing, or cold weather insulators frequently lack the
ability to support a comfortable environment around the wearer. It is especially difficult to

extend the clothing comfort condition in garments worn in extremely hot or cold working
environments. This is why laboratory evaluation of heat and moisture transfer behavior
over a wide range of environmental conditions is crucial for predicting the comfort potential
of fabric materials used in protective clothing systems.
CLOTHING COMFORT
PHYSICAL
BASIS
PHYSIOLOGICAL
BASIS
PSYCHOLOGICAL
THERMAL
TACTILE
COMFORT
COMFORT
BASIS
"N
| HEAT AND MOISTURE EXCHANGE
Figure 1.1. The Fields of Clothing Comfort.
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS
TEMPERATURE
HUMIDITY
AIR VELOCITY
(RADIATION)
(PRECIPITATION)
CLOTHING TRANSMISSION
BODY METABOLISM
ACTIVITY LEVEL
THERMAL
RESISTANCE
PERMEABILITY.
INDEX
Figure 1.2. Heat and Moisture Exchange [1],
4
2. OBJECTIVES AND APPROACHES OF THIS RESEARCH
2.1. OBJECTIVES
This research studied the heat and moisture transfer properties of non woven fabrics
and how these properties change as a result of changing environmental conditions. This
analysis is intended to provide a scientific basis for predicting clothing comfort in
conditions varying from extremely cold to hot and humid environments. The goal of the
program was to develop and demonstrate a methodology for predicting the comfort of
fabrics, from laboratory measurements. It was also a goal to obtain fundamental insight
into the relationship between fabric structure and transfer properties driven by changes in
the environment surrounding the clothing system. The specific objectives of this program
were as follows:
1) To develop novel laboratory test methods for rapid and reliable measurement of fabric
heat and moisture transfer properties useful in predicting comfort: a computerized thermal
analyzing system was developed to simulate real use conditions, to produce accurate
measurements, and reduce the time required to make measurements.
2) To develop new theoretical descriptions and models for describing thermal conductivity
and moisture diffusivity through fibrous materials.
3) To develop new analytical models for predicting clothing comfort from measured
properties of fabrics: to explain the role of fabric properties and the interaction with
environmental conditions in controlling aspects of heat and moisture transfer that are
important to comfort.
4) To analyze groups of nonwoven fabrics selected to show how fabric type, construction,
and finish, affect the predicted comfort levels: to identify the contribution of structural
variables to transfer properties controlling comfort.
5
5) To evaluate the effects of the skin-clothing configuration and environmental conditions
on heat and moisture transfer through various clothing systems: to study the effects of skinclothing contact, perspiration, air velocity, and environmental temperature and humidity on
heat and moisture transfer through single and multilayer clothing ensembles.
6) To study heat and moisture transfer mechanisms through fabrics in light of theoretically
developed transfer equations: heat conduction, moisture diffusion, transient heat
conduction, and physiological criteria for predicting clothing comfort.
2.2. APPROACH
Figure 2.1 shows how the various components of this research program are
combined. This program proceeded as follows :
1) A through review was made of test methods, instruments, and theories related to
clothing comfort and parameters affecting heat and moisture transfer through textile
materials.
2) Instrumental procedures were developed for measuring simultaneous heat and moisture
transfer through fabrics. These new procedures permit rapid analysis of the effects of
environmental conditions surrounding clothing systems and simulation of human skin
conditions and clothing-skin interaction.
3) Groups of nonwoven barrier fabrics was selected for analysis on the basis of end-use
function: surgical gown materials, nonwovens used in chemical protective materials, and
nonwoven battings for cold weather insulation. A specially prepared group of
polypropylene melt blown samples, having systematic variations in structural
characteristics was included in this evaluation. In addition to single layer fabrics, multiple
layer ensembles was analyzed to study the effects of incorporating layers of different
6
hydrophilicity and porosity in positions within clothing systems also designed to function
as protective barriers.
4) An analysis was made of experimental data to determine the effects of fabric structural
properties and the effects of environmental conditions using models to simulate wet and dry
skin conditions, and different degrees of contact between fabric and skin surface.
5) An analysis was made to determine the relative contribution of heat transfer mechanisms
(conduction, convection, and radiation) to total heat transmission. Special attention was
given for determining how the contribution of different transfer mechanisms change with
the environment surrounding clothing systems. The validity of the thermal conduction
model developed by this research was explored. The relationship between fabric thickness
and porosity and the role of component fiber fineness in controlling sensible thermal
transfer was analyzed.
6) Fabric structural parameters affecting moisture diffusion and water transport properties
were examined. The effects of sweating, moisture evaporation, absorption, condensation,
and wicking on total thermal transmission, and the relationship between environmental
factors, including air temperature, humidity and wind velocity was analyzed and correlated
with fabric structure and the configuration of various clothing systems.
7) Measurements of heat and moisture transfer properties was used in conjunction with
theoretical models to predict comfort indexes and comfort limits in terms of tolerable
environmental temperatures and metabolic activity levels. Woodcock's model (equation
3.18a), Fanger's comfort model (equation 3.23) and modifications to these models
developed specially by this research were applied to predict comfort and to analyze how
levels of comfort vary extremely hot or cold environments, or with measuring sweating
activity.
MODEL SYSTEM
LITERATURE REVIEW
THERMAL ANALYZING SYSTEM

SIMULATION OF SKIN MODELS
DYNAMIC HEAT CONDUCTION
INSTRUMENTS, TEST METHODS

THEORIES, PARAMETERS
MODEL ANALYTICS
SAMPLE PREPARATION
COMFORT CONTROL LIMIT
NONWOVEN BARRIER FABRICS
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY &

VAPOR DIFFUSIVITY MODEL
MELT-BLOWN WEBS
SINGLE AND MULTIPLE LAYER
EXPERIMENTS
ENVIRONMENTAL
STRUCTURAL
HEAT & MOISTURE

TRANSPORT PROPERTY
VARIABLES
REL CONTRIBUTION
OF HEAT TRANSFER
MECHANISMS
ANALYSIS
VALIDITY OF THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY MODEL
VARIABLES
EFFECTS OF STRUCTURE
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMEN1
EFFECTS OF SKIN MODELS
EFFECTS OF MULTILAYER
EFFECTS OF SWA
EFFECTS OF INTERNAL
REACTIONS
PREDICT COMFORT
SIMPLE SUBJECTIVE TEST
COMFORT LIMIT &
SCR & SKIN TEMPERATURE
TOLERABLE TEMPERATURE
AND HUMIDITY, WARM/COOL

SENSATION
VERIFY PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
Figure 2.1. Diagram of Procedures of Experiment and Analysis.
8
8) The predictive validity of analytical models developed to calculate comfort indexes from
laboratory measurements of fabric heat and moisture transfer properties was verified by
correlation with subjective evaluations of comfort conducted in a climate controlled
conditions.
Nonwoven barrier fabrics and thermal insulators were selected for this study since
they represent a class of materials frequently used in protective garments worn in extreme
climate or working conditions. Nonwoven materials can also be produced to incorporate
various fiber and structural features. They are considered ideal test specimens to exercise
the new test methods and analytical models developed by this research.
9
3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3.1. INTRODUCTION
Early research on thermal comfort is documented by Newburg's classic work [8].
More recently, Kerslake [9] has reviewed the physiological effects of hot environments.
Sections of a book by Renboun and Rees [10] provide up-to-date treatments of thermal
comfort and the physical properties of fabrics that relate thereto. There are other informative
books published in this area: some written from an external specialists' view point, e.g.
Fanger's "Thermal Comfort" [11], and Cena and Clark's "Bioengineering Thermal
Physiology and Comfort" [12]. Literature reviews on tactile or subjective comfort have
been done by Fourt and Hollies [13] and Hollies and Goldman 114].
The fundamental theories of heat and moisture transfer have been reviewed by
Jakob [3], Carslaw and Jaeger [4], Crank [6], Slattery [7], Whitaker [5], and others [20,
90 ~ 92]. Recently, Farnworth [67, 79, 88, 138], Stuart [73, 120], Holcombe [73, 151],
and Dent [58] published papers on mathematical analysis of combined heat & moisture
transport and coupled conductive & radiative heat transfer through textiles. Kawabata [30,
43, 166, 180] theoretically analyzed transient heat conduction through human skin to
develop a new instrument, called a Thermolabo, for evaluating the warm/cool sensation
generated by touching a fabric. Umbach [127, 137] and Goldman [128] experimentally
analyzed heat and moisture transfer through the fabric using laboratory methods such as
sweat hot plate or rnannikin.
Although numerous papers on comfort and heat stress have been published,
however, no deterministic relationship between comfort and the physical properties of
fabrics in the presence of environmental conditions, extremely cold or hot and humid, has
been established.
10
3.2. THERMOREGULATORY MODEL OF HUMAN BODY
3.2.1. NATURE OF HUMAN SKIN
Receptors in skin layers transfer information about outer environment to the central
nervous system. The skin consists of two main parts [24]; (1) the epidermis -forming
papillary ridges (with sweat pores) each separated by a papillary groove, and (2) the dermis
- which consists of a superficial layer called the papillary dermis and a deeper layer called
the reticular dermis. Beneath the dermal layers is a layer of loose connective tissue, the
subcutaneous tissue, which attaches the skin to underlying organs. It is reported that the
depth of total skin (epidermis + dermis) is l-2mm (24],
The conductivity of skin increases with increasing depth, being on the order of 2.1
x 10"1 (w/mC) in the near surface layers (epidermal) from 3.8 to 6.7 in the dermal layers
[25-27]. The conductivity is dependent upon the amount of water content in the tissue [34].
The real thermal conductivity of skin tissue will not exceed that of pure water at the same
temperature. However, in many case the conductivity of skin is approximately that of
water. Other thermal properties of human skin are reported as follows [281: average
thermal capacitance (pc) is 4.187 J/cm3oC, specific heat (c) is 3.60 J/grC. and density (p)
is 1.2 gr/cm^.
The nerve receptor system of the skin is ver> ,ompiex. Three important types of
nerve endings are: (1) Free nerve endings, located throughout the dermis, may extend into
epidermis. Ruffini's ending and Krauses's end bulb are thought to serve the pain and
temperature senses: (2) Meissner's Corpuscles, which are encapsulated endings located
within the dermal papillae and believed to be sensitive to mechanical movement against or
across the skin; (3) Merkel's Disco, which are expanded tips of a nerve ending, located at
the surface of an intermediate ridge and putatively respond to steady or slowly changing
pressure applied to the skin [35].
11
The most important values to know accurately are those in the dermal layers
because these values determine the heating response at all depths once the surface layers
reach the quasi steady-state condition (less than 1 second) and most heating response may
be sensed in this layer [281.
3.2.2. SKIN MODELS OF THERMOREGULATION AND ENERGY BALANCE

Morse et al [28] developed a model extending a total depth of 4 mm below the skin
surface to include the epidermis, dermis, and fatty tissue for the computer analysis of the
influence of external radiation on thermal comfort. Henriques et al [251 considered 4 layers
of skin; epidermis, dermis, fat and muscle. Kalelkar et al [29] adopted a semi-infinite skin
model for an analysis of the transient heat conduction problem. Kawabata [30] analyzed
the thermal response (warm/cool feeling) of skin using two layers model. Crosbie et al
[31] and Larson et al [32] designed a three layer model; the core of which is the source of
increased metabolism caused by exercising or shivering; and the skin. Atkins and
Wyndham [33] modeled 4 skin layers, adding a deep layer to Crosbie's model.
Crosbie's three layers model [31] is very useful for understanding of the overall
thermoregulation system of the human body. In his model, it is assumed that the internal
heat, generated by exercising or shivering, is produced in the muscle layer. Internal
generation (basal) is assumed to occur within the deep body core.
If one assumes that human skin is one dimensional and that the product of skin
specific heat and density is constant, the classic Fourier conduction heat transfer law is
valid. In this case, the equation describing heat transfer (or temperature distribution) within
the body layer is expressed as one dimensional differential equation for transient heat
conduction:
(pc) 8T/8t = K 82T/Sx2 + Q
(3.1)
12
where T(x,t) is the temperature (C), at x position within layers at time t, K is the thermal
conductivity, w/mC, pc is the heat capacity of skin, J/m3oC, and 2 is the rate of heat
generation per unit volume within system, w/m3:
forO<x<L!,
2 =0;
(3.2a)
for Lj < x < Lj + L2,
2 = E; and
(3.2b)
forL! + L2<x<Ls,
2 =2 0 = constant,
(3.2c)
where E is the internal energy production, w/m3, due to exercise and/or shivering, 2 o is
the basal metabolism (1.351 x 103 W/m3 [31]).
If the heat capacity of the skin is assumed constant elsewhere and skin conductivity
depends only on the average body temperature (a function of time), integrating equation 3.1
with respect to the skin coordinate(x) from the outer to the inner surface (holding time
constant) may remove the time derivative in the left hand term and then yields;
Ls
pc(d/dt) j T dx = K8T/8x
x=Ls
0
KST/8x
+ el2+ 2OL3.
x=0
(3.3)
The boundary conditions are defined as follows: At x = Ls, since no heat flows through the
surface
K 8T/8x = 0
(3.4)
At x = 0, the energy leaving skin surface is comprised of the heat conducted, convected,
radiated and/or evaporated from the skin surface, so that
q(out) = K 8T/8x = Q
(3.5)
where Q is the energy dissipation from the skin outer surface by conductive, radiative,
convective, and/or evaporative heat transfer mechanisms, w/m2.
13
Then, equation 3.3 can be written as
(PcLs)dTb/dt =
Energy storage or
debit within body
where
Mn
Internal Energy
production
(3.6)
Energy
dissipation
is the average body temperature, C; i.e.

Ls
Tb = (1/Ls)
Jo
T(x,t)dx
(3.7)
Mn = E L2 + fi0L3 ( metabolic rate, w/m2). Sometimes, Mn is defined as the net flux

density of metabolic heat, i.e. the total heat production of the body less the enthalpy
transferred to the respiratory air stream.
This is the energy balance equation which is an application of the First Law of
Thermodynamics (the law of energy conservation) and therefore satisfies the requirement
that the sum of heat input, output, and storage must be zero [93, 94], The existence of heat
balance is the first requirement for thermal comfort for a person exposed for a long time in
any environment.
3.3. COMFORT THEORY

3.3.1. COMFORT CRITERION
Since the purpose of the thermoregulatory system of the body is to maintain an
essentially constant internal body temperature, it can be assumed that, for long exposures to
a constant thermal environment with a constant metabolic rate, a heat balance will exist for
the human body, i.e. the heat production will equal the heat dissipation, and there will be
no significant heat storage within the body. As stated, the first criterion for comfort is
therefore that there is neither heat storage nor heat loss [2,11, 22];
14
dTb/dt = 0
(3.8)
Then, energy balance equation 3.6 becomes

Mn = Q = H + E
(3.9)
where H is the rate of sensible heat transfer, i.e. due to radiation, convection, or/and
conduction, and E is the rate of insensible evaporative heat transfer. The error incurred by
considering sensible and evaporative heat transfer separately is usually negligible (the
circumstances in which this is not so are considered in section 3.4.2).
The "metabolic diagram" [95] or "thermoneutral profile" [96], which is typical of a
homeotherm with a fixed insulation between the skin and the environment, easily shows
how Mn, H, and E change with environmental temperature to maintain the energy balance.
Cena and Clark [22] describe the three strategies of physical and physiological control of
the heat balance by dividing the diagram into a number of zones. Their concept is illustrated
in figure 3.1.
At a fixed level of food intake and activity, the rate of metabolism is minimal in the
"thermoneutral zone", between the lines C and E. However, Mount [95] defined a
narrower zone, between lines C and D, as the zone of "least thermoregulatory effort". This
zone describes the most economical strategy of thermoregulation of comfort, heat exchange
is regulated by body conductance brought about by vasoconstriction or vasodilation of
capillary blood vessels in the peripheral tissue of the skin.
A second strategy comes into play at lower temperatures. Below a lower critical
temperature, C, evaporative heat loss and tissue conductance are minimal and almost
constant. Hence, sensible heat loss from the body increases in proportion to the difference
between core temperature and ambient temperature and, to maintain a steady core
temperature, metabolic heat production must increase to compensate. The slope of the on
both body insulation and clothing. A much higher rate of metabolism may be achieved in
15
EAT PRODUCTION
V (Mn)
NONEVAPORATIVE
HEAT LOSS (G)
EVAPORATIVE
HEAT LOSS (E)
Figure 3.1. Diagrammatic Representation of Relationships between Heat Production,

Evaporative and Nonevaporative Heat Loss [95].
A. Zones of Hypothermia,
B. Temperature of Summit Metabolism and Incipient Hypothermia,
C. Critical Temperature,
D. Temperature of Marked Increase in Evaporative Loss,
E. Temperature of Incipient Hyperthermal Rise,
F. Zone of Hyperthermia,
CD. Zone of Least Thermoregulatory Effort,
CE. Zone of Minimal Metabolism,
BE. Thermoregulatory Range.
16
the short term by voluntary exercise or involuntary shivering.
The third strategy, that of regulating evaporative heat loss, is employed by a body
subjected to where sensible heat transfer is insufficient to remove metabolic heat, above D
in figure. Man's ability to secrete sweat in large quantities enables the body to control
latent heat loss over a wide temperature range. This means that the thermoneutral or
comfort zone is extended well above normal level by evaporative cooling. In most
environments, the upper limit of this extended zone, known as the "upper critical
temperature", is determined largely by physical factors which limit the rate of diffusion of
water vapor away from the skin. Above the upper critical temperature, E, latent heat loss is
enhanced by mechanisms which increase the body metabolic energy output as they enhance
the risk of hyperthermia. An index known as % sweat wetted area (SWA), known as the
Belding heat stress index, can be used as a measure of comfort in the zone (zone DE in
figure):
SWA % = 100(Ereq/Emiix)
(3.10)
where Ercq = Mn - H is the energy required heat transfer to maintain energy balance, and
Emax is the energy required to maintain comfort when fully wetted evaporation heat
transfer. Comfort in this region is mainly regulated by evaporative heat transfer from a
sweating skin [98].
If we maintain the criterion of comfort as that relating to a constancy of body heat
content, equation 3.9 suggests that up to 100% SWA can be tolerated without human
discomfort. In reality, the physiological stress imposed by a 100 % SWA is sufficiently
severe to require a redefinition of comfort under sweating conditions. In fact, the limit of
20 % SWA has been suggested as the comfort limit [2]. The significant point is that the
boundaries of comfort zone can be shifted to accommodate higher or lower environmental
temperatures through use of clothing. This is true since clothing controls the rates of
transfer of sensible heat and water vapor.
17
3.3.2. WOODCOCK AND GOLDMAN'S APPROACH
Woodcock and Goldman's models start with the energy balance equation 3.11; i.e.
Mn = H + E
(3.11)
Sensible heat transfer, H, is defined as the total dry heat dissipation from the skin surface
to the atmosphere through convection (Cv), radiation (Rd), and conduction (Cd) heat
transfer mechanisms. Usually, the three modes of heat transfer are combined into a single
term if it is assumed that sensible heat transfer obeys Fourier's Law of heat exchange [83,
84, 97];
H = Cv + Rd + Cd = hs(Ts - Ta)
(3.12)
where Ts is the skin temperature, Ta is the ambient temperature, and hs is the heat transfer
coefficient. The reciprocal of the heat transfer coefficient is called the thermal resistance (I);
1/hc = 0.155 I
(3.13)
where I is the total thermal resistance in clo.

Equation 3.12 and 3.13 imply that dry heat dissipation depends, not only on heat
transfer behavior through the fabrics and across fabric layers, but also on environmental
conditions (air current, radiation, and ambient temperature). Similarly, evaporative heat
transfer, E can be expressed as follows
E = hv(Ps - Pa) = (Ps - Pa)/Rv
(3.14)
where hv is the evaporative heat transfer coefficient, w/m2kPa, Rv is the resistance to

evaporative heat transfer, m2kPa/w. Ps and Pa are the water vapor pressures, on the skin
surface and in the atmosphere measured in kPa.
18
Woodcock [83, 84] applied the concept of the Permeability Index (im) and Heat
Stress Index (HSI) or Skin Wetness (SWA) to the evaporative heat transfer equation. This
model predicts that, for skin partially wet as a result of sweating, the evaporative cooling
rate is calculated in w/m2 as
E = (16.5/0.155)(im/I)(Aev/Adu)(Ps-Pa)
(3.15)
where I is the thermal resistance of the fabric, clo, and Aev/Adu is the ratio of the wet skin
area to the total skin surface area (or Dubois area [105]), m2. The wet skin ratio is also
defined as follows;
Aev/Adu = Ercq/Emax = HSI Or SWA.
(3.1 6)
The permeability index is defined as;

thermal resistance of the fabric
evaporative resistance of the fabric
im =
(3.17)
thermal resistance of air
evaporative resistance of air
Permeability index ranges from 0, for a completely impermeable material, to 1. for a

completely vapor permeable material. Typical values for wearing apparel fabrics fall the
higher the permeability index, the cooler the fabric should be in a hot, humid environment.
The total energy dissipated from a sweating human through clothing layers into an
ambient environment, assuming no internal reactions (condensation, absorption, or reevaporation) within fabric components, can be expressed as the sum of dry and evaporative
heat transfer as
Mn = Q = [1/(0.155 I)][(Ts - Ta) + 16.5 im SWA (Ps - Pa)];
(3.18a)
0.155 I Mn - (Ts - Ta)

or
SWA = HSI =
(3.18b)
16.5 im (Ps - Pa)
19
Equation 3.18a is the well-known Woodcock1 energy dissipation formula. Equation 3.18b
is the formula used by Goldman to calculate Heat Stress Index from Mn, metabolic rate.
The metabolic rate is measured using subjective tests or mannikin experiments.
3.3.3. FANGER'S APPROACH

Fanger [11] derived a comfort equation based on heat balance as
Net energy =
production
The heat transfer from the skin = The heat transfer from the outer
to the outer surface of
surface of the clothed body
the clothed body
to the ambient atmosphere
M(1 -TI)-E = K = R + C
or
(3.19)
where M is the metabolic rate, w/m2, 'H is the external mechanical efficiency; i.e. the ratio
of external mechanical work (W) and metabolic rate (M), K is the heat transfer (w/m2) from
the skin to the outer surface of the clothed body (apparent conduction through clothing), R
is the heat loss by radiation (w/m2) from the outer surface of the clothed, and C is the heat
loss by convection (W/m2) from the outer surface of the clothed body. E is the insensible
heat transfer from the skin defined as
E = Ed + Er + Es + Ee
Ed is
(3.20)
the heat loss by water vapor diffusion through the skin. This is minimal evaporative
heat transfer of human skin which is not subject to thermoregulatory control. Er is the latent
respiration heat loss by convection and evaporation from the mucosal lining of the
respiratory tract. Ee is the dry respiration heat loss from the body due to the difference in
temperature between expired and inspired air. Es is the evaporative heat loss due to
sweating.
Fanger [11] assumed that a condition for thermal comfort for a given person at
given activity level, is that his mean skin temperature Ts and his sweat secretion Es must
20
have values inside narrow limits. He [104] found experimentally mean skin temperature
(Ts)
and sweat secretion (Es) for subjects at different activity levels, subjectively expressing
thermal comfort as follows;

Ts = 35.7 - 0.027 M(1 - *1))
Es = 0.42 [M(l - "H)) - 58)
(C)
(3.21)
(w/m2)
(3.22)
He proposed equation 3.21 and 3.22 as the second and third conditions for optimal thermal
comfort in addition to the first requirement, energy balance.
Fanger derived a semi-empirical double comfort equation based on his experimental
results and classical heat transfer theories of conduction, convection, and radiation from the
equation 3.19 as follows;
M(l-Tl)-0.41[43-0.052 M(l-Tl)-Pa]-0.42[M(l-1l)-58]
-0.0023 M(44-Pa)-0.0014 M(34-Ta)
= [35.7-0.027 M(l-Tl)-Tci]/(0.155 Id)
= 3.97xl0-8Fd[(Tcl+273)4-(Tmrt+273)4]+Fclhc(Tci-Ta)
(3.23)
where hc is the convection heat transfer coefficient, w/m^C;
he =
2.38 (Tel - Ta)i/4
at v < 0.1 m/s [118]
(3.24a)
12.1 v1/2
at v >0.1 m/s [119],
(3.24b)
v is the air velocity, m/s, Pa is the water vapor pressure in air, mmHg, Ta is the ambient
temperature, C, Tel is the cloth surface temperature, C, Ici is the clothing insulation, clo,
Fci
is the ratio of the surface area of the clothed body to the surface area of the nude body,
and Tmrt is the mean radiant temperature, C.

For the indoor environment, Mclntyre [106, 107] derived empirically a simple
equation from Fanger's equation, using the concept of the subjective temperature which is
defined as the temperature of a uniform enclosure (with Ta = Tmrt; v = O.lm/s and RH =
21
50%) which would produce the same feeling of warmth as the actual environment [108].
The subjective temperature required for comfort is a function of metabolic rate and clothing
insulation. Where I is expressed in clo, as in most work in this field:
Tsub = 33.5 - 31 - (0.08 + 0.05I)M.
(3.25)
Figure 3.2 shows 3-dimensional relationship among Metabolism, Cloth insulation, and
Subjective temperature.
Both Woodcock's equation 3.18a and Fanger's equation 3.23 contains three groups
of functional parameters: parameters that are a function of material type (I, im); parameters
that are a function of environmental conditions (Ta, Pa, vj; and a parameter that is a
function of body activity (Mn or M). The importance of energy exchange between human
body and environment surrounding wearer in clothing comfort was verified in this section.
In the next section, the mechanisms of heat and/or moisture transfer through fibrous
material will be reviewed in the cases of: internal reactions: steady or non- steady state;
single or multiple fabric layer; and fully wetted or partially wetted skin condition. The
effects of fiber and fabric structural properties on thermal and water vapor resistance, and
the effects of environmental conditions on energy transfer will also be analyzed.
22
4.0
3.0
'o
o
%tU
2-
iS
CO
-20
-10
J
<
s
/
SUBJECTIVE
10 TEMPERATURE
(Tsub, C)
oi
100
200
300
400
METABOLISM (M, w/m )
Figure 3.2. Mclntyre's Comfort Curve [106].
3.4. THERMAL AND EVAPORATIVE HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS

Baxter [81] and King [80] studied heat and moisture transfer through the clothing,
assuming no internal reactions. Woodcock [83, 84], Goldman [128], and Umbach [127]
applied transfer theory to the laboratory evaluation of the clothing comfort. Henry [82,
87], King and Cassie [85], and Nordon and David [86] theoretically and experimentally
examined combined heat and moisture absorption behavior of cotton or wool fibers.
Recently, Farnworth [79, 88] developed a numerical model describing the combined
diffusion of heat and water vapor through clothing.
In situations where there is no condensation or absorption of water vapor, the
characterization of the heat and vapor flow properties of the system is straight-forward
since the two types of flow are independent; each layer of fabric or trapped air simply add
to give the overall thermal resistance and overall vapor resistance. However, where water
condenses or is absorbed, latent heat is liberated and the flow of heat and vapor become
interrelated, making-the simple picture inadequate [79].
GENERALIZED DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS GOVERNING HEAT AND

MOISTURE TRANSPORT THROUGH FIBROUS MATERIAL
Assuming one dimensional diffusion and constant diffusion coefficient, the general
differential equation of vapor diffusion (Fick's 2nd law [21]) is
8C/8t = D52C/5X2D + Q
(3.26a)
where Q is the condensation, absorption, or evaporation term system, kg/m^sec, D is the

diffusion coefficient, m2/sec, C is the water vapor concentration, kg/m3, x is the coordinate
in fabric layer, m. The equation of thermal diffusion is
8T/8t = a82T/6x2 +O/Pc
(3.26b)
where a is thermal diffusivity; i.e. a = K/Pc, m2/sec, O is the heat loss or gain from
condensation, absorption or evaporation and other heat sources within the system, w/m3, P
is density, kg/m3, c is the heat capacity, J/kgC, T is temperature, C, and t is time, sec.
The following sections will consider sweat models for describing simultaneous heat
and moisture transport through clothing systems.
3.4.1. SIMULTANEOUS THERMAL AND EVAPORATIVE HEAT TRANSFER

WITHOUT INTERNAL REACTIONS (CONDENSATION OR ABSORPTION)
If no internal reactions are assumed (i.e. 3> = Q. = 0), heat and moisture flow
mechanisms are independent. This means so that the total energy transfer at a fixed time is
the sum of two components;
8C/St = DS2C/8X2 and ST/8t = aS2T/Sx2
(3.27a,b)
Q =H+E
(3.28)
where Q is the total energy transfer, w/m2, E is the energy transfer by mass diffusion,
w/m2, and H is the energy transfer by thermal diffusion, w/m2.
3.4.1.2. STEADY STATE MODEL

Under steady state conditions (8C/8t = 8T/8t = 0), equations 3.27a and 3.27b
becomes:
52C/SX2 = 0 and 82T/8x2 = 0.
(3.29a,b)
Consider the case of heat and moisture diffusion through a plane fabric sheet of thickness L
where the heat and moisture transfer is driven from skin, through the fabric to the outside
environment. If we assume that the surface conditions are:
at x = 0 (skin surface),
C(0) = Cs, and T(0) = Ts;
(3.30a)
at x = L (fabric surface),
D8(78x = - he(C - Ca) and
(3.30b)
K8T/8X = - hc(T -Ta),
(3.30c)
where Cs and Ca are the moisture concentrations on skin surface and in ambient, kg/m3,
Ts and Ta are the temperature on skin surface and in ambient atmosphere, C, and he and
he are the moisture transfer (m/s) and heat transfer (w/m2oC) coefficients from fabric
surface to ambient. Then, the vapor concentration within fabric is
C(x) = Cs + [he(Ca - Cs)x]/(D - heLV
(3.31)
The rate of moisture diffusion is

m = - D 5C/5x = (Cs - Ca)/(l/he + L/D) = (Cs - Ca)/Re
(3.32)
where Re is the moisture diffusion resistance, the sum of the resistance of fabric (L/D) and
boundary layer (1/he); i.e.
Re = L/D + 1/he.
(3.33)
Similarly, the temperature distribution within fabric is

T(x) = Ts + [hc(Ta - Ts)x]/(K + hcL)
(3.34)
The rate of heat transfer is

H = - K 8T /Sx = (Ts - Ta)/(l/hc + L/K) = (Ts - Ta)/Rh
(3.35)
where Rh is the thermal resistance; i.e.

Rh = L/K + 1/hc.
(3.36)
26
The resistance of multiple layer can be expressed as the sum of the resistance of
each layer similar to equations 3.33 and 3.36. Assuming a clothing ensemble which
consists of three layers of the fabric, one layer of air, and boundary air layer, the total
moisture vapor resistance becomes
3
(3.37)
i=l
where Li and Di are the thickness and moisture diffusion coefficient of the ith fabric layer,
respectively, La and Da are the thickness and moisture diffusion coefficient of air layer, and
he is the moisture transfer coefficient from fabric surface into ambient
Similarly, the thermal resistance is
3
Rh = ^ Li/Ki + La/Ka + 1/hc

i=l
(3.38)
where Li and Ki are the thickness and thermal conductivity of the ith fabric layer,
respectively, La and Da are the thickness and thermal conductivity of air layer, and he is
heat transfer coefficient from fabric surface into ambient. It is well-known that the addition
of fabric and still air layer between fabric layers increase the thermal insulation and decrease
the moisture permeability.
3.4.1.2. NON-STEADY STATE (TRANSIENT) MODEL

Crank [6] points that the existence of a finite interval of time before steady state
conditions are reached. If it is assumed the system keep the same boundary conditions as
that of the steady state analysis and the initial condition are C(x,0)=F(x) and T(x,0)=G(x),
the concentration distribution is
27
C(x,t) = V(x) + exp(-DBn2t)[l/N(Bn)] Y(Bn,x)
n=l
where
J Y(Bn,x')[F(x )-V(x )]dx'

,
V(x) = C(x) = Cs + [he(Ca - Cs)x]/(D + heL)
(3.40a)
N(Bn) = [(Bn2 + he2/D2)L + he/D]/2,
(3.40b)
Y(Bn,x) = Bn cos(Bn x)'+ he/D sin(Bn x), and
(3.40c)
tan(BnL) = he/(BnD).
(3.40d)
And the rate of flow at time t is

Qe = - D 5C75x| X=L = (Cs-Ca)/(l/he+L/D) +
exp(-DBn2t)[l/N(Bn)] Y(Bn,x)
n=l
J Y(Bn,x )[F(x )-V(x )Jdx'

,
(3.39)
The temperature distribution is analogous to the concentration field; i.e. C(x,t)

T(x,t), D > a or K, Cs & Ca > Ts & Ta, he > he, F(x) G(x).
In real clothing systems, transient changes in vapor concentration the temperature
distribution that occur independent of latent heat of absorption is an unrealistic assumption.
This means that we must account for the coupled effect of absorption or condensation.
3.4.1.3. TOTAL ENERGY DISSIPATION
The total energy transfer of the clothing system without internal reaction can be
expressed as the sum of the heat transfer rate due to heat (equation 3.35) and due to
moisture evaporation (equation 3.32); i.e. Q = H + E = H + mAHvap. For example,
assuming steady state conditions,
Q = (Ts - Ta)/Rh + AHvap(Cs - Ca)/Re
(3.42a)
Q = (Ts - Ta)/Rh + (Ps - Pa)/Rv
(3.42b)
or
28
where AHvap is the latent heat of vaporization, 2.43 kJ/g at temperature, 34C, Ps and Pa
are the water vapor pressures on skin surface and in ambient, kPa, and Rv is the moisture
resistance, m2kPa/w. The equation 3.42b is well-known Woodcock's equation [83, 84]
used in the comfort equation.
3.4.2. SIMULTANEOUS THERMAL AND EVAPORATIVE HEAT TRANSFER WITH

INTERNAL REACTIONS
Several models of combined heat and vapor transport for condensation or/and
absorption have been published. For moisture absorption of hygroscopic textile fibers,
Henry [82, 87] first gave an approximate analytic solution. King and Cassie [85] took a
similar approach, and Nordon and David [86] presented a more exact numerical model for
diffusion through an extended thickness of a homogeneous material. Larson et al [32]
applied Henry's concept to the sweating body with evaporation boundary condition. For
condensation within clothing, Farnworth [79] proposed a moisture accumulating model at
steady state and examined his model using moisture permeable and impermeable fabrics.
FARNWORTH'S NUMERICAL MODEL OF COMBINED HEAT AND MOISTURE

TRANSFER
Recently, Farnworth [88] developed a numerical model which took into account the
effects of condensation, evaporation, absorption, and desorption within clothing. He
developed partial differential equations describing heat and vapor flow through multilayer
clothing systems as functions of time and distance from the skin. If a clothing system
consists of several layers, a differential equation for each layer i can be written as
(Pc)i 5Ti/8t = Ki 82Ti/5xi2 + c&i
(3.43)
29
where (pc)i is the heat capacity per unit area of the layer i, Ti is the temperature of the layer
i, Ki is the thermal conductivity of the layer i, and Oi is the quantity of heat per unit time
per unit area liberated in the layer by condensation or absorption of water vapor.
If the heat capacity and the thermal conductivity have been assumed to be constants,
then integrating equation 3.43 with respect to the fabric coordinates within the layer i will
gives
xi+di
(pc)id/dt
Tidxi'= Ki STi/Sxi'
+ <E>idi
- Ki8Ti/8xi'
Xi'=Xi+d
(3.44)
Xi' = Xi
Xi
where di is the thickness of the layer i. By definition, average temperature of layer i is

xi+di
<Ti> = (1 /di)
Tidxi'.
(3.45)
Xi
And the boundary conditions are

Ki 5Ti/5xi'
xi =xi+di
= - hi(<Ti> - <Ti+i>)
(3.46)
= - hi-i(<Ti-i> - <Ti>)
(3.47)
and
Ki 5Ti/Sxi'
.
xi =xi
Then, equation 3.44 becomes

(pc)i d<Ti>/dt = (<Ti-i> - <Ti>)/Rhi-l - (<Ti> - <Ti+i>)/Rhi + <Oi>
(3.48)
where Rhi (= hi/di) is the thermal resistance between the ith layer and the next layer.
A similar equation may be written for the flow of vapor;
dMi/dt = (Pi-i - Pi)/Rei-i - (Pi - Pi+i)/Rei
(3.49)
where Re is the vapor resistance between the ith layer and the next one out, Pi is the vapor
pressure, Mi is the total mass per unit area of water present in the ith layer.
The total amount of water (Mi) existing within the ith layer of clothing is assumed
to be the sum of water presented as vapor (Mvi) and liquid (Mli) and water absorbed by
hygroscopic fibers (Mai);
Mi = Mvi + Mli + Mai
(3.50)
The mass of vapor and pressure can be related by the ideal gas law. If the thickness
of the layer is di and the layer has fractional fiber volume Xfi, then
Mvi = Pidi(l-Xfi)Mw/RTi
(3.51)
where Mw is the mass of a water molecule, and R is the Bolzmann constant.

The mass of absorbed water can be related to vapor pressure by knowledge of
fabric regain. This model relies on the approximate assumption that the regain is directly
proportional to atmospheric relative humidity (Nordon & David [86]), the constant of
proportionality being derived from fabric regain values measured at 20C and 65% RH.
Then,
Mai = YiPiMfi/Ps(Ti)
(3.52)
where Mfi is the mass of the fabric, Yi is the proportionality constant, and Ps(Ti) is the
saturation vapor pressure at temperature Ti.
Farnworth [79] proceeds to predict the vapor pressure P and the saturation vapor
pressure Ps as a function of position within a clothing system. P(x) is a set of straight
lines, where P < Ps and no condensation occurs, and curves, where P = Ps and
condensation does take place as shown in figure 3.3. If P < Ps(T), the water remains
partly as vapor, but the rest is absorbed by the fibers and gives off the heat of sorption, i.e.
Mli = 0,
Mi = Pi[di( 1-Xfi)Mw/RTi+7iMfi/Ps(Ti)], then
(3.53)
31
P(x)
Ps(x)
DRY
Po
P<Ps
00
CO
_WET
P=Ps
DRY
P<Ps
LAYER
BOUNDARY
LAYER
>
BOUNDARY
x =0
DISTANCE, X
X = Li
(SKIN)
Figure 3.3. Illustration of the Vapor Pressure P and the Saturation Vapor Pressure Ps as a
Function of Position within a Clothing System.
32
<W = Ha(dMai/dt) = Ha(dMi/dt)/[l + di(l-Xfi)MwPs(Ti)/(RTi7iMf)]
(3.54)
where Ha is the heat of sorption.

If P = Ps(T), all of this water accumulates as liquid by condensation. The heat
released is then
Mi = Mli + Ps(T)di(1-Xfi)Mw/RTi + iMfi,
Therefore,
<J>i = Hn(dMli/dt)
(3.55a)
(3.55b)
where Hn is the latent heat of condensation; i.e. AHvap.

On the other hand, the boundary conditions are as follows; at the outer most layer,
and at the inner most layer,
Ti = Ta and Pi = Pa
(3.56)
Ti = To and Pi = Po.
(3.57)
If water accumulates at the skin boundary over through sweating, the equation for
the mass of water on the surface of the skin is
dMo/dt = mo - (Po - Pl)/Reo
(3.58)
where Mo is the mass per unit area on the skin, mo is the mass per unit time per unit area of
sweat produced, Po, PI are the vapor pressure at the skin and in the first clothing layer,
respectively, and Reo is the water vapor resistance of the first layer.
A small quantity of water placed on the skin is not likely to spread out over the
whole skin but will wet only a portion, the rest remaining dry. Over the wet area, the vapor
pressure will be Ps(To). Over the dry areas, the vapor pressure will be close to the vapor
pressure in the first layer of clothing. If the water spread to a mass per unit area, Ms, then
the vapor pressure may be taken as roughly the average weighted by areas;
at Mo > Ms,
Po = Ps(Ta)
(3.59)
33
at Mo < Ms,
Po = Ps(Ta)Mo/Ms + Pl[l - Mo/Ms].
(3.60)
Then we have two differential equations 3.48 and 3.49 which may produce a
equation being coupled by equation 3.54 or 3.55b and the boundary conditions 3.56 ~
3.60.
Farnworth [88] predicts transient heat loss curve using a computer. He shows that
the effect of strongly hygroscopic clothing is to reduce heat loss during sweating and
enhance it subsequently, precisely the opposite of what is desired. In the case of wool, the
effects of absorption are much more pronounced. At the onset of sweating, there is a rapid
rise in heat loss as the first few drops of water evaporate. This water vapor is readily
absorbed by the wool, raising its temperature and therefore reducing the heat loss by
conduction and radiation. He also showed the effects of permeability on the heat loss
before, during, and after the sweating period. In the case of impermeable fabrics,
condensation takes place on the fabric surface and condensation heat is liberated, which
reduces heat loss.
3.4.3. WATER TRANSPORT (WICKING) MECHANISMS

Considerable attention has been paid to the ability of clothing structures to transport
liquid water by capillary action. Although clothing fabrics, in particular, differ widely in
their ability to act as wicks, not all these differences are translated into comfort differences.
First of all, studies have shown that the level of water collection in clothing seldom reaches
water content levels sufficient to induce wicking, especially in cold environments [1431.
Water evaporating from the skin may condense in the cooler clothing layers. However, the
capillaries in the clothing fabrics are not sufficiently water-filled, or continuous, to start the
capillary transport mechanism. On the other hand, wicking transport may be important in
tropical clothing where quick-drying and cooling at higher water content levels is typical
[144]. The transport of moisture in liquid form is claimed by some researches [147-149]
34
but disputed by others [150, 151] as an important contributor to the thermal comfort of
fabrics worn next to the skin.
There are several mechanisms in wicking by capillary action. Assuming a liquid
drop placed on a fabric, it spreads through two step process: the first step is when some of
liquid remains on the surface, the liquid drop is considered as an unlimited reservoir and
the process is treated by one dimensional spreading mechanism; the second step is when
the liquid is completely contained within the substance and the process is treated as two
dimensional spreading of limited liquid.
Sorption of a liquid from an unlimited reservoir into a porous substance is shown
by Washburn's equation as follows;
dx/dt = (27cos0/r - gpL)r2/8Yx
(3.61)
where x is the distance wicked, t is time, r is the effective capillary radius, 7 is the surface
tension of liquid, 0 is the advancing contact angle, U is the viscosity of liquid, g is the
gravitational constant, and p is the density of liquid. If the external pressure driving the
liquid is negligible in comparison to capillary pressure, the distance wicked, L, becomes
L = (rYt/2|icos9)0-5
(3.62)
and the volume V which penetrates the substance is given by

V = k (7/(JL)0-5t0-5
(3.63)
where k is the capillary sorption coefficient. The equation 3.62 well represents vertical or
horizontal capillary wicking or spreading length and the latter, spontaneous wet pickup
volume of fiber absorbent. Kawase et al [188] also showed the spreading area of the fabric
having thickness L and fiber volume fraction Xf based on equation as follows;
A = [k/{ L(1-Xf)}](7/(J.)-5t0-5
(3.64)
35
The second step capillary action has studied by Kissa [154]. He derived an
equation for two dimensional circular spreading of limited volume of liquid, assuming
impermeable fiber materials;
A3 - AAo 2 = KYV2t/|i
(3.65)
where A is the area covered by the spreading liquid at time t, Ao is the area at time 0, V is
the drop volume, and K is the capillary sorption coefficient. If Ao is neglected, the area
covered by the spreading liquid is given by
A ~ K(7/H)0-33v0.67 t 0.33.
(3.66)
Assuming permeable fiber materials, equation may be written in the general form
A = K(7/H)uVmtn,
(3.67)
>i i w . r r j -
where u, m, and n are constants.
36
3.4.4. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND WATER VAPOR DEFFUSIVITY AND
THEIR RELATIONSHIPS TO FABRIC STRUCTURE.
As discussed in section 3.4.1, the thermal resistance and moisture resistance of
single layers of the fabric are expressed as follows:
Rh = L/K + 1/hc; and Re = L/D + 1/he
(3.36 and 3.33)
where Rh is the thermal resistance, Re is the water vapor resistance, K is the thermal
conductivity, D is the moisture diffusion coefficient, he is the boundary heat transfer
coefficient, he is the boundary moisture transfer coefficient, and L is the fabric thickness.
The first term of each formula represents the resistance of the fabric itself and the
second, the resistance of the boundary layer. As fabric dependant parameters, the thermal
conductivity and moisture diffusion coefficient are the most important factors in heat and
moisture transfer in addition to the fabric thickness. This section will concentrate on
reviewing the relationship between the fabric structural properties and thermal conductivity
or moisture diffusion coefficient.
3.4.4.1. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY MODEL

A. GENERAL MECHANISM
The basic modes of thermal heat transfer in fibrous materials are; gas conduction;
thermal radiation; fiber to fiber conduction; and natural convection. However, because of
the complex interactions of many different mechanisms of heat transfer, the term "effective"
or "apparent" thermal conductivity is often used, and its value is determined experimentally
during steady state conditions.
A mathematical model of Kapp for a fibrous insulation was proposed by Bankvall
[37] and Pelanne [38];
37
0.05
0.04
(Kapp)
TOTAL APPARENT
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
ET
0.03
(Krd)
RADIATION CONDUCTIVITY
AND TRANSMISSION
AIR CONVECTION (Kcv)
0.02
STILL AIR CONDUCTIVITY (Ka)
0.01
ER CONDUCTIVITY (Ks)
0.00
BULK DENSITY (kg/m3)
Figure 3.4. Contribution of Each Mode of Heat Transfer through Fiber Material at 37.8 C
Kapp = Ka + Kcv + Krd + Ks + Ki
(3.68)
where Ka, Kcv, Krd, Ks, and Ki are the effective thermal conductivity due to air
conduction, convection, radiation, fiber to fiber conduction, and interaction of fibers and
air, respectively. They have reported the relative magnitudes of the different modes of heat
transfer in planer fibrous insulations. Their results show in figure 3.4 that at moderate
temperature (Tm = 37.8 C) air conduction is the predominant mechanism up to a density
of 140 kg/m3 , while radiation and convection are only appreciable below densities of about
30 kg/m3 and 10 kg/m3 respectively. Fiber to fiber conduction is appreciable only when
density exceed 20 kg/m3 and are significant when fabric density is more than 200 kg/m3.
The different mechanisms of heat transfer will be reviewed in the following
sections.
B. STRUCTURAL MODELS OF FffiER AND GAS CONDUCTANCE POROUS SOLID

MODEL (MULTIPHASE MODEL)
Maxwell [45] pioneered in the study of the thermal conductivity of two phase
mixtures. Rayleigh [46], Hamilton [50, 51], Cheng, et al [54] and others [47-49, 52, 53,
55-57] followed Maxwell and developed various multiphase models. However, all this
models may not be applicable for the fibrous materials because they assume that the
discontinuous phase is completely isolated by continuous component and that the mixture is
isotropic thermally.
For fibrous materials, various models are also suggested as listed in table 3.1 and
illustrated in figure 3.5. Schuhmeister [44] first developed a porous solid model,
considering "effective" combinations of parallel and perpendicular models. Baxter [133]
experimentally sh owed the combination ratios of parallel and perpendicular models were
0.21 and 0.79 for most knit and woven fabrics. Dent [58] applied orientation functions to
Schuhmeister's formulae. Bankvall [37] proposed more complex forms than those
39
Table 3.1. Thermal Conductivity Models for Fiber Materials.
Models and Investigators
Formulae
A., Parallel Model

(Farnworth [67])
K = Ka(l - Xf) + KfXf, where Xf = fiber volume fraction.
0, Series Model
(Speil [39])
1/K = (1-Xf)/Ka + Xf/Kf
C. Combination Model 1
(Schuhmeister [44])
K = a[Ka(l-Xf)+KfXf)]+ [(1- a) KaKf)/[KaXf+Kf(l-Xf)]

a= fiber orientation factor.
(Baxter [133])
a= 0.29
(Dent [58])
a= <cos29>, and 1- a= <sin20 >

0 = effective orientation angle
P, Combination Model 2
(Bankvall [37])
(Yoon [158])
K = oc[pKa+(l-p)Kf] + (l-a)KfKa/[(l- )Ka+ Kf]

ap+(l-a) =Xf.
P = 1, a = optical porosity
E. Combination Model 3
(Hager [64])
K = 4KfXf3 + l/[(1-Xf)/Ka+Xf/Kf]
F.
K = alKa+(pl+71)/(Pl/Kf+71/Kc)+
(2+p2+72)(a2/Ka+p2/Kf+72/Kc)
Wet Fabric Model 1

(Suzuki [60])
G. Wet Fabric Model 2

(Larson [32])
K = <x(plKa+p2Kf+P3Kc)+ (1 - a)pi/Ka+p2/Kf+p3/Ka
H. Wet Fabric model 3

(Naka [61])
K = a/2[XfK+XwKc+(1-Xf-Xw)Ka]+(1-a/2){Y/[X f/K+
(l-Xf)/Kc]+( 1 -7)/[Xf/K+p/Kc+(l-Xf-p)/Ka]}
where p= [Xw-(l-Xf)Y ]/(l- Y)
a
f
a
f
c
Figure 3.5. Thermal Conductivity Models of Fabric Structure,

(a = air, f = fiber, c = liquid water)
41
discussed above. He used the Schuhmeister's approach, but introduced three structural
parameters in addition to total porosity. Horikawa et al [59] derived a statistical equation
through infinitively thin layer analysis. Larson et al [32], and Suzuki [60] described the
model of three phases, fiber, water, air, based on Schuhmeister's. Suzuki considered the
thermal conductivity of interface between fibers and the effect of swelling and shrinkage by
moisture.
But all above mentioned equations did not consider the anisotropy of fiber
contained within fabric. Only Naka et al [61] considered the anisotropic properties of the
fiber conductivity.
ANISOTROPIC FIBER MODEL

Depending upon crystal structure, the thermal conductivity of some refractory solid
is anisotropic with its greatest value in the direction of the greatest bonding forces [42],
Kelly [41] reported that graphite with its hexagonal structure showed the greatest
anisotropy, with the thermal conductivity (Kh) in the direction parallel to the basal plane
some two to three hundred times greater than that (Kv) in the direction parallel to the
hexagonal axis and the thermal conductivity of graphite particularly below 300K.
depended upon the crystalize size. Kelly's thermal conductivity model for symmetric
polycrystalline rod shows that the anisotropy of fiber thermal conductivity is analogous to
that of refractive indices.
(Kh - Kv)/(Kn - Ki) = 1 - 3/2<sin2 0> = f
(3.69)
where f is Hermann's optical orientation factor, Kh and Kv are real conductivity parallel
and perpendicular to fiber axis, respectively, K and K are perfectly oriented conductivity
parallel and perpendicular to the fiber axis, respectively, and 0 is the angle of inclination of
the molecules.
42
Kawabata [43] showed that the thermal conductivity of the single fibers along the
fiber axis was about ten times of that along the transverse. In the case of Kevlar, the ratio
obtained at more than 30 as shown in table 3.2a. He also measured the orthotropic heat
conductivity of oriented polystyrene sheet and expressed it as a function of molecular
orientation.
We therefore have to take into account the anisotropy of single fiber for modelling
yarn and fabrics.
Table 3.2a. Anisotropic Heat Conductivity of Fibers [431

Fiber
Carbon Fiber
Aramid(Kevlar 49)
Cotton
Linen
Glass Fiber(E-Glass)
Rayon Filament
Silk
Polyamide(Nylon)
Rayon Staple
Polyester Filament
Polypropy lene(Pilen)
Polyester Staple
Acrylic(Xlan)
Wool
Kil(w/mC)
Longitudinal
Kl
Transverse
7.948
4.334
2.879
2.831
2.250
1.895
1.492
1.433
1.414
1.257
1.241
1.175
1.020
0.480
0.603
0.104
0.243
0.344
0.509
Kll/Kl
Ratio
13.18
41.67
11.85
8.23
4.42
0.118
0.171
0.237
0.157
0.111
0.127
0.172
0.165
12.64
8.38
5.97
8.01
11.18
9.25
5.93
2.91
Table 3.2b. Orthotropic Heat Conductivities of Biaxilly Drawn Polystyrene Film [43]
Direction
K1 (Machine)
K2 (Transverse)
K3 (Thickness)
Ko (Isotropic)
Stretch Ratio
K (w/mC)
Sigma
3.57
2.34
0.11
1.00
0.496
0.311
0.115
0.219
0.028
0.045
0.005
0.001
43
C. RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER MODEL
CONDUCTION MODEL
Many of the past studies have modelled radiative heat transfer in fibrous materials
as a conductive [36, 37, 63-66] process and developed expressions for the thermal
conductivity due to radiation. Although the expressions are simple, most of them contain a
parameter which has to be determined experimentally. This radiative conductivity approach
is valid deep within a sample whose thickness is large compared to the penetration depth
for radiation into the material and when the dominant form of heat flow is conduction [67].
Under these circumstances the temperature gradient within the sample is close to a constant
and may be approximated by the average gradient across the sample. Verschoor and
Greebler [36] and Bankvall [37] assumed that thermal radiation propagated through layers
of fibers and treated each layer as an absorbing and emitting surface. The net thermal
radiation across the entire insulation was determined by combining all the contributions
among successive layers. The radiative thermal conductivity was defined by casting the
final radiant flux expressions in the form of Fourier's law. Considering the probability of a
photon being able to travel through a differential volume of fibers, Strong et al [65] and
Davis and Birkebak [66] derived the radiative thermal conductivity from a slightly different
point of view. However, the above authors all found the conductivity due to radiation to be
Krd (r/Xf)Tm3
(3.70)
where r is the radius of fibers, m, Xf is the volume fraction of fibers, Tm is the mean
temperature in the insulation, K.
Different assumptions on the geometric structure of the fibrous bed yield different
constants of proportionality.Table 3.3 summarizes the functional dependence of Krd
derived by the different investigators. The parameters are functions of the composition of
the fibrous materials, volume fraction, and size distribution of the fibers.
44'
Table 3.3. Summary of Various Conduction Models.

Investigators
Krad
Experimentally
Determined Parameter
Verschoor and Greebler [36]
2ic
orTm3/(a2Xf)
1/a2, Opacity Factor
Bankvall [37]
2rcorTm3/(a2Xf)
1/a2, Opacity Factor
Van der Held [63]
16oTm3/(3e)
e, Extinction Coefficient
Hanger and Steer [64]
9orTm3/Xf
None, because assumed

fibers formed opaque
black sheets
Strong, et al [65]
HrcorTm3/(eXf)
e, Emissivity
Davis and Birkebak [66]
4FcsrTm3/(eXf)
e, Emissivity
Farnworth [67]
8orTm3/(eXf)
e, Emissivity
RADIATION MODEL
1he study done by Larkin and Churchill [68] was the first that approached the
problem from a more rigorous radiation view point as the alternative approach. They
measured the total transmission through fibrous materials and used the two flux model to
deduce the absorption and back scattering coefficients. Their results show that in general,
the back-scattering coefficients are much larger than the absorption coefficients. This
suggests that attenuation of radiation in fibrous insulation is mainly due to scattering instead
of absorption.
Aronson et al [69] have developed expressions for the absorption, and scattering
coefficients by considering coarse and fine fibers separately. They used the geometrical
optics theory (coarse fiber theory) and the Raleigh approximation of wave optics (fine fiber
theory) to estimate the coefficients in the coarse and fine regimes, respectively.
45
Tong and Tien [70] derived a spectral two flux model from electromagnetic theory
whose objective was to analytically predict the radiant energy being transferred in fibrous
insulations given the complex refractive indexes, the size distributions and the volume
fractions of the fibers. Bemberg and Klarsfeld [71] developed semi-empirical model using
experimental result of paper septa between layers of low density glass fibers introduced by
Pelanne [38].
Recently, Kowaiski et al [72], Farnworth [67], Dent et al [58], and Stuart &
Holcombe [73] tackled the problem of combined radiation and conduction in fibrous media.
Kowaiski assumed that insulation is purely absorptive. Farnworth ignored scattering of
radiation. Stuart and Holcombe considered a shading or shadowing effect on a geometric
fiber cross section basis instead of a more general absorption, but their assumption is
limited to the coarse fiber (20 ~ 30 microns); valid for wavelengths that are small relative to
the diameter of objects in their path. Dent studied a general absorption-scattering case, but
assumed T(x) to be linear function. Table 3.4 shows radiative models according to various
assumptions. Absorption and scattering coefficients act as key parameters in determining
which model can be applied to a material.
ANALYSIS OF ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING COEFFICIENTS
Dent et al [58] estimated P and N with equations including the fiber volume fraction
(Xf), the fiber diameter (d), and the fiber thermal emissivity (ef) or reflectance (rf),
assuming that all the fibers lie parallel to the plane of the fabric or perpendicular to the
temperature gradient as follows:
P = 4efXf/d; and N = 2rfXf/d;
(3.71a,b)
The equations 3.71a and b imply that in addition to the boundary conditions (To,
TL, eo, eL), the fiber & fabric structure (Xf, L, d, rf, ef) are important to control radiative
heat transfer through the fibrous materials.
46
Table 3.4. Radiative Modes

Formulae
Investigator
1. Stuard & Holcombe

[73]
Assuming f = eQ = h
Krd = 5.33oTo3f2(d/Xf)[l-0.75d/(XfL.)]
2. Larkin & Churchill

[68]
No absorption case
Krd = 4oTm3L/(l/L + 1/eo - 1 + NL)
3. Farnworth et al [67]
No scattering case
2(cosh<l)-l) + (l+f)sinh0+
Krd =
(8aTm3/P)[l-
[2(cosh<M) + u(l+r )sinh<t>| +
7[sinhBx + rucoshBx + sinh(0-Bx) + rucosh(<t>-Bx)]

}
2
r[sinh<t>+ ucosh<|>+ Tu sinh<l)+rucosh0]
where u = B/(EoP), = KP<t>/(8oTm3), Eo = (2- eo)/eo,
E = (2-eL)/L , T = Eo/E, and B2 = P2 + 8PoTm3/K.
4. Dent et al [58]
General case (scattering-absorprion)

high density
Krd = 4ctTo3[1 + P(Eo+El)/(2N+P)+EoELP/(2N+P)]/
{ 1/EO+1/EL-1+N+P[1+(2-EO-EL)/(eoeL)] }
low density
Krd = 4ctTo3L/{ 1/eo+ 1/EL-1 +L[N+1 +(2-o-eL)/(eoeL)] )
47
D. CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISM
The natural convection transfer appears only when the solid portion is very small,
forming cells large enough to allow natural convective air turbulence. These cells usually
must be several millimeters across for the phenomenon to become apparent [38].
Farnworth [67] reported that no evidence of convective heat transfer was found, even lowdensity battings. For only the airgap, he observed the onset of convection, with the bottom
plate hotter than the top. Dent et al [58] measured the convective conductivity, using the
difference in the heat flow conductivities in the up and down direction, which contributed
about 10% to total conductivity for some down and polyester battings and was very
significant for 2 inches airgap. Anyway, the convection may not be negligible for very
thick low density fibrous material or the airgap between fabric layers.
The calculation of a rate of heat loss by convection requires the estimation of
Nusselt number; i.e.
Nu = K*/K = Q*/Q
(3.72)
where Q and Q are the heat flow rate, including and excluding heat transfer caused by
convection, and K* and K is the thermal conductivity with and without interstitial fluid
movement. Hence,
Kcv = K* - K = K(Nu - 1) = K*(l - 1/Nu)
(3.73)
When the Nusselt number is equal to one, heat transfer does not contain any contribution
from convection. In the presence of convective movement, Q is greater than Q and the
Nusselt number becomes greater than one.
The Nusselt number for natural convection in horizontal, vertical, or inclined layers
can be described by a general equation of the following type;
Nu = aRa*b
(3.74)
48
where Ra* is the modified Raleigh number, and a and b are constants. Dent et al [58] have
defined a modified Rayleigh number, Ra* ;
Ra* = (pg/aa"U)cd2(1-Xf)/[4Xf + jc(d/L)2]L AT (aa/af),
(3.75)
where P is the volume expansion coefficient, g is the acceleration due to gravity, aa and af
are the thermal diffusivity of air and web (fiber + air), respectively, x> is the kinematic
viscosity (M-/P) of the fluid, d is the fiber diameter, Xf is the fiber volume fraction, L is the
fabric thickness, and c is a constant.
The relation between Nusselt number and flow conditions is either entirely
experimental or semi-empirical. The remarkable fact is, however, that a transition from one
type of flow to another always occurs at the same values of dimensionless numbers,
independent of the porous medium in which convection takes place. These numbers are
called critical numbers. Dent et al [58] proposed the critical number based on the Horton
and Roger's theory [76];
Racr* = 4TC2 ~ 40 for all fluids
(3.76)
Therefore, if Ra* is smaller than 40 (Nu = 1), convection will not occur. Figure 3.6
illustrates a typical natural convection curve in horizontal layers which shows the
relationship between Nu and Ra . The convective movement starts suddenly at a given
threshold level [169].
From the view of geometrical properties of the fabric, convection heat flow through
the fabric requires enough pore size, fabric thickness, and/or temperature difference.
49
10
/TTURBULENT
5
LAMINAR
HEAT FLOW UP
II
*
**
NO CONVECTION
HEAT FLOW DOWN
Nu = K/K
250
2500
Ra
Figure 3.6. Natural Convection in Horizontal Layers.
50
3.4.4.2. MODEL OF MOISTURE DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT
Crank [6] examined the analog of heat conduction and mass diffusion. By analogy
with the thermal conductivity, King [80], Baxter [81], and Cassie [171] applied
Schuhmeister's thermal conductivity model to moisture diffusion coefficient and have the
empirical form
D = <x[Da(l - Xf)+DfXf] + (l-a)DaDf/[DaXf + Df(l - Xf)]
(3.77)
where a is the fiber orientation factor, Xf is the fiber volume fraction. Da and Df are the
water vapor diffusion coefficients in air and in fiber, respectively. Baxter empirically got
a= 0.29 and Cassie assumed random orientation which gives a = 0.33. Since Df ~ 0. they
approximated
D-oDa(l-Xf).
(3.78)
Recently, Yoon and Buckley [158] drived the following formula from a model of a
fabric: yarns and pores are arranged in parallel while, within the yarn, fibers and air are
arranges in series:
D = pDa + (l-p)DaDf/[DaXf + Df(l - Xf)]
(3.79)
where (3 is the optical porosity. They also proposed a diffusion model of a fabric from a
blend yarn,
D = pDa + (l-p)DaDflDf2/[DaDflXfY+DaDf2Xf(l-7)+DflDf2(l-Xf)l
(3.80)
where Y is blend ratio of fiber 2, and Dfl & Df2 are water vapor diffusion coefficients of
fiber 1 and fiber 2. For all practical purposes, Df/Da is negligible. Then equations and
reduce to
D~ PDa
(3.81)
51
Both formulae show the water vapor resistance of a fabric is solely determined by its
geometry and the nature of the constitute fiber does not play a role.
3.4.5. BOUNDARY HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS AND

THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
The analysis of the boundary layer will provide the interpretation of the interaction
of energy dissipation with environmental variables. Fanger [11] shows the importance of
environmental factors through his double heat balance equation. As discussed in section
3.4.1, equations 3.33 & 3.36, the boundary heat transfer contributes to the total resistance
in addition to the clothing resistance as follows:
Rh = L/K + 1/hc; and Re = L/D + 1/he
(from 3.36 and 3.33)
where Rh is the thermal resistance, Re is the water vapor resistance, K is the thermal
conductivity of the fabric, D is moisture diffusion coefficient of the fabric, he is the
boundary heat transfer coefficient, he is the boundary moisture transfer coefficient, and L is
the fabric thickness.
The second term of each formula represents the resistance of the boundary layer
while the first, the resistance of the fabric. Ambient temperature and water vapor pressure
are the most important environmental parameters affecting the heat and moisture transfer
through Fanger's comfort equation [11] and Woodcock's energy dissipation formula [83,
84]. The boundary heat and moisture transfer coefficients are also important environment
dependants. Their relationships with environmental variables will be reviewed below.
3.4.5.1. BOUNDARY HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

The boundary heat transfer coefficient (he) can be expressed as the sum of
convective heat transfer coefficient (hcv) and radiative heat transfer coefficient (hrd). If the
52
heat transfer mechanisms obeys Fourier's first law of the conduction, then the boundary
heat transfer coefficient is
he = hcv + hrd
(3.82)
Convective heat transfer is driven by two mechanisms; "free convection" due to

density differences in the fluid associated with temperature gradients, or "forced
convection" due to external forces such as wind. Generally, hcv is defined by the Nusselt
Number
hcv = NuKa/1
(3.83)
where Ka is the thermal conductivity of the boundary layer fluid (air), w/mC. 1 is the
characteristic dimension of the body, m, and Nu is the Nusselt Number, a dimensionless
group, which depends on the size and shape of the body, the nature of its surface and the
fluid properties [18,19].
In free convection, the Nusselt number is described by the Grashof number (Gr)
and the Prandtl number (Pr) [5,9];
Nu ~ (GrPr)'/4
(3.84)
where Gr = g(313(Tcl - Ta)/(ctt)) , Pr = u/a, g is the acceleration due to gravity. (3 is the

volume coefficient of thermal expansion, v is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid = M-/P =
viscosity/density, a is the thermal diffusivity of the fluid = Ka/(pc), and c is the heat
capacity of the fluid.
In forced convection, the Nusselt number includes the Reynolds number (Re)
instead of the Grashof number. The general form is given by;
Nu c RenPrm
where n and m are constants.
(3.85)
53
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless group relating to the fluid velocity, v, to
its kinematic viscosity, D, and to 1; i.e.
Re = vlA)
(3.86)
hcv c (gpKa2p2c2/l)1/4(Ts - Ta)1/4
(3.87a)
Hence, in free convection,
and in forced convection,

hcv c (ln"1Ka1"m-um"nprncm)vn.
(3.87b)
It is obvious that free convection is governed by temperature difference while

forced convection is governed by fluid velocity. According to Kreith [20], for Gr/Re2 is
less than 0.1 forced convection occurs, and free convection dominates when Gr/Re2 is
greater than 16. Between free and forced convections, there is a zone of mixed flow, in
which both mechanisms contribute significantly to heat transfer. Fanger [11] used semiempirical formulae to derive his comfort equation;
2.38 (Tel - Ta)1/4 for v < O.lOm/s, free convection [Nielsen, 118]
(3.88a)
12.1 v'/2
(3.88b)
hcv =
for v > O.lOm/s, forced convection [Gagge, 119]
Radiative heat transfer rate. R. (net radiant energy exchange between two gray body
surfaces) from the outer surface of the clothed can be expressed as
R = 8 aFe [(Tel + 273)4 - (Tmrt + 273)4]
(3.89)
where e is the emittance of the outer surface of the clothed body, a is the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant, and Fe is the effective radiation area factor. Tmrt represents the mean radiant
temperature (C) defined by
Tmn = XAiTi/XAi,
(3.90)
54
where Ai is the projected area of ith specific surface or object, and Ti is the surface
temperature of ith surface. Equation 3.89 shows that the rate of radiant heat exchange
transmission depends on the fourth power of the temperature. However, in the case of a
small temperature difference (Tel -Tmrt ~ 0), it is useful to use a first power approximation
so that the general equation matches that for convection,
R = 4 e aFeTm3(Tcl - Tmrt)
(3.91)
where Tm is the mean temperature = [(Tcl+273)+(Tmrt+273)]/2.

Then, approximately, the radiant heat transfer coefficient is
hrd ~ 4 e aFeTm3.
(3.92)
Fanger [11] gives empirical datum: e = 0.97 for clothes; Fe = av. 0.71; and since a =
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.77xl0-8 w/m2oK4, so that
hrd = 1.6 x 10"7Tm3.
(3.93)
3.4.5.2. BOUNDARY MOISTURE TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Although the removal of heat by evaporation depends on the change of state of
water from liquid to vapor, the rate at which the process proceeds is determined by the rate
at which the vapor diffuses away from the surface. Conduction and convection can both be
regarded as processes of diffusion of heat from regions of high concentration to regions of
lower concentration, and evaporation follows laws very similar to those governing
convection.
The water vapor transfer coefficient from the clothed body to ambient is expressed
[22] as
he = ShDa/1
(3.94)
55
where Da is the water vapor diffusion coefficient in air, m2/s, 1 is the thickness of boundary
layer, m, and Sh is Sherwood number, which is defined as a
Sh = Nu Lea
(3.95)
Le is Lewis number = a/Da, Nu is Nusselt number, and a is constant: a = 1/4 [23] in free
convection; a = m in forced convection.
In forced convection, Sh = (lna "mum'n)vn and
he ~ (in-lDa1"mUm"n)vn
(3.96)
Buettner [113] derived an empirical formula for the standing nude human subject in air
current in the range 0.15 ~ 0.5 m/s;
he = 120 v0-5, w/m2kPa
(3.97)
In free convection, when heat and water vapor transfer occur together, the temperature
difference in the Grashof number used in convective heat transfer should be replaced by the
difference in "Virtual Temperature"[22], given by
Tv = T(l+0.38P/Po)
(3.98)
where P is the vapor pressure, kPa, and Po is the atmospheric pressure, kPa. Then,
he oc [Da4g/( a2l)]1/4[Ts(l+0.38Ps/Po)-Ta(l+0.38Pa/Po)]1/4.
(3.99)
When only the water vapor transfer occurs (no temperature difference),
he ~ [0.38TaDa4g/( a2l)l1/4(Ps - Pa)1/4.
(3.100)
As a result of reviewing the interaction of heat and moisture transfer with

environment, we conclude that the ambient temperature, the mean radiant temperature, the
56
ambient water vapor pressure, and air velocity are important main parameters. Generally,
the heat transfer rate and moisture transfer rate through fibrous material depend on the
differences in temperature and vapor concentration between skin surface and ambient.
However, the boundary heat transfer and moisture transfer have various modes depending
on the rate of air current and the intensity of radiation. For forced convection (v > 0.1m/s),
both heat and moisture transfer of the boundary layer is proportional to the square root of
the surrounding air velocity. However, for free convection (v < 0.1 m/s), they are
dependant of quarter power of the temperature difference or/and vapor pressure difference
between skin surface and ambient. At the same time, radiant heat transfer is proportional to
third power of ambient temperature.
57
3.5. TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION AS A MEASURE OF WARM/COOL
SENSATION
The sensation of coolness or warmth generated in touching a fabric is related to the
heat flow between the skin and the contacted fabric. Rees [164], Hollies [165], and
Kawabata [30] have investigated the correlation between heat flux and the warm/cool
feeling of touch. Kawabata [166] reports that transient heat flux correlates to warm/cool
feeling. It also affects clothing comfort, especially in fabrics worn next to the skin.
3.5.1. WARM/COOL SENSORY MODEL

When estimate contact is made between the skin and a fabric surface, having a
temperature lower than the skin, heat flows from the skin to the fabric. The feeling of
coolness frequently associated with the tactile sensation of hand arises from this short term
or transient heat flow. Kawabata [30] mathematically analyzed transient heat conduction
within human skin as a measure of warm/cool sensation. He modelled the skin layer as
shown in figure 3.7.
In Kawabata's skin model is assumed that (1) the thermal
conductivity of skin is constant over the skin layer (Epidermis and Dermis), so that steady
state temperature gradient from skin surface (x = ds) to subcutaneous tissue (x = 0) is
linear, (2) Subcutaneous and underlining tissue are kept at a constant temperature of Tb C,
independent of time but the temperature of skin surface varies with time from initial
temperature, Tso, and (3) the thermoreceptor detects warm /cool environment in terms of
the rate of energy density change. The position of receptor is assumed to be at half depth
of skin.
3.5.2. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION

We can use Kawabata's skin model to analyze one dimensional transient heat
conduction in the skin when in contact with a fabric. In this analysis, the contacting
58
material is assumed to be a good conductor of heat. Then, the equation of heat conduction
with the skin layer is
8T/8t = ocsS^/Sx2
(3.101)
where T(x,t) is the temperature in skin at position x (m) and time t (sec), C, and as is the
thermal diffusivity of skin layer, i.e. Ks/(pscs), m2/sec. Ks is the thermal conductivity of
skin layer, w/mC, ps is the density of skin layer, kg/m3 , and cs is the heat capacity of
skin layer, J/kgC.
The initial conditions are:
Ts(o)
= Tso;
(3.102)
y(o) = yo;and
(3.103)
T(x,o) = (Tso - Tb) x/ds + Tb,
(3.104)
where Ts(o) is the temperature of skin surface at t = 0, C, y(o) is the temperature of

contact material at t = 0, C, Tb is the body temperature. C, and ds is the thickness of skin
layer, m.
The boundary conditions are:
at x = 0,
T(o,0 = Tb;
(3.105)
atx=ds,
T(ds,t) = y(t); and
(3.106)
8T/8x = -
(3.107)
pmCmdm
dy/dt,
where y(t) is the temperature of contact object at time t, C, pm is the density of contact
material (fabric), kg/m3, cm is the heat capacity of the fabric, J/kgC, and dm is the fabric
thickness, m.
Using Laplace transform and Heaviside expansion formula of inversion of Laplace
transform, we can compute the temperature distribution within skin layer:
59
oo
T(x,t)=Tb+
n=l
2sin(Bn
x/ds)exp(-bBn2t)[(yo-Tso)+(Tso-Tb)/aBn2]
Bn cosBn + (1 + l/a)sinBn
(3.108)
The rate of energy density change becomes

v(x,t) = pscs 8T/8t
oo
= pscs
(3.109a)
2bBn2sin(Bn x/ds)exp(-bBn2t)[(yo-Tso)+(Tso-Tb)/aBn2]
n=l
Bn cosBn + (1 + l/a)sinBn
(3.109b)
where v(x,t) is the rate of energy density change, w/m2oC, Bn = a series of positive roots
of cotB = aB, n = 1, 2,...oo, a = pmcmdm/pscsds, and b = a/ds2.
The thermoreceptor at x = 0.5ds detects the rate of energy density change v(0.5,t)
which corresponds to warm/cool sensation. Equation 3.109b gives a maximum value at t =
0 but in fact, it takes a short time for the receptor to translate warm/cool signals. Kawabata
[30] reports that the peak value of v(0.5,t) appeared at 0.2 ~ 0.3 sec after the contact.
Figure 3.8 and 3.9 show the distributions of temperature and the rate of energy change
according to various heat capacities (pmcmdm) of contact fabric. The temperature in skin
cool down rapidly and the peak value of v(0.5,t) increases with increasing pmcmdm value.
MATERIAL
Tm
Tso
EPIDERMIS
KRAUSE'S END BULB

RUFFINI'S ENDING
DERMIS
SUBCUTANEOUS
TISSUE
Tb
Figure 3.7. A Model for the Transient heat conduction in skin [30].
34
Tmo=36C
Tso=32C
Pm=pmcmdni
0
TIME, SEC
Figure 3.8. Temperature at the Sensory Spot in Skin for Various Heat Capacities
of Contact Object [30]
0.8
0.6
(3m =pm cm dm
0.4
0.2
2
TIME, SEC
Figure 3.9. v(0.5, t) according to Various Heat Capacities [30].
61
3.6. METHODOLOGY, EVALUATING PARAMETERS AND CLOTHING COMFORT
Table 3.5 divides the parameters controlling heat and moisture transfer into three
related categories: environmental variables, variables that are a function of clothing type,
and variables that depend on body activity.
Clothing comfort can be estimated by both physical and physiological test methods.
Umbach [127] schematically described the different test groups as shown in figure 3.10.
Levels 1 and 2 represent physical tests and levels 3~5'physiological tests.
Physiological tests use human subjects dressed in the test clothing performing work
at various metabolic loads in a controlled environments. Because of difference in
physiological reactions between human subjects (due to age, sex, physical fitness,
acclimatization, etc.), there can be a large deviation in the results of physiological tests used
to evaluate clothing comfort. In order to get a reliable picture of overall comfort properties,
a long series of tests has to be performed, which makes the physiological tests expensive
and time consuming.
Physical tests use various devices to simulate the heat and/or water vapor
production of the skin. Physical tests can be made either on textile materials, on complete
garments or garment combinations. Physical tests are typically more accuracy and less
expensive than physiological tests.
..
In the next section various physical test methods analyzing the parameters and
subjective test methods evaluating clothing comfort will be reviewed.
3.6.1. CONTROL AND MEASUREMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES

The most influential three environmental parameters of environment were reviewed:
(1) temperature, Ta; (2) relative humidity, RH, or vapor pressure, Pa, of the air; (3) air
movement, v.
62
Table 3.5. Parameters Affecting Thermal Comfort
ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS
Ambient temperature
Relative humidity
Air velocity
Ta
Pa or RH%
V
LEVELS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Metabolic rate
Mechanical work
Sweating rate
Sweat wetted area
M
W
Mo
SWA
CLOTHING PARAMETERS
FIBER PROPERTIES
Thermal conductivity
Fiber fineness
Kll and Kl
d
FABRIC PROPERTIES
Phvsical & Structural properties
Fabric weight
Fabric thickness
Fiber volume fraction
Porosity, optical
Pore size and distribution
Fiber arrangement
L
Xf
Po
1
9
Heat Transfer Properties

Thermal resistance
Thermal conductivity
Surface emissivity
Icl and lb
Kapp
Water Transfer Properties

Permeability Index
Water vapor diffusion rate
Water transport rate
Air permeability
im
m
Mp
Ap
63
LEVEL5
FIELD TEST
/\
$
LIMITED FIELD TEST
LEVEL 3
LEVEL2
CONTROLLED WEAR TESTS

WITH SUBJECTS IN THE
CLIMATIC CHAMBER
BIOPHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF
CLOTHING SYSTEMS
MOVEABLE MANIKIN
PHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF FABRICS
LEVEL 1
SKIN MODEL
J
5
e
e
<A
00
Z
<
2
H
oo
UJ
F
ua
>
C-
EXPENSE
LEVEL4
CONTROT ,T ,FT) AND
z
2
>-
o
<
OS
3
U
U
<
\/
Figure 3.10. Clothing Physiology Test Methods [1271.
TEMPERATURE is the most important and most familiar quantity. It is well

known that the difference between ambient temperature and the temperature of skin or cloth
surface acts as a driving force for heat exchange. Generally, standard laboratory test
methods for measuring thermal insulation [111, 112] use 21~24C environmental
temperature with a 10C temperature difference (AT) between the environment and heated
surface. For same analysis, extremely cold, -20C ~ -40C [109, 110], or extremely hot,
40C [9], conditions have been used.
64
THE VAPOR PRESSURE of the surrounding environment influences the rate of
evaporation of sweat from the skin. Vapor pressure may be measured in the several ways.
To a close approximation, water vapor pressure, Pa(Ta), is equal to the saturation vapor
pressure, Ps(Td), at dew point, Td. A useful empirical relationship between Ps and Ta is
Ps(Ta) = exp[16.6536 - 4030.183/(Ta + 235)]
(3.110)
where Ps = in kPa. If any two of the five variables, Ta, Pa, Tw (wet bulb temperature),
RH, and Td are known, the other three may be found by use of a psychrometric chart [124]
or by use of the equation
RH = Pa(Ta)/Ps(Ta) ~ Ps(Td)/Ps(Ta).
(3.111)
It is difficult to control the relative humidity at low temperature due to freezing

L125]. Experiments have been conducted between 30% and 100% RH above 5C.
AIR MOVEMENT reduces the boundary layer so that thermal and moisture
resistance decreases. Above 0.1 m/s air velocity the forced convection which is governed
by air velocity takes place [11, 20],
3.6.2. LEVELS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

The magnitude of the METABOLIC RATE. M, is a function of the activity of the
person. In table 3.6, values of M are given for various characteristic activities, types of
work, etc. M shows the values of minimum 40 w/m2 at sleeping considered as basal
metabolic rate and maximum 500 w/m2 at wrestling [11]. M may be measured by the rate
of oxygen consumption using the equation for the relation between oxygen consumption
and heat production [89].
The metabolic rate is sometimes partly converted to EXTERNAL MECHANICAL
POWER. W. The ratio of conversion, W/M = r\, represents the mechanical efficiency of
65
Table 3.6. Metabolic Rate for Different Activities [11]
Metabolic
Rate, M
w/m2
Activity
RESTING
Sleeping
Seated, quiet
Standing, relaxed
WALKING
On the level
Up a Grade
% Grade
5
5
15
15
25
Mechanical
Efficiency
"H
Relative
Velocity in
Still Air, m/s
40
60
70
0
0
0
0
0
0
km/hr
3.2
5.6
8.0
115
180
330
0
0
0
0.9
1.6
2.2
km/hr
3.2
6.4
3.2
4.8
3.2
170
350
260
400
385
0.10
0.10
0.19
0.19
0.21
0.9
1.8
0.9
1.3
0.9
55
65
60-65
0
0
0
0.05
0.05
0-0.1
230
345
435
0.2
0.2
0-0.1
0.5
0.5
0.1-0.2
80
90
125
90
0
0
0-0.1
0
0
0-0.2
0.1-0.2
0
60-115
180
0
0-0.1
0
0.05
170-230
260
500
0-0.1
0-0.1
0-0.1
0.5-2
0.5-2
0.2-0.3
OFFICE WORK
Typing
Electrical
Mechanical
Filing, Checking
HEAVY WORK
Handling 50 kg bags
Digging trenches
Stag removal
MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS
Laboratory Work
Examining slides
General lab. work
Setting up apparatus
Teacher
Vehicle driving
Car
Heavy truck
LEISURE ACTIVITIES
Gymnastics
Tennis
Wrestling
66
the body doing work. In human beings the maximum mechanical efficiency, measured
while pedalling on a bicycle ergometer, is approximately 18-22% for an average person.
Treadmill exercise is about 8-10% efficient. For level walking and during most stationary
activities, the mechanical efficiency is zero and external work may be ignored.
3.6.3. CLOTHING PARAMETERS

3.6.3.1. THERMAL RESISTANCE AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
There are mainly four techniques for measuring thermal resistance of clothing:
Guarded Hot Plate Method; Rate of cooling method: Disk Method: and Heat Pulse
Technique.
GUARDED HOT PLATE METHOD: One of the earlier applications to textiles was
by Schiefer [129], whose paper on blankets is a classic in the field. This technique is also
known as Constant Temperature Method. The fabric is placed on one side of an isothermal
hot body insulated on all other sides, and the energy required to maintain the hot body at
constant temperature is measured. This method has specified by ASTM D 1518-85 11111.
RATE OF COOLING METHOD: A hot body well-insulated on all sides except
where in contact with a fabric, or completely surrounded by the fabric, is allowed to cool
freely, the rate of cooling determining the thermal transmission through the fabric. An
early modification of the Cenco-Fitch [130] device by Fourt and Fisk [131] permitted
insulation to be 0.002 to 2.0 lbs/sq in experienced in actual clothing use.
DISK METHOD: The fabric is held between a heat source and a heat sink at
different temperatures and the flow of heat.is measured by a thin disk measuring device.
This method was first introduced by Lees and described later by Baxter [133], Woodcock
and Goldman [134]. These researchers used the disk method to assess local heat loss
through clothing independent of the overall equalization with the environment.
HEAT PULSE TECHNIQUE: An extension of the rate-of-cooling approach was

that first reported by Angstrom [135]. It has been more recently used to study heat loss
through multicomponent clothing structures containing air [136]. In this technique,
multiwaves of temperature gradients are passed through the sample and the damping of the
wave is used to calculate the heat flux through the sample.
3.6.3.2. SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSMISSION

Most physical test methods are concerned with only one property, either resistance
to dry heat loss or to water vapor transmission. This is unfortunate since these two
mechanisms interact to control actual clothing comfort. However, attempts to combine test
methods have been made: the Hohenstein skin model; the sweating hot plate model; and the
sweating cylinder model.
HOHENSTEIN SKIN MODEL: This is the best known method used to measure
simultaneous dry and evaporative heat loss through horizontally placed textile materials
[137]. A heated sintered metal plate connected with water channels is used as the simulated
wet skin. Other parts are similar to the guarded hot plate.
SWEATING HOT PLATE: Recently, Farnworth and Nordli [ 138] constructed a
sweating hot plate which is lighter in its construction and therefore more rapid
measurements can be made under dynamic conditions. Water is fed to a heated aluminum
plate through 0.5 mm holes. The water spreads through a thin sheet of paper, used to
simulated wet skin. Water is fed to the paper at a controlled deliver rate using a syringe
pump.
SWEATING CYLINDER: Baxter [81] used the heated cylinder with wetted surface
to study the effect of sweating. Recently, Meinander [109] developed the vertical sweating
cylinder which simulates the human body, allowing for body curvature. The simulated skin
consists of a laminated material, the inner side of which spreads water from tubes to a
68
larger areas and the outer side of the cylinder. An expanded microporous PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene) membrane transmits water vapor but not liquid water. Water is
pumped to the sweat glands from a peristaltic pump. The sweating rate is controlled from
36 to 289 g/m2hr.
3.6.3.3. INFRARED TRANSMITTANCE, REFLECTANCE, AND EMITTANCE

Rough measurement of low temperature infrared emissivity can be made with a
radiometer and a thermostat with a painted metal wall. IR-Spectrophotometer with specular
reflectance device is a convenient tool for directly measuring the transmittance and
reflectance [139].
3.6.3.4. WATER VAPOR DIFFUSION RESISTANCE

Fourt [140] described two methods which have been applied to fabrics. ASTM has
also specified two methods: Water Method; Desiccant Method [141].
WATER METHOD OR CONTROL DISH METHOD: ASTM E96-80 is a simple
dish method [141] which clamps samples of fabric across the mouth of a cylindrical dish.
This is a useful method for relatively impermeable materials. Whelan et al [ 142] modified
simple dish method by introducing an outer cover fabric over the test specimen. Modified
method has been specified as CGSB 4-GP-2 Method 49 1962 in Canada which is known
as Control Dish Method.
ABSORPTION METHOD OR DESICCANT METHOD: In the absorption method,
an assembly of fabric and metal rings is sealed to small dishes containing a granular drying
agent. The adsorption method is not well suited for high permeability materials. This
method is specified by ASTM E96-80.
69
3.6.3.5. WATER TRANSPORT RATE
Harnett and Mehta [152] compared five laboratory test methods for measuring
wicking:
VERTICAL WICKING STRIP TEST: BS3424 Method and DIN53924-1978 are
listed as the standards. Wickability is calculated from the measured height and weight of the
liquid wicked.
TRANSVERSE WICKING PLATE TEST: Korner et al [147] describe this
technique by which mass transfer rate of liquid can be measured.
SINGLE DROP SPOT TEST: This method is based on BS3554-1970 and AATCC
Method 39-1977. The elapsed time recorded is taken as a direct measure of the fabric
wettability.
CONTINUOUS DROP SPOT TEST: Lennox-Kerr's approach [153] replaces the
drop by a continuous supply of liquid. The rate of increase in diameter of the wetted regain.
SYPHON TEST: This method has been reported by Lennox-Kerr [153]. Time
elapsed until dripping commenced from lower end of syphon is measured.
Harnett and Mehta [152] report that the magnitude of a fabric's wickability parallel
to the fabric plane might be only loosely related to that of its wickability perpendicular to
the fabric plane; hence separate test methods are required to evaluate these properties.
Continuous supply spot test or vertical wicking strip test are equally appropriate for the
wickability parallel to the fabric plane, while the plate test is suitable for the later. The
syphon test does not seem to be an appropriate method for measuring wicking properties
that might be of relevance to clothing comfort.
3.6.3.6. TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION (WARM/COOL FEELING)

Contacting heat conduction may be related to the tactile comfort rather than thermal
comfort. However, this property must be an important parameter affecting total clothing
70
comfort [166]. Only a few studies have been made into transient heat conduction in
clothing fabrics. Rees [164] noticed a sudden decrease in the temperature of his hot plate
when certain fabrics were first applied. The drop in temperature was taken as a measure of
the cold feel or chilling effect of the fabrics. Recently, Kawabata [33] theoretically analyzed
warm/cool feeling and developed a measuring device. When a preheated hot plate is placed
on a fabric sample backed by foam sheet (insulation), heat flux-time curve or maximum
transient heat flux (qmax) is measured.
3.6.3.7. PHYSICAL AND STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES

FABRIC WEIGHT: Fabric weight can be determined using ASTM D 1910.
FABRIC THICKNESS: Fabric thickness can be determined with a number of
different devices which load the fabric to a specific pressure and determine plate separation
with a gauge. ASTM Method D 1777- 64 and Federal Specification Method 5030 use a
dead weight loaded gauge, whereas the Schiefer Compressometer uses a spring-loaded
presser foot, determining pressure from the compression of the spring. Kawabata's
Compression tester is one of the most precision instruments for measuring fabric thickness.
It uses a compression cell to obtain thickness-pressure curves directly. Kawabata [145]
recommends the use of 6.0 g/cm2 and 0.5 g/cm2 contact pressure.
BULK DENSITY: Fabric bulk density is commonly determined indirectly by
weight and nominal thickness measurements.
POROSITY (BULK POROSITY AND OPTICAL POROSITY): Porosity can be
represented by two different properties: air volume fraction (bulk porosity) and light
transmittance (optical porosity). Both properties relate to void space, but they have some
different definitions. Air volume fraction is defined as the ratio of void space to the total
volume encompassed by the boundaries of the material. Optical porosity can be expressed
as light transmittance which represents the area fraction through which a parallel beam of
71
light can pass. BULK POROSITY can be determined using comparison pycnometer,
Beckman Model 930. It can also be calculated from fabric and fiber density. OPTICAL
POROSITY can be measured using visible spectrophotometer. An estimate of fabric optical
porosity can also be made from a knowledge of yarn diameter, linear density, and the fabric
weight per unit area [158,162].
AIR PERMEABILITY: Air permeability can be measured by ASTM D 737-75 or
Federal Specification Method 5450 known as calibrated orifice method, using a Frazier
tester. Falling cylinder method, Federal Specification Method 5452 can also be used. Air
permeability can be expressed as the function of porosity, thickness, and fiber diameter
[80].
FIBER DIRECTIONALITY: Three methods have been suggested for analyzing
fiber directionality anisotropy in nonwovens [187]: direct measuring orientation angle; edge
count technique; and randometer method. Hearle and Stevensen [172] examined webs by
using a projection microscope. At a convenient magnification, a circle of arbitrary size is
fixed on the microscope screen. Filaments in the field of view are traced out. The angle
which the filaments, passing through the circle, make with an axis of interest is determined.
In edge count technique, representative squares of arbitrary size are cut from the sheet and
the number of filaments terminating on each side of the square is determined. Randometer
analysis uses an optical device to determine the proportionate length of filament segments
oriented at some direction in a sheet to the length oriented in any other direction. The
intensity of the luminescence is proportional to the total length of fiber segments oriented
perpendicular to the incident beam.
3.6.4. HUMAN SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION OF CLOTHING COMFORT

There are two methods in human subjective tests in the controlled chamber. Rohles
and Nevins [163], Mclntyre [107], Gagge [161], and Goldman [128] have evaluated
72
clothing comfort in the side of thermodynamics so called thermal comfort. This method is
conducted in a well- simulated environmental chamber. A digital automatic temperature
acquisition system is used for measuring and recording the subjects' skin and rectal
temperatures as well as the air temperature within the environmental chamber. The
temperature and humidity at different points, oxygen consumption, heart rate, weight loss,
and other physical and physiological values of interest are determined through direct
measurements of physiological response. Heat production, dry and evaporative heat loss
from the skin, and thermal and water vapor resistance of clothing can be calculated from
these values [128]. As a measure for the thermal sensation the commonly used seven point
psycho-physical ASHRAE scale is used as follows:
-3
cold
-2
cool
-1
slightly cool
neutral
+1
slightly warm
+2
warm
+3
hot
COMFORT RANGE
On the other hand, Hollies [1] has evaluated clothing comfort in the side of
mechanical and thermal sensations: i.e. tactile comfort. Test facilities are similar to those of
the former method. Wearers are asked to describe the comfort sensations noted while
wearing garments in a microclimate of varying temperature and relative humidity according
to the following comfort scales:
Comfort Descriptions:
Snug
Loose
Heavy
Light
Stiff
Staticky
Sticky
Nonabsorbent
Cold
Clammy
Damp
Clingy
Picky
Rough
Scratchy
73
Comfort Intensity Scale:
Completely
Comfortable
Totally
Uncomfortable
No sensation
4-
Partially
Mildly
2-
Definitely
Totally
3.7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

1. The first requirement for thermal comfort is to maintain the energy balance
between body and environment without energy storage or debit within body. The second
requirement is based on subjective results which suggest the limit of 20% sweat wetted area
in addition to the first criterion.
2. Both Fanger's approach and Woodcock & Goldman's approach assume no
internal reactions and express clothing comfort as single value (subjective temperature or
heat stress index) so that their applications are limited to typical conditions. Furthermore,
Fanger's approach does not take into account the moisture permeability of clothing though
it defines well the effects of environmental variables.
3. A lot of work related to heat and moisture transfer have been published, but
additional understanding of the relationship between comfort and physical properties of
fabrics, the interaction with environmental conditions is needed, more reliable methods for
predicting comfort based on fabric physical properties, and the better understanding of the
balance between clothing comfort and the specialized functions of barrier fabrics are also
needed.
4. Most thermal conductivity models ignore the anisotropy of fiber thermal
conductivity. They do not explain the effects of fiber arrangement.
74
5. Famworth's numerical model of combined heat and moisture transfer effectively
defines the effects of internal reactions (condensation and absorption) and skin conditions
(sweating rate, sweat wetted area, etc), but does not take into account the effects of water
transport (wicking).
6. Stuart & Holcombe's and Famworth's combined conduction and radiation
models are progressive approaches. However, Famworth's model is limited to nonscattering materials and Stuart & Holcombe's model is limited to coarse fiber materials.
7. Various instruments to measure simultaneous heat and moisture transfer
properties have been developed. However, measurements made on most instruments are
lengthy and tedious. They have also failed to provide means for measuring transfer
properties in varying conditions of environmental temperature and humidity. Additionally,
adequate methods for measuring the temperature and humidity distribution between fabric
layers in clothing systems are not available to the researcher.
8. An ability to measure the tactile sensation of warmth or coolness generated
whenever a fabric comes in contact with the skin is needed. Recently, Kawabata
theoretically analyzed transient conduction through human skin and developed warm/cool
measuring device simulating human skin. However, the detecting mechanism used in the
commercially available Kawabata device is limited: the thermal response differs and the
transient heat flux measurement is critically affected by instrument variables. Improvements
in these test are needed to affect a more reliable prediction.
9. Human subjective test methods are expensive and time consuming. This is true
because entire garments are needed for testing, many human subjects are involved, and
numerical data is subject to large variations.
Therefore, this research seeks to contribute in the following ways: 1) development
of instrument for rapid and accurate measurements of simultaneous heat and moisture
transfer properties including measuring the temperature and humidity distribution within
fabric layers; 2) the development of thermal conductivity and moisture diffusivity models
75
that incorporate anisotropy of fiber thermal conductivity and orthotropy of fabric structure;
3) assessments of the effects of fabric structure, environmental variables, skin conditions,
and skin-clothing configurations; 4) development of a dynamic transient heat conduction
measuring device; 5) development of comfort equation expressing comfort range based on
net metabolic rate, and 6) development of a simple subjective evaluation method for
evaluating the comfort response of fabrics.
76
4. A THEORETICAL MODEL DESCRIBING OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND
MOISTURE DIFFUSIVITY THROUGH FIBROUS MATERIALS.
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Woodcock [83, 84] expresses the total energy dissipation from the skin surface to
the surrounding atmosphere in terms of the overall thermal resistance and overall water
vapor resistance of the clothing ensemble. In a clothing ensemble, each layer of the fabrics,
any trapped air, and a boundary air provide thermal and vapor resistance. The resistance of
the boundary air layer depends on environmental conditions surrounding the clothed body,
as well as the configuration of the fabric layers. The resistance of the fabric layers
themselves depends on fabric properties: thermal and moisture resistance are proportionally
related to fabric thickness and inversely proportional to the effective thermal conductivity or
water vapor diffusivity: i.e.
Rhcl = L/K and
Reel = L/D.
(4.1a, b)
where Rhcl is the thermal resistance of the fabric, m^C/W, K is the thermal conductivity of
the fabric, W/mC, Reel is the water vapor resistance of the fabric, m3/g, D is the vapor
diffusion coefficient of the fabric, g/m2, and L is the fabric thickness, m.
Therefore, an analysis of the relationship between thermal conductivity and water
vapor diffusivity and the structural parameters of the fabric must be made to understand the
role of the fabric material in energy dissipation. Described below is the development of a
superior model for analyzing heat and moisture transfer through fibrous structures.
4.2. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND WATER VAPOR DIFFUSIVITY MODELS

4.2.1. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY MODEL
Heat transfer through fibrous materials occurs as a result of different transfer
mechanisms and the complex interactions among these mechanisms. Hence, the term
77
"effective" thermal conductivity is often used. This assumes that sensible heat transfer
obeys Fourier's Law of heat exchange, so that thermal conductivity is expressed as the sum
of three independent modes: i.e. conduction, convection, and radiation [37, 38,58,67].
Kowalski [72], Farnworth [67], Dent [58], and Stuart & Holcombe [73] tackled the
problem of combined conduction and radiation in fibrous media to reduce error in the
approximation. They assume no contribution from convection to the total heat transfer.
This seems to be a reasonable assumption since it is generally accepted that convection
makes a negligible contribution to heat transfer through most fibrous materials [38, 58,
67]. The convection mode is neglected in the model developed by this research.
ortootropic porous conductive conductivity model

Schuhmeister [44] was first to develop a model of thermal conductivity that
combines a parallel mode and a series mode of heat transfer through an air and a fiber
phase. Baxter [133], Dent [58], and Bankvall [37] followed and modified Schuhmeister's
model using orientation functions to describe the porosity of fibrous insulators. Larson
[32] and Suzuki [60] developed three phase transfer models describing transfer through air,
fiber, and water in wet fabrics. Yoon [158] studied a model including two different fibers.
However, none of these models consider anisotropy of the fibrous conductor in calculating
in the thermal conductivity of fibers. Only Naka [61] applies the anisotropic properties of
the fiber conductivity to his model. Even Naka does not consider fiber orientation, so the
orthotropic nature of textile fabrics are unaccounted for by his model.
Kelly's [41] and Kawabata's [43] work indicate that the anisotropy of component
fibers has to be examined when modelling the thermal conductivity of the fabric. Kelly [41]
developed an anisotropic thermal conductivity model of symmetric polycrystalline graphite
rod analogous to refractive indices in light transmission. Kawabata [43] uses an empirical
approach to show that the thermal conductivity of single fibers along the fiber axis is about
78
ten times as great as heat conductivity in a direction transverse to the fiber axis.
The thermal conductivity model developed by the present research includes both
fiber anisotropy and fabric orthotropy to account for heat transfer through nonwoven
fabrics. Figure 4.1a shows an idealized unit structural model of the nonwoven material
which models fibers with round cross section oriented to x and y-axes. The unit structure is
assumed to consist of two layers whose thickness is the same as the diameter of fibers
contained in the unit. If the diameter of fibers is d and the number of fibers oriented to x
(machine direction) and y-axes (transverse direction) are n and m, the total volume of the
unit structure becomes 2d and the volumes of the components 1 (machine direction) and 2
(transverse direction), rc(d/2)2n and 7t(d/2)2m, respectively. Then, the fiber volume
fractions, Xfi and Xf2, can be expressed by,
Xfl = 7t(d/2)2n/(2d) = (rc/8)nd,
(4.2)
Xf2 = rc(d/2)2m/(2d) = (7t/8)md.
(4.3)
The optical porosity of the unit structure can be expressed as

Po = 1 -nd -md +ndmd.
(4.4)
Substituting equations 4.2-3 into equation 4.4 gives an expression of optical porosity as
the function of fiber volume fraction
Po = 1 -(8/7c)Xf -(8/7t)2XfiXf2.
(4.5)
where Xf = (Xfi + Xf2) is the total fiber volume fraction. We can define the thermal
conductivity of this unit structure as follows;
Kzz =PoKa +(1-Po)2/[Xf/Ki+(l -Po-Xf)/Ka]
(4.6)
Kxx =(0.5-Xfi)Ka +XfiKll+0.5/[2Xf2/Kl+(l-2Xf2)/Ka]
(4.7)
Kyy =(0.5-Xf2)Ka +Xf2Kn+0.5/[2Xfi/Ki+(l-2Xfi)/Ka].
(4.8)
79
<t>
Figure 4.1. Unit Structural Model for Thermal Conductivity,

a) Ideal Model
b) Real Model
80
where Kxx, Kyy, and Kzz are the thermal conductivities of an ideal fiber assembly in the
x, y, and z direction, Ka is the thermal conductivity of air = 0.026 w/mC [13], and Kn and
Ki are the thermal conductivities of the fiber along the fiber axis and across the fiber axis.
Although this ideal model (figure 4.1a) is sufficient as a just approximation, most
real fiber assemblies are better represented by the three dimensional unit structure shown in
figure 4.1b. For a block of material having principal coefficients of expansion Ail, A22,
A33, specified for either thermal or neutron expansion, it has been shown that the
coefficient of expansion, in a direction for which the direction cosines are C13, C23, C33,
relative to the principal axes, is given by [62];
g = AllCl32 + A22C232 +A33C332.
(4.9)
Hence, the coefficient of expansion in the direction oz (perpendicular to fabric plane) is

Koz = Kxxfcosôs2) + Kyyfcos^sin2) + Kzz(sin24>).
(4.10)
where is the polar orientation angle and 0 is the azimuth angle. Substituting equations
4.6~8 into equation 4.10 yields:
Koz = cosmos2{(0.5-Xfi)Ka+XfiKn+0.5/[2Xf2/Ki+(l-2Xf2)/Ka]}
+ cos^sin2{(0.5-Xf2)Ka+Xf2Kn+0.5/[2Xfi/Kl+(l-2Xfi)/Ka]}
+ sin2<(){PoKa+(l-Po)2/[Xf/Kl+(l-Po-X0/Ka]},
(4.11)
To analyze the contribution of air and solid components, and the interaction of these
components, equation 4.11 can be rearranged to yield
>[0.5-cos2eXfi-sin2eXf2]}+ Kncos2<l>(cos2eXfi+sin2eXf2)
+ 0.5cos2<|>{cos28/[2Xf2/Kl+(l-2Xf2)/Ka] +sin20/[2Xfi/Kl+(l-2Xfi)/Ka]}
Koz = Ka{sin24>Po+cos2<t
+ sin2<J)(1-Po)2/[Xf/Ki+(1-Po-Xf)/Ka].
(4.12)
81
The first term represents the effective conductivity due to air conduction, the second, due to
solid conduction, and the others are due to the interaction of the fiber and air components.
Equation 4.12 represents the thermal conductivity of unit structure. This equation may be
direcdy applied to woven or knit fabrics since these fabrics can be assumed to be single unit
structures composed of highly packed yarns. However, most nonwoven materials are
complex systems that include many types of unit structures and feature high filament
separation, as shown in figure 4.2a. This means that, in nonwoven fabrics, thermal
porosity varies throughout the material as unit structures overlap to cover space left in
adjacent layers. This concept of overlapping layers allows us to use probability to estimate
the porosity of multiple layer fabric systems.
Therefore, if the porosity of single unit structure is PI, the porosity of a double
unit structure will be
P2=Pl-(l-Pl)+(l-Pl)(l-Pl)=Pl2.
(4.13)
Similarly, the porosity of subsequent layers is

P3=P2-(l-Pl)+(l-P2)(l-Pl)=Pl3,
(4.13a)
P4=P3-(l-Pl)+(l-P3)(l-Pl)=Pl4,
(4.13b)
Pi=Pi-i-(l-Pi)+(l-Pi-i)(l-Pi)=Pii.
(4.13c)
The number of layers in the fabric is calculated as

i = L/(2d).
where L is the fabric thickness. Then, equation 4.12 becomes
(4.14)
82
(a)
Figure 4.2. Multiple Structural Models for Thermal Conductivity of Nonwoven Materials
a) Ideally Parallel Model
b) Polar Oriented Model
83
Koz = Kafsin2^ Pi +cos2<))[cos29(O.5-Xfl)+sin20(O.5-Xf2)]}
+ Kncos2<))(cos20Xfi+sin2eXf2)+ 0.5cos2<|>{cos2e/[2Xf2/Ki+(l-2Xf2)/Ka]
+ sin2e/[2Xfl/Kl+(l-2Xfl)/Ka]}+ sin2<j> (1 -Pi)2{1/[Xf/Kl+( 1-Pi-Xf)/Ka]}
(4.15)
where Pi = Pli = Poi.
Most nonwoven materials, specially meltblown or spunbond nonwoven, are made
by overlapping parallel unit structures in the machine direction, as shown in figure 4.2b. In
this case, the polar orientation angle is approximately equal to zero and equation 4.15
becomes
Koz = Ka[sin20 Pi +cos2<i)(0.5-Xfi)]+ Kllcos^Xfi
+ O.5cos20/[2Xf2/Kl+(l-2Xf2)/Ka]+ sin2<|>(l-Pi)2/[Xf/Kl+( 1-Pi-Xf)/Ka]. (4.16)
The first term in this equation represents the effective thermal conductivity due to an open
air space in the nonwoven structure equivalent to optical porosity. If it assumed that fibers
do not align along either the machine direction or transverse direction and that the fiber are
long enough to cross each other, then, the porosity contributed by the Kxx and Kyy modes
is negligible due to covering effects of the fibers: i.e. cos20[O.5-Xfi] ~ 0. This
approximation can be applied to the nonwoven forms examined by this research.
Therefore, a simpler approximating equation is derived follows:
Koz = Kasin2<J> Pi + Kllcos2<l>Xfi+ cos2<t>( 1-Xfi)2/[Xf2/Kl+( 1-Xfl-Xf2)/Kal
+ sin24>( 1-Pi)2/[Xf/Kl+( 1-Pi-Xf)/Ka ].
(4.17)
where Pi = [l-(8/7t)Xfi-(8/7t)Xf2+(8/7t)2XfiXf2]L/(2d).
All parameters included in our model are measurable, although some of the
procedures of measurement are tedious. It is difficult to measure directly Xfi and Xf2.
However, the ratio of Xfi and Xf2 is equivalent to the anisotropy of fiber orientation
between the machine direction and the transverse direction:
84
a = Xfi/Xf2
(4.18)
where a is the anisotropy factor. Since Xf = Xfi + Xfc, we have

Xf 1 = aXf/(l+a) and Xf2 = Xf/(l+a).
(4.19a,b)
By substituting equations 4.19a and 4.19b into equation 4.17, an equation is produced
which permits analysis of effects of fabric parameters on thermal conductivity:
Koz := Kasin2^ Pi + Kncos2<t>aXf/(l+a)
+ cos2^1+a-aXf)2/{(1+a)[Xf/Ki+(1-Xf)(1+a)/Ka}
+ sin2^ (1-Pi)2{ l/[Xf/Ki+(1-Pi-Xf)/Ka]}.
where
Pi = [l-^JXf-OTWd-HXJW
(4.20)
(4.21)
The polar orientation parameter, cos2^, can be estimated by x-ray or microscopic

observation. However, the measurement of the polar orientation parameter using a light
microscope or x-ray method is extremely laborious. Some nonwoven materials, such as
low density battings, can be assumed to consist of randomly oriented fiber or fibers that lie
parallel to fabric plane. Other nonwovens, such as meltblown structures, can be easily
separated, so that overlap lengths can be measured and angle <j> can be calculated as
<|> = tan-i(l/L)
(4.22)
where L is fabric thickness and 1 is the overlap length. Appendix 5 contains a detailed
description of the experimental procedures used to estimate these parameters.
Equation 4.20 can also be expressed in a simple form as follows:
K = Kzz sin2^ + Kxx cos2*!)
(4.20a)
85
where Kzz is thermal conductivity in the parallel mode;
Kzz = KaPi + (1-Pi)2/[Xf/Kl+(l -Pi-Xf)/Ka]
(4.20b)
and Kxx is thermal conductivity in the series mode;

Kxx = KnaXf/(1 +a)+( 1 +a-aXf)2/{(1 +a)[Xf/Ki+( 1-Xf)( 1+a)/Ka}.
(4.20c)
An assumption of random orientation gives

K = l/3Kzz + 2/3Kxx.
(4.20d)
In case of very low density structures, i.e. Xf ~ 0, equation 4.20 becomes

Koz ~ Ka.
(4.20e)
This form is similar to Larson's [32] and Famworth's [67] approximation for low density
cold weather insulators. For high density fibrous structures, Xf ~1, and
Koz = cos2<t)(aKn + Ki)/(l+a) + sin^Ki.
For parallel laid nonwoven fabric,
(4.20f)
~ 90, and
Koz = KaPi + (1-Pi)2{ l/[Xf/Ki+(l-Pi-Xf)/Ka]}.
(4.20g)
The series model applies in the case of perpendicularly laid nonwovens; i.e. 0 = 0, l/a=0,
and
Koz = Ka(l-Xf) + XfKn.
(4.20h)
Equation 4.20h predicts maximum thermal conductivity value while a parallel model,
equation 4.20g, yields a minimum value.
Therefore, the model advanced by the present research is similar, in many respects,
to several existing theories. However, our model suggests that, besides fiber volume
86
fraction, which is generally considered to be an important factor affecting thermal
conductivity, fiber directionality and the anisotropy can significantly influence the overall
thermal transmission of fabrics.
PREDICTING THE EFFECT OF RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER

Tables 3.3 and 3.4 summarize the major models that have been proposed to explain
radiative heat transfer through fibrous materials. Two models have been generally applied
to estimate the contribution of radiative heat transfer to total heat conduction. One model
treats radiative heat transfer in fibrous materials as a conductive process [36, 37, 63-66], In
this approach, radiative conductivity is defined by casting the final radiant flux expressions
in the form of Fourier's law. This approach is valid deep within a sample whose thickness
is large compared to the penetration depth for radiation into the material. In this case, the
dominant form of heat flow is by conduction [67]. The formula for estimating radiative
conductivity has been written as
Krd = c(r/Xf)Tm3
(4.23)
where r is the radius of fibers, Xf is the volume fraction of fibers, Tm is the mean
temperature in the insulation, K. and c is the constant of proportionality. The constant of
proportionality employed by these models depend on assumptions made about the
geometric structure of the fibrous bed. Verschoor [36] and Bankvall [37] use 2rca/a2 and
Farnworth [67] uses 8o/e, where a2 is an opacity factor, ef is the emissivity of fibers, and
a is Boltzmann's constant. The parameters are functions of the composition of the fibrous
materials, volume fractions, and size distribution of the fibers.
Other models for radiative heat transfer approach the problem from a more rigorous
point of view. Typical of this approach are the models advanced by Larkin and Churchill
[68], Aronson [69], Tong [70], Bemberg [71], Farnworth [67], Dent [58], and Stuart &
87
Holcombe [73]. Famworth ignored radiation scattering. Stuart and Holcombe considered
shadowing effect based on a geometric fiber cross section. Their assumption is limited to
the coarse fiber (fiber diameter greater than 10 micrometer). Dent considers a general
absorption-scattering case, but assumes T(x) to be linear function. These models show that
radiative heat transfer can be estimated on the basis of fiber and fabric structural properties
(Xf, L, d, rf, ef).
The radiative conductivity approach is appropriate for samples which are thick in
comparison to the depth to which radiation penetrates into the material. An alternative
approach is available for a sample whose significant fraction is within a penetration depth
of the surfaces. Except for the cold weather batting materials, most of samples used by this
research are thin, and some are porous. Result of IR measurements show that light
reflection through these samples is negligible (0.5 ~ 1.7%) so that all specimens used in
this program can be considered to be absorptive materials (transmittance plus emittance =
98.3 ~ 99.5%) (appendix 1). Consequently, Farnworth's combined radiation and
conduction model [67] is appropriate for the nonwoven samples in which we are interested.
Therefore, for the case where the emissivities of two boundary plates are assumed to be the
same black body, and when the temperature difference (AT) between the hot plate and cold
plate is small comparing to mean temperature (Tm), Farnworth's equation becomes
Krd = [(-F/P)ai + (-KcdBE)a2 + (KcdB)a3]L/AT,
(4.24)
where ao, ai, a2, and a3 are constants defined as the following matrix
10
ao
Tl-Tm
ai
T2-Tm
-F/P
-Kcd(P+B)
-Kcd(P-B)
32
2o(Ti4-Tm4)
F F(L+1/P)
-Kcd(P-B)E
-Kcd(P+B)
33
2o(T24-Tm4)
(4.25)
where F = 8oTm3, P = eXf/r, E = exp(-BL), B2 = P2 + FP/Kcd, Kcd is the conductive

thermal conductivity of a fabric (= Koz), a is Boltzmann's constant, L is the fabric
thickness, r = the radius of a fiber, Xf is the fiber volume fraction, Tm is the average
temperature of cold (Ti) and hot (T2) plate in K, and e is the fiber emissivity assumed =
0.95 for most fibers. All parameters are measurable so that Krd can be calculated.
When convective conductivity is negligible, total heat transfer through a fabric
(Qcl) is the sum of the heat transfer by conduction (Qcd) and net radiant heat exchange
(Qrd);
Qcl = Qcd + Qrd.
(4.26)
Assuming the temperature difference is small comparing to the mean temperature of the hot
plate and cold plate, then equation 4.24 is valid so that overall thermal conductivity is
K = Kcd + Krd.
(4.27)
Since Qcl is directly measurable, the overall thermal conductivity can be calculated. Krd can
also be calculated from measurable parameters. Finally, Kcd can be estimated to confirm
the validity of the orthotropic porous solid model of heat conductivity advanced by this
research.
Figure 4.3 shows the relationship between thermal conductivity and fiber volume
fraction and thickness predicted by equation 4.20, 4.24 and 4.27. The thermal
conductivities due to solid fibers and air increases linearly with increasing fiber volume
fraction. The sum of three components, i.e. conductive conductivity (Kcd), increases with
slight curvature from the thermal conductivity of air (0.026 w/mC) at Xf = 0. On the other
hand, radiative conductivity (Krd), is significant when less than Xf = 3%. Overall thermal
conductivity shows a minimum value around Xf ~ 3%.
Plots of the overall thermal conductivity (z-axis) against polar orientation parameter
(x-axis) and against anisotropy factor are shown in figure 4.4 and 4.5. These figures
0.10
L=0.5/KII=1.24/KI=0.11/d=10/a=1.5/Os=0.9/T=305
Radiation
0.05
Interaction of Air and Solid

Solid
Air
Fiber Volume Fraction, %
(a)
0-034 |Xf=5/KII=1.24/KI=0.11/d=10/a=1.5/Os=0.9/T=305

0.018
Air
0.002
0
0.4
0.8
Thickness, mm
(b)
Figure 4.3.Relationships between Various Conduction Modes and

Fiber Volume Fraction (a), Thickness (b).
90
L=0.5/Xf=5/Kn=1.24/KI=0.11/d=10/a=1.5/T=305
Radiation
a
0.03 Interaction of Air and Solid
0)
fs
0.45
Polar Orientation Parameter
(a)
0.26
u
s
L=0.5/KII= 1,24/KI=0.11 /d=10/a= 1,5/T=305
&
3
t3
G
o
u
*e3
0.14
0)
0.02
Polar Orientation Parameter
(b)
Figure 4.4. Relationships between Thermal Conductivity and Polar Orientation Parameter.
a) Effects on Various Conduction Modes

b) Effects of Fiber Volume Fraction.
91
0.034-
L=0.5/Xf=5/KII=1.24/Kl=0.11/d=10/05=0.9/T=305
u
Radiation
o 0.018t3
g
o
u
*
a>
0.002-
Anisotropy Factor
(a)
0.062
(J
s
sa
>
o
L=0.5/KII= 1.24/KI=0.11 /d= 1 ()/Os=0.9/T=305
Xf=30
4_t
3
T3
Xf=20
0.047-
c
o
u
"c3
Xf=10
0)
0.032
Anisotropy Factor
(b)
Figure 4.5. Relationships between Thermal Conductivity and Anisotropy Factor.
a) Effects on Various Conduction Modes

b) Effects of Fiber Volume Fraction.
92
0.06
L=0.5/Xf=5/Kn/KI=10/Os=0.9/a=1.5/T=305/d=10
u
s
idiation
1 0.03
*o
c
<5

Air
Solid
0.00
4.5
Fiber Thermal Conductivity (KIT), w/mC
Figure 4.6. Effects of Fiber Thermal Conductivity on Fabric Thermal Conductivity.
V
s
0.036 L=0.5/Xf=5/Kn=1.24/KI=0.11/Os=0.9/a=1.5/T=305
Radiation
>
a
*o
c
o
u
0.019-
Air
0.002.
0
15
Fiber Diameter, micron

Figure 4.7. Effects of Fiber Diameter on Thermal Conductivity
30
93
illustrate that, in addition to fiber volume fraction, fiber aiTangement greatly affects thermal
conductivity. We see that thermal conductivity increases linearly with the polar orientation
parameter. The greater the fiber volume fraction, the more rapid the rate of increase
Anisotropy factor affects thermal conductivity but not as much as the polar orientation
parameter.
The effects of fiber conductivity and fiber diameter are plotted in figure 4.6 and 4.7.
Kawabata [43] reports that the thermal conductivities of most commercialized fibers range
from 0.48 (wool) to 7.95 (carbon fiber) w/mC for Kn and 0.1 (Aramide) ~ 0.6 (carbon
fiber) w/mC for Kl. Figure 4.6 shows Kn is more significant than Ki. Fiber diameter
affects radiative conductivity, but has little effect on conductive conductivity. Therefore, the
importance of the fiber diameter to radiant transfer becomes significant only for low density
fibrous insulators.
4.2.2. WATER VAPOR DIFFUSIVITY MODEL

The analog of heat conduction and mass diffusion has been analyzed by Crank [6].
King [80], Baxter [81], and Cassie [171]' experiments show that Schuhmeister's heat
conduction formula is a useful model for predicting water vapor diffusion coefficients.
Recently, Yoon and Buckley [158] proposed a diffusion model for fabrics based on a
thermal conductivity analog.
Using an analogy with the thermal conductivity, a water vapor diffusion model can
be written as follows:
Doz=Dasin2<l>Pi + Dfncos^Xfa/O+a)
+ cos^C1+a-aXf)2/{(1+a)[Xf/Dfi+(1-Xf)(1+a)/Ka}
+ sin24>(l-Pi)2{ l/[Xf/Dfi+(1-Pi-Xf)/Da]}.
where Pi = [Hg/jOXf-CS/frpXfÔ+a)2]1^).
(4.28)
94
Da is the diffusion coefficient of water vapor in air and Dfil and Dfi, in fiber material along
and transverse to fiber axis.
Since Da is generally much larger than Df (Df/Da = 10"6 ~ 10'8), for all practical
purposes, Df/Da are negligible [158];
D ~ Da sin2^ Pi.
(4.28a)
Sin^Pi can be replaced by optical porosity (P) measured experimentally: i.e.

D ~ Da P.
(4.28b)
This is equivalent to Yoon and Buckly's [158] approximation. This equation is appropriate
for fabrics, such as knit, lace, or monofil screen fabrics, which can be described by a
single homogeneous unit structure. However, nonwoven systems must be assumed to
consist of multiple unit structures. This means that water vapor can penetrate, not only in a
straight path through open air space (P) but also through curved air tunnels as shown in
figure 4.8. The space centered in these air tunnels is (1-Xf-P) and their length can be
estimated by assuming that water vapor travels along a minimum pathway: i.e. along the
surface of fibers in portion of Xf/(1-P) and straight forward in portion of (1-P-Xf)/(1-P).
Then, the minimum length of the pathway for fibers with round cross section is
L' = [Xfrcd/2+(l -P-Xf)d]2i/(1-P)
(4.29)
where i = L/2d. Therefore, the total water vapor transmission becomes

WVT = (D/L)AC = [PDa/L + (l-P-Xf)Da/L']AC
= Da[P + (l-Xf-P)(l-P)/(0.57tXf+l-P-Xf)]AC/L.
(4.30)
Then, the water vapor diffusivity is

D = Da[P+(l -Xf-P)(1-P)/(1+0.57Xf-P)].
(4.31)
(1-P-Xf)
WATER VAPOR
a) Structural Model of Water Vapor Diffusion
b/2
b
a
7ud/2
fiber
b/2
s = (a+b)/a-1
s= 7C (d/2)/d-1 =0.57
b) Least Pathway
Figure 4.8. A Model for Water Vapor Diffusion.
96
To study the mechanisms of water vapor diffusion, overall water vapor diffusivity can be
expressed as the sum of those of two structure modes as follows:
D = Di+D2.
(4.32)
Dl represents water vapor diffusivity through open air space which is measured by optical
porosity:
Di = DaP.
(4.32a)
D2 represents water vapor diffusivity through air tunnels, which is related to fiber volume
fraction and shape coefficient of fibers. This term implies that water vapor can penetrate
through a porous material even if zero optical porosity, contrary to conventional equation
4.28b. This is expressed as the following general form:
D2 = Da(1-Xf-P) (1-P)/(1+sXf-P)
(4.32b)
where s = shape coefficient. Shape coefficient can be given by over-pathway as shown in

Appendix 2: e.g. circle 0.57, triangle 0.74, square 1, cotton 17, film infinite, etc.
Application of this model (equation 4.31) to predict the effect of fiber volume
fraction, shape coefficient, fiber fineness, and fabric thickness on water vapor diffusion is
shown in figure 4.9 ~ 4.12. These plots show that fiber
volume fraction and shape
coefficient are the most influential parameters controlling moisture transfer. The other
parameters also affect Di and D2 but their impact on overall water vapor diffusivity is
negligible because of compensating factors: when fiber diameter increases, Di increases
and D2 decreases. The combined effect is that overall water vapor diffusivity, which is the
sum of Di and D2, changes less than 1%. Therefore, we can generate a simpler equation by
eliminating the optical porosity term from equation 4.31 so that;
D = Da(l-Xf)/(l+sXf).
(4.33)
97
For low density (Xf ~ 0), equation 4.33 becomes
D :r_Da.
(4.33a)
For highly packed material (Xf ~ 1) or extremely long pathways (s ~ infinite), and
D ~ Df ~ 0.
(4.33b)
Equations 4.33a and 4.33b represent the upper and lower limits of water vapor diffusivity
through fibrous structures.
98
d=10/L=0.5/s=0.57
Fiber Volume Fraction, %
Figure 4.9. Predicted Effect of Fiber Volume Fraction on Water Vapor Diffusivity.
0.26
d=10/L=0.5/Xf=5
o
D1+D2=D
>
0.13
q
U-
o
o.
ed
>
D1
0.00
0
15
30
Shape Coefficient
Figure 4.10. Predicted Effect of Shape Coefficient on Water Vapor Diffusivity.
99
o
<d
0.26
s=0.57/L=0.5/Xf=5
D1+D2=D
>
P<
CO
0.13-
u
o
o,
c3
>
0)
c3
0.00
Fiber Diameter, micron
Figure 4.11. Predicted Effect of Fiber Fineness on Water Vapor Diffusivity.
0.28
d=10/Xf=5/s=0.57
go
D1+D2=D
0.14-
D1
0.00
1.5
Fabric Thickness, mm
Figure 4.12. Predicted Effect of Fabric Thickness on Water Vapor Diffusivity.
100
4.3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
4.3.1. SAMPLE PREPARATION
Four groups of nonwoven fabrics were used for these experiments:
1. Surgical gown materials (Bacteria barriers),
2. Chemical protective materials (Pesticide protection),
3. Nonwoven battings for cold weather insulation, and
4. reference group.
Table 4.1a and 4.1b give the details of the test fabrics. Each group of fabrics has its own
panicular function, classified according to the end-use of the clothing in which the materials
might be used. The test fabrics are commercially produced by different nonwoven
Table 4.1a. Barrier Nonwoven Samples.

Sample
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
Process
Hydroentangled
Wet-Laid
Hydroentangled/Foam Coated
Spunbond Tyvek
PE Coated Tyvek
Spunbond/Melt-blown
/spunbond composite
Melt-blown
Carded
Carded
0.5 oz Spunbonded
1.0 oz Spunbonded
3.0 oz Spunbonded
1.0 oz Wet-laid
2.0 oz Wet-laid
1.2 oz Spunlaced
1.5 oz Spunlaced
Gore-Tex Laminated
Spunlace
Needle-punched
Composition
PET/Wood Pulp
PET/Wood Pulp
PET/Ravon/Foam
100% PE
100% PE
100% PP
PP/PET
100% PET
100% PET
100% PET
100% PET
100% PET
PET/Wood pulp
100% Wood pulp
100% PET
70/30% PET/Rayon
85/35% Nomex/
Kevlar/Teflon
100% Nomex
Finish
W/R, Sanitary
W/R, S, Embossed
W/R, S, Foam Coated
Calendered
Calendered.PE Coated
Embossed. Dot
none
none
none
none
none
none
Embossed
Embossed
none
none
Film laminated
none
S = Bacteria barrier, C = Chemical protection, I = Cold weather insulation, R = Reference
101
processes: hydroentangled (SI, S3), wet-laid (S2), melt blown (C3, II), spunbond (CI,
C2), and carded (12,13). Some are resin (S3, C2) or film (C2) coated, calendered (CI, C2)
or embossed (S2). Some are composite structures consisting of several fabric (C3, II) or
fiber (S1~S3) materials.
The reference group includes a group of nonwovens (table 4.1b) produced using
the melt blowing facility located at the University of Tennessee. To produce these samples,
the conditions of the melt blowing process were varied to produce systematic variations in
porosity, fabric weight, and thickness (additional information on the production of these
melt blown samples can be found in Appendix 3). Melt blown samples were included
because of the potential for microfiber forms as barrier materials. Besides current interest in
melt blown technology, they were produced to provide a group of materials with known
systematic variations in structural properties for this analysis. Also included in the reference
Table 4.1b. Polypropylene Meltblown Web Samples

Sample
Ml
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
Air Opening (%)

85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
85
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
Weight (oz/yd2)
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
DCD (inch)
9
12
15
9
12
15
9
12
15
9
12
15
9
12
15
9
12
15
* Air Opening % is equivalent to fiber spinning speed, Weight is equivalent to web winding speed, and
DCD is Die-to-Collector Distance.
102
group is a highly porous polyester spunbond nonwoven (R6), a polyester/rayon spunlace

nonwoven (R7) with large pore size, Gore-tex laminated Kevlar/Nomex spunlace
nonwoven (R8), needlepunched Nomex felt (R9), thin wet-laid nonwoven (R4, R5), and
polyester spunbond (R1~R3). These reference samples supplemented the main sample
groups by extending the property range to extreme limits.
4.3.2. TEST METHODS

MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductance and conductivity were measured using a specially modified
Kawabata Thermolabo. This device includes a small guarded hot plate as a heat source and
a water cooled bath as a heat sink as shown in figure 4.13. The small guarded hot plate
consists of a aluminium heat plate (1 mm thickness x 25 cm2 area), thin printed heaters, and
guard plate. The fabric specimen is held between the heat source and heat sink. The test is
conducted at 6.0g/cm2 contact pressure with about 10C temperature difference between the
heat source and heat sink. For thick fabric samples (more than 1.5 mm), the sample edge
RELAY BOX
GUARD
POWER
HOT PI ATF
SAMPLE
T2
...WATER BATH
Figure 4.13. Thermal Conductivity Measuring System.
103
is insulated by styrene foam spaces to exclude the edge effect. Most samples were
evaluated with the hot plate above the cool plate to eliminate convection effects [58], but on
selected items we ran both up and down tests to get an independent assessment of the
convection conductivity Kcv.
The temperatures of heat plate and guard are detected by gauge sensors. Water bath
temperature is measured using a microthermocouple (0.001" diameter). At steady state,
power (W) required is measured and thermal conductance (k)is calculated as heat flow per
temperature difference per unit area. Overall thermal conductivity (K) is calculated as the
product of thermal conductance and fabric thickness. The reciprocal of thermal conductance
represents the intrinsic thermal resistance of the fabric excluding that of boundary air layer
as expressed in equation 4.1b; i.e. the thermal conductance represents local heat loss
through clothing independent of the overall equalization with the environment.
MEASUREMENT OF WATER VAPOR TRANSPORT PROPERTIES

The rate of water vapor diffusion through fabric was determined according to
Simple Dish Method similar to ASTM E96-80. As shown in figure 4.14, a sample is placed
on a water dish with 82 mm diameter and 19 mm depth, allowing 9 mm air space between
water surface and the specimen. A vibration free turntable carries 8 dishes, which rotates
uniformly at 5 meter per minutes to insure that all dishes are exposed to the same average
ambient conditions during the test. The assembled specimen-dishes are weighed at a 24 hrs
interval and the rate of loss of water vapor (WVT) is calculated in the unit of g/m2-24hr.
Non-isothermal water vapor diffusion rate was also measured by heated dish method. The
bottom of dish is heated to maintain about 32C by a heat gun, Master Appliance Corp.
Model VT-750B. The result measured by this method represents water vapor diffusion rate
induced by both vapor pressure and temperature difference while the former by only vapor
pressure difference. The water vapor resistance is calculated from WVT (Appendix 4) as;
104
Re(22C) = 5872/WVT, and
(4.34a)
Re(32C) = 18723AVVT, sec/cm.
(4.34b)
The water vapor resistance calculated from this method includes the water vapor resistance
of 9 mm air gap (La/Da) and that of boundary layer (1/he) as follows;
Re = La/Da + L/D + 1/he.
(4.35)
Therefore, the intrinsic water vapor resistance of the test fabric (L/D) can be calculated by
subtracting the water vapor resistance combined air layer and boundary layer (La/Da +
1/he) from the total water vapor resistance Re. The water vapor resistance of combined air
layer and boundary layer can be estimated by plotting the water vapor resistance by varying
only the thickness of a fabric while other structural properties remain constant. An intercept
at zero fabric thickness will give the water vapor resistance of combined air layer and air
boundary layer.
On the other hand, to predict the water vapor diffusivity using developed model, it
is necessary to measure the intrinsic water vapor diffusivity (Da) of air. It can be indirectly
measured varying only the thickness of air layer using the same fabric sample. The
reciprocal of the proportionality of the thermal resistances with respect to the thickness of
air layer yields the water vapor diffusivity of air.
MEASUREMENT OF FABRIC PROPERTIES

Fabric properties measured were fabric weight, thickness, bulk density, fiber
volume fraction, fiber denier, an anisotropy factor, and polar orientation parameters. These
properties relate to fabric compactness and fiber directionality, considered to be the most
important structural parameters affecting transfer properties. Test methods are described in
Appendix 5.
105
SAMPLE
GUARD RING
TAPE
SEAL
AIR GAP
WATER
(a)
o
o o
o o
ooo
H IN POSITION
HEAT GUN
DRIVE SYSTEM & HEAT GUN
TURNTABLE
(b)
Figure 4.14. Moisture Diffusion Tester

a) Specimen-Dish Assembly, b) Turntable
106
4.4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.4.1. STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
To predict thermal conductivity and water vapor diffusivity, the structural properties
of fabrics such as fabric thickness, fiber volume fraction, optical porosity, fiber diameter,
fiber shape coefficient, and fiber directionality (anisotropy and polar orientation parameter)
were measured. Fabric thickness was measured at 0.5 gf/cm2 and 6.0 gf/cm2 pressure
load, respectively. The low pressure ready of thickness was used to analyze the water
vapor diffusivity. The high pressure thickness measure was used in the analysis of thermal
conductivity. The polar orientation parameters of barrier nonwoven samples could not be
measured because of the complexity in their structures created by different nonwoven
processes combined with various finishing processes: embossing, resin coating, film
laminating, or composite, etc. The measured structural properties of barrier nonwovens and
meltblown webs are shown in tables 4.2a and 4.2b. Barrier nonwovens span a wide range
of weights, 20 ~ 255 g/m2, thickness, 0.18 ~ 4.6 mm, bulk densities, 13 ~ 286 kg/m3,
fiber volume fractions, 0.8 ~ 31.2 %, porosity, 0 ~ 52.9 %, fiber diameter, 1.7 ~ 31.2
micrometer, and anisotropy factor, 1 ~ 4. Electron microscopic observation, shown in
figure 4.15, verified that the chemical protective fabrics, CI and C2. are composed of an
ultrafine fiber matrix. The fibers in these structure must be tightly packed to protect against
penetration of toxic chemicals such as pesticides. Furthermore, there is no air void in
sample C2 due to PE film coating. Surgical gown materials (SI and S2) show somewhat
looser structure than chemical protective clothes, but their structures are still sufficiently
compact to provide a bacteria barrier. Cold weather battings (12 and 13) are very thick and
contain significant amount of air space to provide good insulation properties. Thinsulate,
II, consists of microfibers which provide highly separated structure and better insulation
effect. The reference group includes high porosity materials and fabrics produced by
different nonwoven processes: spunlace(R6, R7, and R8), spunbond (R1 ~ R3), wet-laid
Table 4.2a. Structural Properties of Barrier Nonwovens

Sample
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
WT
L0.5
L6.0
61.9
68.0
72.4
39.8
84.3
60.6
119.8
70.9
98.2
19.6
33.8
105.5
34.8
63.7
44.2
52.1
133.5
255.3
0.423
0.284
0.643
0.179
0.295
0.654
4.520
5.400
5.600
0.208
0.295
0.608
0.178
0.268
0.485
0.656
0.992
2.210
0.341
0.239
0.518
0.133
0.190
0.539
3.020
4.500
4.500
0.182
0.259
0.445
0.134
0.230
0.398
0.480
0.851
2.040
BD0.5 BD6.0 Xf0.5 Xf6.0

146
239
113
222
286
93
27
13
18
94
115
174
195
238
91
79
135
116
182
285
140
299
444
112
40
16
22
108
131
237
260
277
111
109
157
125
8.7
15.3
7.1
20.8
31.2
8.7
3.0
0.8
1.1
8.3
9.0
14.5
13.1
14.6
6.9
5.2
9.0
8.9
10.7
18.2
8.8
28.0
48.9
10.6
5.4
1.0
1.4
9.5
10.3
19.8
17.4
17.0
8.4
7.1
10.5
11.0
P(exp)
0.004
0.002
0.003
0.000
0.000
0.003
0.000
0.079
0.000
0.529
0.231
0.009
0.012
0.002
0.177
0.114
0.000
0.001
2.08
1.20
4.41
1.37
1.02
1.05
1.84
1.01
1.31
1.67
1.57
1.35
1.49
2.21
3.21
2.08
2.35
1.76
s
5.44
16.80
0.57
88.24
oo
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.73
0.73
0.73
16.80
16.80
0.57
0.57
0.89
0.89
d and Cross section

29.1x4.3/12.2 ribbon/round
29.3x4.3/12.0 ribbon.round
11.8 round
150x1.7 plat
150xl.7+film
1.7/19.3 composite
2.5 round
25.1 round
14.0 round
26.7x17.6 triangle
23.0x17.6 triangle
23.7x17.6 triangle
31.2x4.3/12.2 ribbon/round
30.0x4.3 ribbon
25.0 round
11.1/14.3 mixed
17.4x9.2 ribbon/porous film
17.4x9.2 ribbon
WT=Web weight, g/m2> L=Web thickness, mm, Xf=Fiber volume fraction, %, BD=Bulk Density, kg/m3, Subscripts, 0.5 and 6.0=Compression loads
in gf/cm2 for thickness measurements, P(exp)=Measured optical porosity, a=Anisotropy factor, s=Shape Coefficient, d=Fiber fineness: diameter for round
cross section; width x height for ribbon fibers, micron.
Table 4.2b. Structural Properties of Meltblown Webs.

Sample
Ml
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
WT
L0.5
L6.0
18.3
17.5
16.9
34.9
34.6
35.0
57.9
58.4
56.6
17.7
17.5
17.6
35.3
35.6
36.5
56.5
53.4
55.5
0.263
0.280
0.332
0.473
0.550
0.670
0.766
0.930
1.156
0.370
0.384
0.378
0.349
0.379
0.436
0.357
0.481
0.571
0.210
0.225
0.242
0.392
0.445
0.516
0.669
0.772
0.902
0.310
0.307
0.300
0.301
0.318
0.368
0.309
0.406
0.484
BD0.5 BD6.0 Xf0.5 Xf6.0

70
62
51
74
63
52
76
63
49
48
46
47
101
94
84
158
111
97
87
78
70
89
78
68
87
76
63
57
57
59
117
112
99
183
132
115
7.1
6.4
5.1
7.4
6.3
5.3
7.9
6.4
. 4.9
4.8
4.8
4.8
10.2
9.6
8.4
15.6
11.1
9.8
8.9
8.0
7.1
9.0
7.7
7.0
9.0
7.8
6.3
5.7
5.9
6.0
11.8
11.4
9.9
18.0
13.2
11.6
P(exp)
0.001
0.002
0.004
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.111
0.115
0.101
0.012
0.010
0.012
0.002
0.003
0.001
a
1.91
1.71
1.57
2.33
1.65
1.50
2.11
1.67
1.45
1.08
1.00
1.04
1.07
1.05
1.04
1.47
1.48
1.53
OcxlO5
1.71
1.26
1.45
2.65
2.51
2.04
5.66
4.56
4.17
3.72
2.34
2.23
1.56
1.28
1.04
1.21
1.26
1.20
s
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
d and Cross section

2.5 round
2.5 round
2.5 round
2.5 round
2.5 round
2.5 round
2.5 round
2.5 round
2.5 round
10.3 round
10.3 round
10.3 round
10.3 round
10.3 round
10.3 round
10.3 round
10.3 round
10.3 round
WT=Web weight, g/m2> L=Web thickness, mm, Xf=Fiber volume fraction, %, BD=Bulk Density, kg/m3, Subscripts, 0.5 and 6.0=Compression
loads in gf/cm2 for thickness measurements, P(exp)=Measured optical porosity, CC=Anisotropy factor, Oc=Polar orientation parameter=cos2<J),
s=Shapc coefficient, d=Fiber fineness: diameter for round cross section; width x height for ribbon fibers, micron.
o
oo
109
(R4 and R5), and needlepunch (R9). Specially S3 is form-coated and R8 is laminated by
ultra-microporous membrane film (Gore-Tex).
The systematically prepared group of meltblown samples provide gradually
differentiated structural properties helpful in analyzing the effects of the fabric structure on
heat and moisture transfer. Figures 4.16a and 4.16b show the contour maps of three
production variables on the fiber volume fraction-fabric thickness field. The profile of air
opening 85% shows a quite different pattern from that of air opening 65%. The greater the
air opening the finer the fiber diameter. DCD (die to collector distance) and web winding
speed (web weight) affect fiber volume fraction and fabric thickness, respectively. The
contour lines of DCD, M1/M4/M7, M2/M5/M7, and M3/M6/M8, are identical to those of
the fiber volume fraction. These groups include the samples having the same fiber volume
fraction but different thickness, which were used to analyze the effects of the fabric
thickness. Another contour line, M10/M13/M16 includes a group of samples with the same
thickness but different fiber volume fraction. This group is used to analyze the effects of
the fiber volume fraction. Meltblown webs are a little more oriented in the machine
direction so that they are weak anisotropy. From the result of polar orientation parameter
the meltblown structure is approximated as a quasi-parallel mode.
4.4.2. VALIDITY OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY MODEL

COMPARISON OF PREDICTED VALUES WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Tables 4.3 shows the thermal conductivity measured using a modified Kawabata
Thermolabo. Table 4.4 shows the thermal conductivity predicted using the model
developed by this research. The calculation of Farnworth's combined conduction and
radiation is also shown in Appendix 7. Kawabata's data (table 3.2a [43]) were used for
fiber thermal conductivities (Kii and Ki).
110
S3
C3
Figure 4.15. SEM Observation of Pore Distribution and Anisotropy of Fiber Orientation on
Fabric Plane. (Magnification is x 240 except C2, R8, R6, and R7. It is x 12900 for C2 and
R8 , x 30 for R6 and R7).
Ill
113
Ml ~M9
M10-M18
114
1 -5oz
DCD9
1
&
z
Bu
Air 85%
Air 65%
DCD12
2
tu
DCD15
UJ
1.5oz
DCD9
J
O
>
Qi
W
CQ
E
DCD12
5oz- -... _â
-DCD15
l.Ooz
0.4
0.6
0.8
THICKNESS (L6.0), mm
a) Measured at 6.0 gf/cm2 pressure load.
DCD9
n
o
tt><
Air 85%
Air 65%
<
OS
W
S
DCD12
1.0OZ
DCD15
tu
3
o
0.5oz
&r- - DCD9
>
-B? - DCD12
al
m
a
tu
0.5oz
0.4
T.5o^.
" 1 .Ooz
0.6
0.8
1.0
DCD15
1.2
THICKNESS (L0.5), mm
b) Measured at 0.5 gf/cm2 pressure load.
Figure 4.16. Relationships between the Structural Properties and the Production Variables
of Meltblown Nonwoven.
115
Table 4.3. Experimental Data on Thermal Conductance, Thermal Resistance, and Thermal
conductivity.
Sample
HOT-T
COLD-T
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
D
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
37.48
37.22
37.73
36.84
37.01
37.87
38.54
38.52
38.53
37.21
37.49
37.70
37.01
37.28
37.68
37.97
38.04
38.31
Ml
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
37.29
37.40
37.38
37.65
37.78
37.91
37.96
38.04
38.12
37.57
37.59
37.58
37.50
37.60
37.66
37.46
37.66
37.82
L6.0
25.90
26.20
25.85
26.10
26.30
26.00
25.25
25.30
25.20
25.75
26.00
25.90
26.00
26.25
26.05
25.90
26.10
25.50
3.56
4.66
2.39
7.19
6.85
2.17
0.38
0.36
0.29
4.92
3.68
2.40
6.32
4.77
2.40
1.99
1.52
0.71
0.341
0.239
0.518
0.133
0.190
0.539
3.020
4.500
4.500
0.182
0.259
0.445
0.134
0.230
0.398
0.480
0.851
2.040
26.10
26.25
25.75
25.70
26.00
26.20
25.45
26.10
26.10
26.20
26.10
26.25
26.20
26.25
26.20
26.20
26.15
26.10
4.18
3.87
3.70
2.52
2.09
1.75
1.54
1.24
1.05
2.77
2.82
2.83
3.11
2.91
2.50
3.23
2.47
2.03
0.210
0.225
0.242
0.392
0.445
0.516
0.669
0.772
0.902
0.310
0.307
0.300
0.301
0.318
0.368
0.309
0.406
0.484
Rcl
123.0
169.1
80.4
267.7
255.8
73.0
11.3
10.9
8.8
171.6
128.2
81.3
233.6
173.0
82.5
66.0
51.0
22.1
0.0419
0.0404
0.0417
0.0356
0.0486
0.0393
0.0341
0.0490
0.0396
0.0312
0.0332
0.0362
0.0313
0.0398
0.0329
0.0317
0.0434
0.0451
0.0525
0.0382
0.0802
0.0241
0.0252
0.0884
0.5714
0.5925
0.7331
0.0376
0.0503
0.0794
0.0276
0.0373
0.0782
0.0978
0.1266
0.2919
149.4
138.7
127.2
84.4
70.9
59.8
49.3
41.4
35.0
97.4
98.0
100.0
109.9
102.7
87.1
114.8
85.7
69.2
0.0314
0.0312
0.0308
0.0331
0.0315
0.0309
0.0330
0.0320
0.0315
0.0302
0.0301
0.0300
0.0331
0.0327
0.0321
0.0355
0.0348
0.0335
0.0432
0.0465
0.0507
0.0764
0.0910
0.1079
0.1308
0.1558
0.1845
0.0663
0.0658
0.0645
0.0587
0.0628
0.0740
0.0562
0.0753
0.0932
* HOT-T=temperature of heat source (C), COLD-T=temperature of heat sink (C), W=heat transfer rate
(w/25cm2-AT), L6.o=fabric thickness (mm) at compression load 6.0gf/cm2, k=thermal conductance
(w/m2oC), K=thermal conductivity (w/mC), Rcl=intrinsic thermal resistance (clo) of fabric.
116
Table 4.4. Calculation of Thermal Conductivity of Meltblown Nonwovens.

Sample
L6.0
Ml
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
0.210
0.225
0.242
0.392
0.445
0.516
0.669
0.772
0.902
0.310
0.307
0.300
0.301
0.318
0.368
0.309
0.406
0.484
Xf6.0
8.9
8.0
7.1
9.0
7.7
7.0
9.0
7.8
6.3
5.7
5.9
6.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
1.91
1.71
1.57
2.33
1.65
1.50
2.11
1.67
1.45
1.54
1.00
1.04
1.07
1.05
1.04
1.47
1.48
1.53
11.8
11.4
9.9
18.0
13.2
11.6
OcxlO5
1.71
1.26
1.45
2.65
2.51
2.04
5.66
4.56
4.17
3.72
2.34
2.23
1.56
1.28
1.04
1.21
1.26
1.20
Kcd
0.0279
0.0277
0.0275
0.0279
0.0276
0.0275
0.0279
0.0277
0.0273
0.0272
0.0272
0.0273
0.0286
0.0285
0.0281
0.0302
0.0289
0.0285
Krd(F)
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0006
0.0006
0.0006
0.0003
0.0004
0.0004
0.0002
0.0003
0.0004
K
0.0280
0.0278
0.0276
0.0281
0.0278
0.0276
0.0281
0.0278
0.0275
0.0278
0.0278
0.0278
0.0289
0.0289
0.0285
0.0304
0.0293
0.0289
* Kcd (conductive conductivity)=KaPi(l-Oc)+KIlOcXfa/(l+a)+Oc(l+a-aXf)2/{(l+a)[Xf/KI+(l-Xf)(l+(X)

/Ka]}+{(1 -Oc)( 1 -Pi)2/[Xf/Kl+(l-Pi-XQ/Ka]} where Pi=(l-2.546Xf+1.621Xf2)L/2d, Kn=fiber thermal
conductivity along the fiber axis=1.242 w/mC KI=fiber thermal conductivity transverse to fiber axis
=0.111 w/mC for polypropylene fiber, L6.0 and Xf6.0=fabric thickness and fiber volume fraction at 6.0
gf/cm2 pressure, d=fiber diameter, micron (10"6 m), Ka=thermal conductivity of air=0.026 w/mC,
a=anisotropy factor, Oc=polar orientation parameter=cos2<i), Krd(F)=Farnworth's radiative conductivity,
K=overall thermal conductivity.
Figure 4.17 shows the correlation between measured values and predicted values in
the thermal conductivity of meltblown webs. The polar orientation parameters of meltblown
webs were measured to be approximately zero. Hence, the predicted values are
underestimated by about 10%, compared to measured values. This difference may be
caused by the effect of fiber crimp or by underestimating the thermal conductivity of the
fiber. Nevertheless, there is good correlation between the measured values and data
predicted when the average polar orientation parameter is 0.06 and average anisotropy
factor is 1.5. For polypropylene meltblown web with zero optical porosity, conductive
117
conductivity excluding radiative conductivity can be predicted from fiver volume fraction as
follows (figure 4.18a);
Kcd = 0.00138 +0.044 lXf +0.03215/[1.306-Xf).
(4.37)
Figure 4.18a shows that the model provides a reliable prediction of the linear relationship
between thermal conductivity and fiber volume fraction for meltblown structure. By
comparison, different types of nonwoven fabrics are best fitted by applying appropriate
orientation parameters. The exact calculations of polar orientation parameter for each
sample using developed model are illustrated in table 4.5. As a first approximation, they
can be grouped as shown in figure 4.18b. The first group includes carded nonwoven
battings (12 and 13) which show a random oriented structure mode (regression 1:
anisotropy 1.1 ~ 1.3, polar orientation parameter 0.5 ~ 0.7). Significant contribution of
radiation is expected from the low fiber volume fraction and high conductivity values. The
second is high thermal conductivity group without the contribution of radiation.
Kevlar/Nomex nonwovens (R8 and R9) and cotton wet laid (S2, R5) or wet/ spunlaced
composite (SI) show relatively high thermal conductivities of the fabric at the same levels
of fiber volume fraction (regression 2) due to the high thermal conductivities of fibers. The
third is an intermediate thermal conductivity group (regression 3, anisotropy 1.5, polar
orientation parameter 0.04). Polyester spunbonded nonwovens, R1 ~ R3 are included in
this group. The fourth group includes highly packed materials such as calendered Tyvek,
CI, and resin coated Tyvek, C2. Their structures are estimated to be quasi-parallel mode
(regression 4: anisotropy factor 1, polar orientation parameter 0.02). The estimation of
quasi-parallel mode is reasonable because spunbond process produces a parallel laid
structure. Calendering fixes the fibers in plane of the fabric. Regression formulae are given
in table 4.5.
118
3.8
3.6-
0c~0
0c=0.06
y = - 0.8482 + 1.2573x R = 0.95

U
3.4-
S
cr
C/3
3.2-
U
Q
W
c*
eu
/ *
/
.
y*
H-*
3.0-
2.8
im
-m
r^-'GTC]
y = 1.4628 + 0.4248x R = 0.87

2.6
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
EXPERIMENTAL K, w/sqmC
Figure 4.17. Comparisons of Thermal Conductivity Predicted by Model to Experimentally

measured Values.
119
3.8
y = 2.5946 + 0.0647x R = 0.98
cr
"
3.6-
3.43.2O
EXPERIMENT, K
CALCULATED 2
3.0-
y = 2.7896+ 0.0458x R = 0.93
2.8
5
20
15
10
FIBER VOLUME FRACTION, Xf6.0 (%)

a) Meltblown Webs.
I
I
Regression 1
Regression 2
Regression 3
Regression 4
FIBER VOLUME FRACTION, Xf (%)
b) Barrier Nonwovens.
Figure 4.18. Relationship between Thermal Conductivity and Fiber Volume Fraction.
120
Table 4.5. Estimation of Polar Orientation parameters.
Sample
Kexp
Krd(F)
Krd(R)
Krd(S)
Kcd(F)
Kcd(R)
Kcd(S)
Oc(F)
Oc(R)
Oc(S)
51
52
53
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
0.0419
0.0404
0.0417
0.0356
0.0486
0.0393
0.0341
0.0490
0.0396
0.0312
0.0332
0.0362
0.0313
0.0398
0.0329
0.0317
0.0434
0.0451
0.0005
0.0003
0.0005
0.0000
0.0000
0.0001
0.0005
0.0087
0.0036
0.0006
0.0006
0.0004
0.0003
0.0004
0.0010
0.0007
0.0007
0.0008
0.0003
0.0002
0.0009
0.0000
0.0000
0.0001
0.0003
0.0168
0.0058
0.0016
0.0013
0.0007
0.0002
0.0002
0.0020
0.0011
0.0013
0.0012
0.0003
0.0002
0.0008
0.0000
0.0000
0.0002
0.0004
0.0113
0.0057
0.0001
0.0007
0.0007
0.0002
0.0002
0.0010
0.0009
0.0012
0.0013
0.0414
0.0401
0.0411
0.0356
0.0486
0.0392
0.0336
0.0403
0.0360
0.0306
0.0326
0.0357
0.0310
0.0394
0.0319
0.0310
0.0427
0.0443
0.0417
0.0403
0.0408
0.0356
0.0486
0.0392
0.0338
0.0322
0.0338
0.0297
0.0319
0.0355
0.0311
0.0396
0.0308
0.0306
0.0421
0.0439
0.0417
0.0402
0.0408
0.0356
0.0486
0.0392
0.0337
0.0377
0.0339
0.0312
0.0326
0.0355
0.0311
0.0396
0.0318
0.0308
0.0422
0.0438
0.0620
0.0393
0.1186
0.0128
0.0241
0.1685
0.1558
0.0315
0.0541
0.0336
0.0011
0.0265
0.0504
0.0499
0.0457
0.0530
0.0633
0.0401
0.1153
0.0128
0.0241
0.1683
0.1593
0.9727
0.8146
0.0182
0.0446
0.0317
0.0018
0.0271
0.0368
0.0438
0.0439
0.0516
0.0632
0.0400
0.1159
0.0128
0.0241
0.1680
0.1583
Ml
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
0.0314
0.0312
0.0308
0.0331
0.0315
0.0309
0.0330
0.0320
0.0315
0.0302
0.0301
0.0300
0.0331
0.0327
0.0321
0.0355
0.0348
0.0335
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0006
0.0006
0.0006
0.0003
0.0004
0.0004
0.0002
0.0003
0.0004
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0003
0.0012
0.0012
0.0012
0.0006
0.0006
0.0007
0.0004
0.0005
0.0006
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0003
0.0002
0.0002
0.0003
0.0008
0.0008
0.0008
0.0005
0.0006
0.0006
0.0004
0.0005
0.0006
0.0313
0.0311
0.0306
0.0330
0.0314
0.0307
0.0328
0.0318
0.0313
0.0296
0.0295
0.0294
0.0327
0.0323
0.0316
0.0352
0.0345
0.0331
0.0312
0.0310
0.0305
0.0329
0.0313
0.0306
0.0328
0.0318
0.0313
0.0290
0.0289
0.0288
0.0325
0.0320
0.0314
0.0351
0.0343
0.0329
0.0312
0.0310
0.0305
0.0329
0.0313
0.0306
0.0328
0.0317
0.0313
0.0294
0.0293
0.0293
0.0326
0.0321
0.0314
0.0351
0.0343
0.0329
0.0481
0.0560
0.0606
0.0669
0.0656
0.0642
0.0674
0.0711
0.0900
0.0580
0.0645
0.0596
0.0571
0.0547
0.0583
0.0398
0.0591
0.0550
0.0471
0.0547
0.0589
0.0662
0.0646
0.0628
0.0671
0.0706
0.0890
0.0428
0.0476
0.0435
0.0538
0.0511
0.0535
0.0387
0.0570
0.0523
0.0470
0.0547
0.0588
0.0660
0.0642
0.0624
0.0668
0.0702
0.0883
0.0534
0.0591
0.0545
0.0546
0.0520
0.0547
0.0387
0.0571
0.0524
0.8265
0.0392
0.0535
0.0320
0.0018
0.0271
0.0498
0.0460
0.0441
0.0514
* Kexp=measurcd thermal conductivity (w/mC), Krd(F)=calculated radiative conductivity using Farnworth's

combined conduction and radiation model, Krd(R)=Famworth's radiative conductivity model, Krd(S)=Stuard
& Holcombe's [73] model, Kcd=conductive conductivity, Oc=cos2(j)=polar orientation parameter.
121
Table 4.6. Regression Formulae Fitted to Various Barrier Fabrics.
Regression
1
Formulae and Variables

Polyester Carded Cold Weather battings
Kcd =0.01528+0.48274Xf+0.00315/(1.0794-Xf)+0.00997/(1.2781- Xf).
where Kll=1.257, Kl =0.157, a =1.25, Oc =0.70
Cotton Wet-Laid, Embossed

Kcd = 0.00165 +0.1336Xf +0.00018/(1.037-Xf)+0.00070/(l.l 198-Xf).
where Kn =2.879, Kl =0.243, a =2.00, Oc =0.07
Polyester Spunbond
Kcd = 0.00090 +0.02496Pi +0.04476Xf +0.00015/(1.0549-Xf)
+0.000865( 1-Pi)2/[ 1.1494( 1 -Pi)-Xflwhere KII =2.00, Kl =0.20, a =1.50, Oc =0.04
4
Polypropylene Spunbond (Tyvek), Calendered

Kcd =0.00042+0.01227Xf+0.00011/(1.1327-Xf)+0.03327/( 1.3059-Xf).
where Kn =1.242, Ki= 0.111, a =1.00, Oc =0.02
* a = anisotropy factor, Oc = polar orientation parameter = cosÔ
CONTRIBUTION OF AIR AND FIBER CONDUCTION AND RADIATION

Convective Conductivity: the basic transfer mechanisms governing sensible heat
transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation. The natural convection heat transfer
appears only when the solid portion is very small (generally less than 1%), forming cells
large enough to allow natural convection air turbulence. These cells usually must be several
millimeters across for the phenomenon to become apparent [38]. Enough fabric thickness is
also required to induce free convection currents. Dent [58] proposes the Critical Raleigh
122
number, which is required to be larger than 40 for convection heat transfer. He used a heat
flow up-and-down test method for confirming existence of convection heat transfer through
a fibrous material. The difference in heat transfer rates, between when a heat source is
placed on a heat sink so that heat flows down and when heat flows up, represents the heat
transfer induced by convection mechanism. This research used Dent's technique to
determine the extent of the convective transfer contribution for highly porous samples (12).
No evidence of convection heat transfer was found (Appendix 6).
Radiative Conductivity: The contribution of radiation to overall thermal conductivity
is limited to low dense materials. Theoretical analysis in section 4.2.1 shows that radiative
conductivity is significant when the fiber volume fraction is less than about 3%. Most
textile fibers are partially transparent to infrared but still absorb the greater portion of the
incident radiation. The interposition of fibers reduces direct radiation from the hotter
surface to the cooler surface and then reradiate the heat to the opposite side. We estimated
radiative heat transfer using Farnworth's model [67], Stuart and Holcombe's model [73],
and radiative conductivity model [67] (table 4.5 and Appendix 7). As shown in figure
4.19, the three models are plotted against fiber volume fraction. Farnworth's model gives
relatively lower values while radiative conductivity model gives about two times as much as
Farnworth's model. However, Table 4.7 and figures 4.20 show that most samples except
low density fiber battings give very small contribution of radiation (less than 3%) to the
overall thermal conductivity. Carded low density batting materials, 12 and 13, have very
significant radiative conductivity portion (34% and 14%, respectively) which may be a
target parameter to improve their thermal insulation properties as cold weather battings.
Conductive Conductivity: Most fabrics are governed by conductive conductivity as
discussed above because their radiative portions are negligible. The conductive conductivity
of two phase (air + fiber) fibrous materials includes three conductivity modes:
conductivities due to air, fiber; and the interaction of air and fiber. Appendix 8 and table 4.7
14
a
U
^ E
5 c
Kid(F)
Krd(R)
Kid(S)
air opening 65%
air opening 85%
&
1
a) Meltblown Webs.
200
Krd(F)
Krd(R)
Krd(S)
100-
o t
H 2
W x
2S
10
20
30

Figure 4.19. Comparisons of Three Radiative Conductivity Models.
124
Table 4.7. Contribution of Various Conduction Modes to The Thermal Conductivity.
Sample
K(air)
K(sol)
K(int)
Kcd
Krd(F)
%air
%sol
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
0.0000
0.0000
0.0001
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0001
0.0000
0.0088
0.0041
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0041
0.0004
0.0001
0.0000
0.0129
0.0093
0.0134
0.0026
0.0074
0.0113
0.0068
0.0062
0.0078
0.0024
0.0043
0.0048
0.0003
0.0089
0.0041
0.0035
0.0146
0.0161
0.0285
0.0307
0.0276
0.0330
0.0412
0.0279
0.0269
0.0259
0.0260
0.0195
0.0242
0.0309
0.0307
0.0305
0.0237
0.0272
0.0280
0.0282
0.0414
0.0401
0.0411
0.0356
0.0486
0.0392
0.0336
0.0322
0.0338
0.0306
0.0326
0.0357
0.0310
0.0394
0.0319
0.0310
0.0427
0.0443
0.0005
0.0003
0.0005
0.0000
0.0000
0.0001
0.0005
0.0168
0.0058
0.0006
0.0006
0.0004
0.0003
0.0004
0.0010
0.0007
0.0007
0.0008
0.0419
0.0404
0.0417
0.0356
0.0486
0.0393
0.0341
0.0490
0.0396
0.0312
0.0332
0.0362
0.0313
0.0398
0.0328
0.0317
0.0434
0.0451
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
28.0
12.3
0.1
0.0
0.0
12.4
1.3
0.1
0.0
30.7
23.1
32.2
7.3
15.2
28.9
19.9
12.6
19.8
7.6
12.9
13.3
0.9
22.5
12.4
10.9
33.6
35.7
68.0
76.1
66.2
92.7
84.8
70.8
78.8
52.9
65.6
62.4
72.9
85.4
98.0
76.6
72.3
85.7
64.6
62.5
1.3
0.8
1.3
0.1
0.1
0.3
1.4
34.3
14.6
2.0
1.8
1.2
1.1
0.9
2.9
2.1
1.7
1.8
Ml
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0025
0.0024
0.0024
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0035
0.0035
0.0033
0.0052
0.0039
0.0033
0.0051
0.0043
0.0042
0.0025
0.0024
0.0023
0.0043
0.0040
0.0037
0.0053
0.0058
0.0048
0.0278
0.0276
0.0274
0.0277
0.0275
0.0273
0.0277
0.0275
0.0272
0.0246
0.0248
0.0248
0.0282
0.0281
0.0278
0.0299
0.0287
0.0283
0.0313
0.0311
0.0306
0.0330
0.0314
0.0307
0.0328
0.0318
0.0313
0.0296
0.0295
0.0294
0.0327
0.0323
0.0316
0.0352
0.0345
0.0331
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0006
0.0006
0.0006
0.0003
0.0004
0.0004
0.0002
0.0003
0.0004
0.0314
0.0312
0.0308
0.0331
0.0315
0.0309
0.0330
0.0320
0.0315
0.0302
0.0301
0.0300
0.0331
0.0327
0.0321
0.0355
0.0348
0.0335
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
S.4
7.9
8.1
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
11.1
11.3
10.6
15.8
12.4
10.8
15.5
13.5
13.2
8.2
7.9
7.5
13.1
12.1
U.4
14.9
16.6
14.3
88.5
88.3
88.9
83.8
87.1
88.6
84.0
86.0
86.1
81.4
82.3
82.5
85.2
86.2
86.7
84.4
82.4
84.5
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.7
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.1
1.1
1.3
0.7
0.9
1.1
%int
%rad
* K(air), K(sol), and K(int) = effective thermal conductivities due to open air space, due to solid fiber, and due
to interaction of air and fiber: Kcd = conductive conductivity = K(air)+K(sol)+K(int). Krd(F) = radiative
conductivity calculated using Famworth's combined model, %air, %int, and %rad = percent contributions of
K(air), K(sol), K(int), and Krd. K = total thermal conductivity = Kcd+Krd.
125
y = 2.7618 + 0.0457x R = 0.91
Ui
y = 2.8004 + 0.0446x R = 0.92

a s5^
O , 2
O ^
As
< X
s/
BJ
is
El K(S0l)
K(sol+air)
a K(sol+air+int)
o
K(total)
1 -
i . * J n rffr*
HQ "
y = 0 1821 + 0.0235x R = 0.72

r
10
15
20

a) Meltblown Webs.
U
i
w
e"
i<
>
3-
ililiSllir*
tCJ
P
2-
o
u
J
<
2
a
w
1 -
110-
iN-
Krd(F)
K(air)
K(sol)
K(int)
SI S2 S3 C1C2C3 II 12 13 R1R2R3R4R5R6R7R8R9
SAMPLE
Figure 4.20. Contribution of Various Modes of Energy Transport through Non woven
Fabrics.
126
show the calculation of conductive conductivities due to three structure modes using
developed theory. Figure 4.20a shows an analysis of contribution of various conduction
modes on overall thermal conductivity of meltblown webs. The primarily dominant
conductivity mode of meltblown is the interaction of air and fibers (average 86%). The
thermal conductivity due to solid fiber increases with increasing in fiber volume fraction.
This portion also increases with increasing polar orientation parameter. The thermal
conductivity due to air, which relates to the optical porosity, is appreciate at low fiber
volume fraction less than 9%. Figure 4.20b is a stick-bar diagram explaining the
contribution of each mode in barrier nonwoven materials. The thermal conductivity due to
air are significant for high porous materials, Rl, R2, and R6 (12 ~ 28%). The thermal
conductivity due to solid contributes to overall thermal conductivity with the portion of 1 ~
36%. The most influential mode is also the interaction of air and fiber (53 ~ 98%) as well
as for meltblown webs.
RELATIONSHIPS OF FABRIC GEOMETRY TO THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Effects of Fiber Volume Fraction: The effects of fiber volume fraction have been
reviewed by many researchers [36~ 39, 44, 45, 58, 60, 61]. Though various structural
properties may affect the thermal conductivity of a fabric, the fiber volume fraction is
usually considered to be the most influential parameter of them. When no fibers are
present, the thermal conductivity will be contributed by only air but very large value which
is the sum of the conductive conductivity of air (Ka ~ 0.026 w/mC) and the radiative
conductivity induced across the air space between two bare plates. As soon as fibers are
introduced, the radiation component is cut down while the amount of heat transferred by
conduction increases. It is generally acceptable that radiation and convection are only
appreciable at very low fiber volume fraction (less than 3% and 1 %, respectively) and fiber
to fiber conduction is significant when more than 20%. This mechanism is also confirmed
in this research as illustrated in figures 4.18a and 4.18b. Convection is not detected above
127
fiber volume fraction of 1% and radiation is significant in low density cold weather battings
(12 = 1.0% Xf and 13 = 1.4% Xf). Theoretical thermal conductivity curve indicates that
there is a minimum value around 3% fiber volume fraction and then the thermal
conductivity increases with increase in solid portion. In the intermediate region, most
samples are dominated by air and solid conduction. The higher packing factor or/and higher
polar orientation, the greater the contribution of solid conduction. Melt blown webs and
other barrier nonwovens except low density cold weather insulators (12 and 13) are in the
intermediate region (3 ~ 20%).
Effects of Fabric Thickness: Figure 4.21 shows the relationships of the thermal
conductivity to the web thickness for meltblown webs. The contour plottings are also
shown with respect to three production variables. This contour map is very much similar to
the figure 4.16a which is illustrates the relationships between the fiber volume fraction
3.6
1DCD9
DCD12
3-5" 1.5oz
O
'
i n
Air 65%
DCD15
3.4- 1.0oz
Air 85%
DCD9
SQ
DCD12
o
0 6
3.2 - 0.5oz
3.1 -
1.5oz
1 .Ooz
3.00.5oz
2.9
10
THICKNESS, L6.0 (X10-1 mm)

Figure 4.21. Effects of Web Thickness of Meltblown Nonwoven on Thermal
Conductivity.
128
and the fabric thickness. There is a possibility in the direct prediction of thermal
conductivity from the production variables. This similarity implies that the fiber volume
fraction is the most influential parameter on the thermal conductivity and the effect of web
thickness may be negligible. The contour lines of DCD, M1/M4/M7, M2/M5/M8, and
M3/M6/M9, being considered, the thermal conductivity slightly increases with increasing in
the web thickness after eliminating the effect of the fiber volume fraction: i.e. there is a
weak effect of thickness on thermal conductivity. However, because other effects, such as
anisotropy, polar orientation, radiation, etc, are also involved to this increase (figures
4.23a, 4.23b, and 4.19), the effect of thickness may be negligible as well as in theoretical
analysis of section 4.2.1.
On the other hand, equation 4.21 indicates that the fabric thickness greatly affects
the contribution of air conduction which depends on optical porosity. Optical porosity
decreases with increasing in fabric thickness, so that the contribution of air conduction
decreases (figure 4.3). Fabric thickness also affects thermal conductivity induced by
radiation as shown in Famworth's [67] and Stuart [73] combined conduction and radiation
models. However, its effect on overall thermal conductivity is negligible when fiber
volume fraction is more than about 3%.
Though fabric thickness is a minor parameter in the thermal conductivity, it is the
most important in thermal resistance. Figures 4.22a and 4.22b show the relationships
between thermal resistance and fabric thickness. Thermal resistance highly correlates with
the fabric thickness with regression coefficient 97% and 99% for barrier nonwovens and
meltblown webs, respectively. The thermal resistance of meltblown webs increase about
0.2 clo per 1 mm thickness and that of barrier fabrics, 0.15 clo/mm. The difference in
proportionality is due to different thermal conductivities of the fabrics. These results
indicate that the fabric thickness is the primary parameter governing the thermal resistance
of clothing and the thermal conductivity, the second. While the thermal conductivities of
y = 8.987e-4 + 0.2009x R = 1.00

4
-r
10
THICKNESS, L6.0 (xlO-1 mm)

a) Meltblown Webs.
y = 0.0827 + 1.5177x R = 0.99

o
OS
03
on
00
A
OS
r-H
3 a
1
tu
as
THICKNESS, L6.0 (mm)

Figure 4.22. Relationship between Thermal Resistance and Fabric Thickness.
130
most textile materials are limited in the narrow range, 0.03 ~ 0.06 w/mC, the thickness
can be extended to the wide range.
Effects of Fiber Directionality: 3-dimensional filament directionality can be analyzed
from two view points: the orientation to the machine direction or the transverse direction on
the fabric plane (x-y plane) and the orientation to polar axis (z-axis). In our equation, the
former is defined by anisotropv factor with respect to the fabric plane and the latter, by
polar orientation parameter. Both orientations of fibers result from the web formation step.
Additional orientation can also be introduced by drafting, or stretching the web at any stage
after web formation. The finishing processes such as calendering, embossing, resin
coating, crimping, or composing may change the fabric structure into more complicated
orientation mode. Hence, it is difficult to directly evaluate the effects of fiber orientation on
the thermal conductivity in the complex fiber system. However, since the fiber
directionality is a key factor to determine the ratio of the combination of the maximum
conduction mode (parallel mode) and the minimum conduction mode (serial mode), it must
be analyzed.
Theory (figures 4.4 and 4.5) shows that the thermal conductivity significantly
increases with increase in polar orientation parameter because the portion of the parallel
mode increases so that the thermal conductivity of the fiber along the fiber axis contributes
more to the overall thermal conductivity. The estimation of polar orientation parameters
from the conductivity data measured using theory results average 0.06 for most
nonwovens, which represents a quasi-parallel level, except low density-carded-cold
weather battings which are assumed to be randomly oriented materials. Though the polar
orientation, 0.06, is small, the effects on thermal conductivity becomes significant with
increase in fiber volume fraction. Figure 4.23a shows a contour map of three production
variables of meltblown web on the thermal conductivity-polar orientation parameter field.
The contour line of the fiber volume fraction, M3/M6/M9, M2/M5/M8, or M1/M4/M7,
informs that the thermal conductivity is proportional to the polar orientation parameter.
131
3.6
Air 85%
Air 65%
1.5oz
3.5g
gu
3.4
gI 3.3Q
l.Ooz
/
/
DCD9
jfl--
z
U 6
O ol
DCD12
qo-
<*-*
T-H
DCD15
3.1 3.0-
0.5oz
l.Ooz"
0.5oz
1.5oz
DCD15\DCD12 DCD9
2.9
0
POLAR ORIENTATION PARAMETER (xlO-5)

a) Effects of Polar Orientation Parameter.
3.6
DCD9
3.5P
Pu
B
I
/> J/3
3.4-
ON
qp.
Udj
<*
Sw
Air 85%
Air 65%
DCD12
DCD15
3.3 -
1.5o,z
0.5oz
l.Ooz
3.1-
0.5oz
DCD9
DCD12
DCD15
2.9
ANISOTROPY FACTOR
b) Effects of Anisotropy Factor.
Figure 4.23. Effects of Fiber Directionality on Thermal Conductivity (Meltblown).
132
Anisotropy factors of the fiber orientation in the machine direction to that in the
transverse direction were measured in the range 1 ~ 4 and averaged as 1.5. The other
nonwovens show weak anisotropy while spunlaced nonwovens are strong anisotropy (3 ~
4). Strong anisotropy assigns high thermal conductivity but the effects are weak,
comparing with the effects of polar orientation parameter. Sometimes, anisotropy is
negligible for low polar oriented or/and low density materials. A plot of the thermal
conductivity of meltblown web against anisotropy factor is illustrated in figure 4.23b. The
effects of anisotropy factor are not obviously explained.
Effects of Fiber Thermal Conductivitv: Kellv [41] theoretically showed that the
higher the degree of fiber orientation, the greater the anisotropy of fiber thermal
conductivity. Kawabata |43] reports that the fiber thermal conductivity along the fiber axis
are in the range, 1 ~ 8 w/m2oC, and that transverse to fiber axis, in the range, 0.1 ~ 0.6
w/m2oC. The ratio of the thermal conductivities in two direction is average 10. Therefore,
if the fibers are oriented along the heat flow direction, the heat flow rate will be much more
than that through the structure mode oriented perpendicular to the heat flow direction. The
strong anisotropy of fiber thermal conductivity increases the importance of fiber
directionality as an influential parameter on the thermal conductivity of the fabric.
On the other hand, the absolute value of the thermal conductivity of a fiber effects
the overall thermal conductivity of the fabric made from it. Nonwovens made from Kevlar
or cotton show relatively high values in their thermal conductivities while meltblown webs
made from polypropylene filaments show low thermal conductivities.
Effects of Fiber Fineness: Fiber fineness acts on both conductive conductivity and
radiative conductivity. Its effects on conductive conductivity can be negligible as well as
those of the fabric thickness for all range of the fiber volume fraction. It may be explained
by the developed conductivity equation 4.20, in which the fiber fineness acts on the
determination of the number of layers of unit structure but the effect of the number of layers
on effective conductive conductivity is negligible. However, the effect of fiber fineness on
133
radiative conductivity is very significant for low density materials. Figure 4.24 shows the
radiative conductivity of meltblown webs calculated using Farnworth's combined
conduction and radiation model. Finer fiber webs (2.5 micron) have much less radiative
conductivity, comparing with coarser fiber webs (10.3 micron). Fiber diameter is a major
geometrical parameter controlling absorption coefficient of radiation [58, 67].
U
.E
H
>
P
d=2.5 micron
d=10.3 micron
5y = 21.867 * xA-0.739 R = 1.00
o
H
4-
S3
O
u
w
3-
>
Ov13
0
y= 15.670 *x
JO
II
o
<1
to
"
CXJ
>
i*
>
^fiL
10
15
FIBER VOLUME FRACTION, %
Figure 4.24. Effects of Fiber Diameter on Radiative Conductivity.
20
134
4.4.3. VALIDITY OF WATER VAPOR DIFFUSIVITY MODEL
COMPARISONS OF PREDICTED VALUES WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Table 4.8 shows the calculation of water vapor diffusivity from measured values of
water vapor transmission rate (WVT). The intrinsic resistance of the fabric was calculated
by subtracting the resistance of combined an air layer between water surface and specimen
and a boundary air layer from total water vapor resistance. The method measuring the
vapor resistance of combined air and boundary layer was discussed in section 4.3.2. For
this measurement, three melt-blown samples (M3, M6, and M9), which have similar
structural properties but different only in the thickness, were used. As shown in figure
4.25, plotting the vapor resistances of these three samples with respect to the thickness
gives the vapor resistance at zero fabric thickness which represents only the water vapor
resistance of combined air layer and air boundary layer excluding that of the fabric.
04
ttf
y
&
?
14 rO,
C/3 &
tn
6-
y=6.157+0.403x
R=1
1
o
8"
at
y=4.960+0.319x
R=1
0.0
1
0.2
1
0.4
1
0.6
T
0.8
Re(22)
Re(32)
1
1.0
1.2
THICKNESS, mm
Figure 4.25. Calculation of Water Vapor Resistance of Combined Air Layer and Air
Boundary.
135
Table 4.8. Experimental Data on Water Vapor Diffusion.
Sample
WVT22
WVT32
Re(22)
Re(32)
Rcl(22)
Rcl(32)
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
925
875
914
646
11
913
733
713
702
941
936
911
921
897
925
917
687
828
3664
3432
3629
2597
30
3587
2897
2832
2746
3726
3705
3603
3659
3531
3649
3627
2771
3271
6.35
6.71
6.43
9.09
532.75
6.43
8.01
8.23
8.36
6.24
6.28
6.45
6.38
6.55
6.35
6.40
8.54
7.09
5.11
5.46
5.16
7.21
624.10
5.22
6.46
6.61
6.82
5.02
5.05
5.20
5.12
5.30
5.13
5.16
6.76
5.72
0.19
0.56
0.27
2.93
526.60
0.28
1.85
2.07
2.20
0.08
0.12
0.29
0.22
0.39
0.19
0.25
2.39
0.94
0.15
0.50
0.20
2.25
619.14
0.26
1.50
1.65
1.86
0.06
0.09
0.24
0.16
0.34
0.17
0.20
1.80
0.76
Ml
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
937
936
933
924
920
914
906
897
886
932
931
931
930
929
926
927
922
918
3712
3708
3697
3657
3642
3617
3590
3552
3514
3691
3688
3690
3683
3678
3665
3675
3649
3632
6.27
6.27
6.29
6.35
6.38
6.42
6.48
6.55
6.63
6.30
6.31
6.31
6.31
6.32
6.34
6.33
6.37
6.40
5.04
5.05
5.06
5.12
5.14
5.18
5.22
5.27
5.33
5.07
5.08
5.07
5.08
5.09
5.11
5.10
5.13
5.16
0.11
0.12
0.14
0.20
0.23
0.27
0.32
0.39
0.47
0.14
0.15
0.15
0.16
0.16
0.18
0.18
0.21
0.24
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.16
0.18
0.22
0.26
0.31
0.37
0.11
0.12
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.14
0.17
0.20
Dexp(22) Dexp(32)
0.222
0.05 i
0.240
0.006
0.281
0.057
0.322
0.008
0.000
0.000
0.237
0.245
0.260
0.254
0.251
0.247
0.210
0.081
0.069
0.253
0.265
0.042
0.236
0.253
0.301
0.327
0.301
0.321
0.316
0.256
0.114
0.078
0.284
0.325
0.055
0.289
0.241
0.242
0.244
0.239
0.244
0.251
0.236
0.239
0.247
0.259
0.257
0.253
0.223
0.232
0.237
0.202
0.227
0.239
0.311
0.312
0.317
0.295
0.304
0.310
0.299
0.298
0.314
0.327
0.330
0.331
0.281
0.290
0.294
0.264
0.281
0.292
WVT=water vapor transmission (g/m2-24hr), Subscripts 22 & 32: water temperature (C), Re=overall
water vapor resistance = Re(air)+Re(cloth)+Re(boundary air): Re(air) + Re(boundary air)=6.157 at 22C;
4.96 at 32C, Reel = intrinsic water vapor resistance of the fabric (cm^-sec)/g.Dexp=water vapor diffusivity
(m/sec).
136
Table 4.9. Prediction of Water Vapor Diffusivity from Fabric Structure.
Sample
PI
Pi
Pt
Dclc(22)
0.000
0.000
0.620
0.237
0.887
0.041
0.688
0.870
0.954
0.877
0.979
0.518
0.685
0.771
0.271
0.247
0.729
0.892
0.842
0.844
0.167
0.064
0.241
0.011
0.235
0.257
0.267
0.265
0.235
0.231
0.209
0.073
0.067
0.242
0.249
0.227
0.228
0.208
0.080
0.300
0.014
0.000
0.292
0.320
0.332
0.330
0.292
0.287
0.260
0.091
0.083
0.301
0.309
0.283
0.284
0.893
0.903
0.922
0.889
0.905
0.919
0.881
0.903
0.925
0.823
0.832
0.828
0.840
0.849
0.866
0.775
0.835
0.854
0.241
0.244
0.249
0.240
0.244
0.248
0.238
0.244
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.229
0.231
0.236
0.209
0.226
0.231
0.300
0.303
0.310
0.299
0.304
0.309
0.296
0.303
0.311
0.311
0.311
0.311
0.285
0.288
0.294
0.260
0.281
0.287
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
49.2
33.0
27.2
52.6
86.8
192.4
904.0
107.6
200.0
4.7
7.3
14.7
20.7
31.2
9.7
25.8
53.9
120.1
0.791
0.648
0.827
0.541
0.363
0.791
0.925
0.980
0.972
0.800
0.784
0.665
0.694
0.663
0.832
0.872
0.784
0.786
Ml
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
52.6
56.0
66.4
94.6
110.0
134.0
153.2
186.0
231.2
18.0
18.6
18.3
16.9
18.4
21.2
17.3
23.3
27.7
0.827
0.844
0.874
0.820
0.846
0.870
0.809
0.844
0.879
0.882
0.882
0.882
0.757
0.771
0.798
0.642
0.737
0.766
0.006
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.111
0.004
0.350
0.171
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.168
0.029
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.104
0.095
0.099
0.009
0.008
0.008
0.000
0.001
0.001
0.000
Dclc(32)
i=predicted No. of layer of unit structure, Pl=predicted optical porosity of unit structure, Pi=calculated
overall water vapor diffusivity, Da=water vapor diffusivity of air, 0.270 at 22C and 0.336 m/sec at 32C,
Subscripts 22 & 32=water temperature, C.
137
The results are 6.157 cm2-sec/g at 22C water temperature and 4.960 cm2-sec/g at 32C
(surrounding conditions: 22C, 65% RH). The latter induced by both the difference in
vapor pressure and the difference in temperature is smaller than the former driven by only
the difference in water vapor pressure. This indicates that the temperature difference
accelerates moisture to penetrate more rapidly fibrous materials: the water vapor
transmission rate at 32C, WVT(32), results about four times as much as WVT(22).
Hence, the higher temperature method for measuring water vapor transmission gives larger
water vapor diffusivity and a better simulating of real skin condition. A regression analysis
of water vapor resistances between two methods is shown in figure 4.26. The trend is
very similar but open air (optical porosity) may be more favorable to hot water method.
The prediction of water vapor diffusivity using our developed model is shown in
table 4.9. The water vapor diffusivity of air used was indirectly measured by varying the
thickness of air layer. Figure 4.27 shows that the vapor resistance linearly increases with
the thickness of air layer. The slope of this graph represents the vapor resistance of air per
unit air thickness. Therefore, the reciprocal yields the water vapor diffusivity of air: 0.270
cm/s at 22C and 0.336 at 32C.
Figures 4.28a and 4.28b show the comparisons between measured water vapor
diffusivity and values calculated using the model developed by this research. Comparisons
for meltblown and other barrier nonwovens indicate that the model is a reliable prediction.
Small differences between measured and predicted values may be caused by some
unidentified finishing effects (irregular embossing, binder, or/and composite, etc) or the
effects of fiber types (fiber diffusion coefficient, surface energy, etc).
CONTRIBUTIONS OF TWO DIFFUSION MODES TO OVERALL DIFFUSIVITY

There are two modes in water vapor diffusion through the porous material as
discussed in section 4.2.2. One is one-dimensional diffusion through open air space and
138
y = 0.0162 + 0.7829X R=1.00
cs
CO
"o
BS
01
to
iC/3 <D.
C/l
E
s
DS o"
to
ai
O
0*
<
>
C6
UJ
<3
WATER VAPOR RESISTANCE, Rcl(22)

(sqcm-sec/g)
Figure 4.26. Relationship between Resistance at water Temperature 22C and Resistance at
32C.
-S?
O"
<D
CO
y = 3.120+ 0.370x R = 1.00

y = 2.526 + 0.297x R = 1.00
E
o
cr
VI
Elf
u
2
<
E-1
00
or)
W
8-
76 -
01
C4
5-
OS
4-
10
12
22
32
14
AIR THICKNESS, mm
Figure 4.27. Calculation of Vapor Resistance of Air.
16
139
the other is two- dimensional diffusion through curved air tunnels. The former relates to
the optical porosity which depends on fiber volume fraction and the number of unit
structure (thickness divided by double fiber diameter or fiber thickness, i = L/2d). The
latter depends on fiber volume fraction and shape coefficient (cover factor). It is also
affected by fiber properties such as surface energy or the diffusivity of the fibers
themselves, but these effects are usually negligible when fiber volume fraction is less than
30%. Therefore, the overall water vapor diffusivity is the sum of the diffusivities of two
modes. It will be the function of four geometrical parameters (fiber volume fraction, fabric
thickness, fiber diameter, and shape coefficient) or the function of two porosity parameters
(optical porosity and fiber volume fraction) and shape coefficient. Table 4.10 shows an
analysis of the contribution of each mode on experiment results and predicted values
(Appendices 9 and 10 give the details on their calculations). This comparison confirms a
good relationships between experimental and predicted data (figures 4.29a and 4.29b). The
good correlation of porosity mode between experiment, Di(exp), and calculation, Di(clc),
implies that theoretical optical porosity is also well-fitted to the experiment and it reconfirms
the validity of developed diffusivity model.
However, two modes compensate each other, so that the overall vapor diffusivity is
nearly invariable when fiber volume fraction and shape coefficient are constant. A
comparison of the data calculated using a full equation 4.31 with those estimated using an
approximated equation 4.33 which eliminates the function of optical porosity shows only
0.9% of the approximation error for high porosity nonwoven R1 and less than 0.1% error
for the others in table 4.10. This implies that the approximation is quite reasonable and that
diffusivity can be estimated from only two structural parameters: fiber volume fraction and
the shape coefficient.
140
3-
Dexp(22)
Dexp(32)
y=-0.350+1.147x R=0.94
v = -0.619+ 1.224x R = 0.92
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
CALCULATED, Dele (mm/sec)

a) Meltblown Webs.
y = 0.0241 + 1.0148x R = 0.99

y = 0.0423 + 0.9942x R = 0.97
Dexp(22)
Dexp(32)
CALCULATED, Dele (xlO cm/sec)

Figure 4.28. Comparisons of Experimental Results with Theory
141
RELATIONS OF FABRIC GEOMETRY TO WATER VAPOR DIFFUSIVITY
Effects of Fiber Volume Fraction: It is generally known that the fiber volume
fraction is one of major parameters governing moisture diffusivity. Our diffusivity model
confirms the strong role played by fiber volume fraction in controlling moisture diffusion
through fibrous structure. Figure 4.30a shows that, for meltblown nonwovens, water
vapor diffusivity decreases with increase in fiber volume fraction. This trend is consistent
with our model. However, in many case, the moisture vapor transmission cannot be
explained sufficiently on the basis of fiber volume fraction. This is because of the complex
interactions between fiber volume fraction and other parameters: shape coefficient, fiber
types. This is illustrated in figure 4.30b for barrier nonwovens.
Effects of Shape Coefficient: Figures 4.30b and 4.31 indicate that, besides fiber
volume fraction, the shape factor of the fibers is a key parameter controlling moisture
permeability. Equation 4.33 indicates that water vapor diffusivity is inversely proportional
to the shape coefficient. Hat fibers provide more cover than round or trilobal fibers. Higher
cover reduces moisture penetration. The test group of barrier nonwovens include various
fibers such as polypropylene and polyester have much smaller shape coefficient as 0.57
and trilobal cross section, as 0.73. Tyvek composed of aggregates of ultrafine fibers is
ranked at higher level of coefficient (average 88) and film laminated Tyvek, at infinitive
shape coefficient. Figure 4.30b illustrates that most round fiber nonwovens give relatively
high diffusivity, wet laid cotton fiber nonwovens are at second level, and calendered Tyvek
and microporous Teflon laminated Gore-Tex are at third level (semi-permeability).
Polyethylene coated Tyvek is identified as an impermeable material. Finishing process such
as calendering or embossing reduce moisture penetration due to aggregation of fine fibers
and increase in fiber volume fraction .fibers with different cross sections. As shown in table
4.2a, cotton fibers with ribbon type cross section are characterized by a shape coefficient of
16.8 while round shape synthetic, 0.57.
Table 4.10. Comparisons of Predicted Values with Measured values and Analysis on the Contributions of Structure Modes.
Experimental
Sample
51
52
53
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
D1
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.021
0.000
0.143
0.062
0.002
0.003
0.001
0.048
0.031
0.000
0.000
22C
D2
0.221
0.051
0.239
0.006
0.000
0.237
0.245
0.239
0.254
0.108
0.184
0.207
0.078
0.068
0.205
0.234
0.042
0.235
D1
0.222
0.051
0.240
0.006
0.000
0.237
0.245
0.260
0.254
0.251
0.247
0.210
0.081
0.069
0.253
0.265
0.042
0.236
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.027
0.000
0.178
0.078
0.003
0.004
0.001
0.059
0.038
0.000
0.000
Predicted
32C
D2
0.280
0.057
0.321
0.008
0.000
0.251
0.301
0.300
0.301
0.143
0.239
0.253
0.110
0.078
0.224
0.286
0.055
0.289
22C
D
D1
D2
0.281
0.057
0.322
0.008
0.000
0.253
0.301
0.327
0.301
0.321
0.316
0.256
0.114
0.078
0.284
0.325
0.055
0.289
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.030
0.001
0.095
0.046
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.045
0.008
0.000
0.000
0.167
0.064
0.240
0.011
0.000
0.235
0.257
0.237
0.264
0.140
0.185
0.208
0.073
0.067
0.197
0.241
0.227
0.228
32C
D Dapp
0.167
0.064
0.241
0.011
0.000
0.235
0.257
0.267
0.265
0.235
0.231
0.209
0.073
0.067
0.242
0.249
0.227
0.228
0.167
0.064
0.241
0.011
0.000
0.235
0.257
0.267
0.265
0.233
0.231
0.209
0.073
0.067
0.242
0.249
0.227
0.228
D1
D2
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.037
0.001
0.118
0.057
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.056
0.010
0.000
0.000
0.208
0.080
0.298
0.014
0.000
0.000
0.320
0.295
0.329
0.174
0.230
0.259
0.091
0.083
0.245
0.300
0.283
0.284
D Dapp
0.208
0.080
0.300
0.014
0.000
0.000
0.320
0.332
0.330
0.292
0.287
0.260
0.091
0.083
0.301
0.309
0.283
0.284
0.208
0.080
0.300
0.014
0.000
0.231
0.320
0.332
0.330
0.290
0.287
0.260
0.091
0.083
0.301
0.309
0.283
0.284
Table 4.10. continued (unit: cm/s)

Experimental
Sample
Ml
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
D1
0.000
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.030
0.031
0.027
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.001
0.001
22C
D2
0.241
0.241
0.243
0.239
0.244
0.250
0.236
0.239
0.247
0.229
0.226
0.226
0.220
0.229
0.234
0.201
0.227
D1
0.241
0.242
0.244
0.239
0.244
0.251
0.236
0.239
0.247
0.259
0.257
0.253
0.223
0.232
0.237
0.202
0.227
0.000
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.037
0.039
0.034
0.004
0.003
0.004
0.001
0.001
Predicted
32C
D2
0.311
0.311
0.316
0.295
0.303
0.310
0.299
0.298
0.314
0.289
0.291
0.297
0.277
0.287
0.290
0.264
0.280
22C
D
D1
D2
0.311
0.312
0.317
0.295
0.304
0.310
0.299
0.298
0.314
0.327
0.330
0.331
0.281
0.290
0.294
0.264
0.281
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.028
0.026
0.027
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.241
0.244
0.249
0.240
0.244
0.248
0.238
0.244
0.250
0.222
0.225
0.224
0.227
0.229
0.234
0.209
0.226
32C
D Dapp
0.241
0.244
0.249
0.240
0.244
0.248
0.238
0.244
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.229
0.231
0.236
0.209
0.226
0.241
0.244
0.249
0.240
0.244
0.248
0.238
0.244
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.229
0.231
0.236
0.209
0.226
D1
D2
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.035
0.032
0.033
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.000
0.000
0.300
0.303
0.310
0.299
0.304
0.309
0.296
0.303
0.311
0.277
0.279
0.278
0.282
0.285
0.291
0.260
0.281
D Dapp
0.300
0.303
0.310
0.299
0.304
0.309
0.296
0.303
0.311
0.311
0.311
0.311
0.285
0.288
0.294
0.260
0.281
0.300
0.303
0.310
0.299
0.304
0.309
0.296
0.303
0.311
0.311
0.311
0.311
0.285
0.288
0.294
0.260
0.281
Dl=water vapor diffusiviiy due to optical porosily=DaP, D2=water vapor diffusiviiy due lo curved air tunnels, D=total water vapor diffusivity=Dl+D2,
Dl(exp)=DaP(exp), Dl(cIc)=DaPi, D2(exp)=D(exp)-Dl(exp), D2(clc)=DaPt, exp=experimenial, clc=calculated, Da=water vapor diffusivity of air=0.270cm/s,
D(clc)=full equation=Da[Pi+(l-Pi-Xf)/(l+sXf-Pi)], D(clc)app=approximation=Da(l-Xf)/(l+sXf)-
4^
u>
144
n
0>
1
D2(22)Barrier
D2(32)Barrier
D2(22)MB
D2(32)MB
3
EXPERIMENTAL,. D2 (mm/sec)
a) Meltblown Webs.
H
O
Dl(22)Barrier
Dl(32)Barrier
D1(22)MB
D1(32)MB
EXPERIMENTAL, D1 (mm/sec)
Figure 4.29. Comparisons of experimental results with predicted values on each diffusivity
mode.
145
0
O)
0
0
0
E
g
S
Dexp(22)
Dclc(22)
Dexp(32)
Dclc(32)
y = 3.339 - 0.048x R=1.00

y = 3.468 - 0.058x R = 0.92
y = 2.727-0.044x R = 0.95
y = 2.683 - 0.038x R=1.00
3-
Q
o
o
cu
<
>
04
UJ
<
FIBER VOLUME FRACTION, Xf0.5(%)

a) Meltblown Webs.
o
a>
M
E
u
>Hfr
on
3
P*
TLp-m
Q
0.4
Dexp(22)
Dexp(32)
0.3 H
Highly Permeable
0.2-
04
0
D-
<
>
Permeable
04
Semi-permeable
1
FTOER VOLUME FRACTION, %
Figure 4.30. Relationships between Water Vapor Diffusivity and Fiber Volume Fraction.
146
Effects of Fabric Thickness and Fiber Diameter: The minor effect of optical porosity
on moisture vapor transmission, which is the function of fabric thickness and fiber
fineness, has already been discussed. Fabric thickness and fiber fineness affect water vapor
diffusivity because they control optical porosity (Di). The finer the fibers, the more the
filament separation and the higher the cover factor increases. Thicker fabrics have lower
optical porosities. However, these effects on total water vapor diffusivity are small.
Figures 4.32 shows the contour map of three variables producing meltblown webs on
diffusivity-fabric thickness field. This figure is similar to the mirror image of that on fiber
volume fraction-thickness field in figure 4.16b. The contour lines of fiber volume fraction,
M1/M4/M7 (Air 85%, DCD9), M2/M5/M8 (Air 85%, DCD12), and M3/M6/M9 (Air 85%,
DCD15), gives variations only within 1.5% with the fabric thickness. Hence, no effect of
fabric thickness on diffusivity is experimentally demonstrated. Figure 4.33 show the
relations between water vapor diffusivity and fiber fineness. This figure does not give
o
<D
0
Dexp(22)
Dexp(32)
CO
Q
Di
0.1 -
01
0.0
20
T
40
60
80
-*r100
SHAPE COEFFICIENT
Figure 4.31. Effects of Shape Coefficient on Water vapor Diffusivity (Barrier
Nonwovens).
1.0oz
0.5OZ
DCD15
-a
D15 """"-jf3*--
DCD12
DCD9
1 .Ooz
Air 85%
1.50Z
Air 65%
DCD9
0.4
0.6
0.8
FABRIC THICKNESS, L0.5 (mm)
Figure 4.32. Effects of Fabric Thickness on Water vapor Diffusivity (meitblown).
EL
Dexp(22)
Dexp(32)
y = 3.0916 -O.Olx R = 0.22
y = 2.4448 - 0.0077x R = 0.23
FIBER FINENESS, d (micron)

Figure 4.33. Relationship between water vapor diffusivity and fiber fineness.
148
enough information about the effects of fiber fineness due to the interaction with fiber
volume fraction. However, figure 4.30a shows the correlation between fiber volume
fraction and water vapor diffusivity does not give any difference between a group having
2.5 micron of fiber diameter, Ml ~ M9, and the other group having 10.3 micron of fiber
diameter, M10 ~ M18. Therefore, the approximation neglecting porosity effect is agreeable.

Major conclusions from this study on the development of thermal conductivity
model and the water vapor diffusivity model of the fibrous materials and experimental and
theoretical analysis of the effects of structural parameters on thermal conductivity and water
vapor diffusivity can be summarized as follows:
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
1. A new theoretical model has been demonstrated which provides a reliable
prediction of thermal transmission through fibrous structures. The validity of the model has
been confirmed against experimental measurements of the thermal conductivity of
meltblown nonwovens and various classes of commercially produced nonwoven barrier
fabrics.
2. The developed model has been used to characterize the relative contribution of
heat transfer mechanisms to total heat transmission through the fibrous materials. The
contribution of natural convection is not observed in any nonwoven fabric. Radiation
transfer is appreciable only when the fiber volume fraction is less than about 3%.
Conduction is shown to be a dominant mode of heat transfer for most nonwoven fabrics .
3. The developed model provides a good explanation of the importance of fiber
directionality and the anisotropy of of the fiber arrangement within the fabric structure. It
also indicates the fiber thermal conductivity and fiber volume fraction. The effects of fiber
149
volume fraction on the thermal conductivity are reconfirmed: thermal conductivity has a
minimum value around 3% fiber volume fraction. Polar orientation parameter is another
key factor determine the thermal conductivity. The importance of fiber orientation increase
dramatically with increasing in the fiber volume fraction or/and in the fiber thermal
conductivity. The effects of fiber fineness and fabric thickness are negligible for conductive
conductivity (Kcd) but significant for radiative conductivity (Krd) for low density
nonwoven insulators.
4. A ideal fabric design for maximum thermal insulation would use low fiber
thermal conductivity, finer fibers, about 3% fiber volume fraction, complete fiber
separation, near unit anisotropy factor (random;, and near unit polar orientation parameter
(parallel mode).
WATER VAPOR DIFFUSIVITY

1. The diffusivity model developed by this research provides a good prediction of
experimental result.
2. This theory indicates that fiber volume fraction and the shape coefficient are the
most important structural parameters affecting water vapor diffusivity. The water vapor
diffusivity decreases with increase in fiber volume fraction or/and in shape coefficient. This
has now been experimentally proven. Structural propenies such as fiber fineness and,
fabric thickness affect optical porosity, but the effect on overall water vapor diffusivity is
small.
150
'5. SIMULTANEOUS THERMAL AND EVAPORATIVE HEAT TRANSFER

THROUGH THE FIBROUS BARRIER MATERIALS UNDER VARIED
ENVIRONMENT.
5.1. INTRODUCTION
Wearing garments in an extremely cold or hot and humid environment has
substantial potential to alter the body's ability to achieve a state of thermophysiological and
sensorial comfort. Selection of garment fabric which permit heat flow from the body to the
environment and evaporation of moisture from the skin while, at the same, being opaque
enough for modesty are necessary requirements. Inadequate movement of heat and
moisture through a fabric has the potential to produce a general feeling of thermal and
wetness discomfort. In extreme conditions such as those encountered by firemen, failure of
the burn protective garment to permit body cooling via heat and evaporative water
transmission can lead to heart failure and death [79]. In any environment, the accumulation
of sweat within the clothing may be uncomfortable but particularly in a cold Arctic
environment the resulting degradation of the thermal insulation of the clothing may present
a serious hazard [79]. Therefore, analysis of heat and moisture transfer behavior, specially
in extremely cold or hot and humid environment is very important.
This research focuses on analyzing the combined heat and moisture transport
properties of various nonwoven barrier fabrics over a wide range of environmental
conditions. The effects of parameters related to heat and moisture transfer are examined: the
effects of environment variables; the effects of fabric geometry; the effects of skin
conditions; the effects of skin-clothing configurations; and the effects of multilayer clothing
systems. Clothing comfort is ultimately predicted from the laboratory physical and
physiological results, using comfort equations.
151
5.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Energy exchange occurs as the result of four mechanisms: conduction, radiation,
convection, and evaporation. Heat transferred by the first three transfer modes is referred to
as sensible heat. The fourth mechanism is latent heat. It is a transfer mechanism of
considerable importance in physiology and relates to mass transfer occurring as a result of
diffusion or wicking. However, energy exchange can occur through one or more channels
depending on body activity, clothing properties, and environmental conditions. Interactions
among these transfer mechanisms are complex. Many models have been proposed:
radiative or convective conduction models [36, 37, 58, 63-66]; combined conduction and
radiation models [58, 67, 72, 731; no internal reaction models [80, 81, 83, 84] or internal
reaction models [79, 82, 85-88] in simultaneous heat and moisture transfer. Figure 5.1
illustrates all the energy transfer modes, internal reactions, and the temperature and
humidity distributions possible in multilayer clothing systems.
5.2.1. STEADY STATE MODELS

Baxter [81] and king [80] studied heat and moisture transfer through the clothing.
They assumed that no internal reactions such as capillary wicking or moisture condensation
occur in fabric systems. Woodcock [83, 84], Goldman [128], and Umbach [127] applied
it to laboratory evaluation of the clothing comfort.
In situations where there is no moisture condensation or absorption,
characterization of the heat and vapor flow properties of multilayer fabric systems is
straight-forward since the two transfer mechanisms are independent of each other: each
fabric or air layer will contribute thermal and vapor resistance. These resistance simply add
to produce the total resistance of the assembly. In this model, thermal resistance (Rh,
m2oC/w) is
152
COORDINATES
i
0
AIR GAP
CLOTHING LAYER
i+1
BOUNDARY AMBIENT'
To
SKIN
i i
ii
ii
ii
)T
i
I<
CONDUCTION (AIR/FIBER)
CONDUCTION-
i t Ta
CO.NVECTIQN
CONVECTION
CONVECTION
RADIATION
RADIATION
CONVECTION-
Po
ONDENSATION
SWEAT
mo
EVAPORATION
: DIFFUSION
X = 0
dl
DIFFUSION
ABSORPTION
(WICKING)
dl+d2
DIFFUSION
i
dl+d2+....+di
Figure. 5.1. Temperature and Water Vapor Pressure Distribution within the Clothing
Systems
153
n
Rh =
]jLi/Ki +
Laj/Kaj + 1/hc
fc=i
j=i
(5.1)
where Li and Ki are the thickness and thermal conductivity of the ith fabric layer, Laj and
Daj are the thickness and thermal conductivity of the jth air layer, he is heat transfer
coefficient from fabric surface to the ambient environment, and n and m are the number of
fabric and air layers. Similarly the moisture vapor resistance (Re, m/s) of a multilayer fabric
assembly is
n
Re =
m
^JLi/Di + X Laj/Daj + 1/he
i=l
j=l
(5.2)
where Li and Di are the thickness and moisture diffusion coefficient of the ith fabric layer,
Laj and Daj are the thickness and moisture diffusion coefficient of the jth air layer, and he is
the moisture transfer coefficient from the fabric surface into ambient air.
It is well-known that still air layers between fabrics increase thermal insulation and
lower moisture permeability.
TOTAL ENERGY DISSIPATION

Total energy transfer through clothing systems, without internal reactions can be
expressed as the sum of heat transfer rate due to heat (H) and moisture evaporation (E): i.e.
Q = H + E;
Q = (Ts - Ta)/Rh + (Ps - Pa)/Rv
(5.3a)
where Ts and Ta are the temperatures (C) on the skin surface and in the ambient
environment, Ps and Pa are water vapor pressures (kPa) on skin surface and in ambient,
and Rv is the moisture resistance in a unit, m2kPa/w. Rv relates to Re as Rv/Re ~
AHvapMw/(RTm) where AHvap is the latent heat of vaporization (2.43 kJ/g at temperature,
154
34C), Mw is the mass of water molecule (Mw = 18g/mol), R is Bolzmann constant, and
Tm is average temperature of Ts and Ta.

Total energy dissipation can also be expressed in terms of thermal insulation in clo
and the permeability index of the fabric (Woodcock's equation [83, 84]) as follows:
Q = [(Ts -Ta) +16.5 im (Ps -Pa)]/(0.155 I),
(5.3b)
where I is thermal resistance in clo (Rh = 0.155 I) and im is a permeability index. The
permeability index is defined as the ratio of the thermal and evaporative resistance of the
fabric to the ratio of thermal and evaporative resistance of air. The permeability index can
be calculated using the following formula [6]:
im = 0.0094(I/Rv) or 0.0607(E/H)(Ts-Ta)/(Ps-Pa).
(5.4)
5.2.2. A NON-STEADY STATE MODEL

Several theoretical models have been advanced to account from simultaneous heat
and moisture transfer through fabrics, in the presence of internal reactions associated with
the absorption and evaporation of moisture [32, 79, 82, 85, 87, 88]. Farnworth's model
provides credible analytical description of interrelated heat and moisture transfer through
fabric layers.
When moisture condenses or is absorbed by fabric, heat is liberated. This means
that simple models, or models that do not attempt to explain heat transfer in the presence of
moisture inadequately describe the situation encountered in clothing systems.
This model [79, 88] predicts an increase in heat content each fabric layer i (AQ) as
follows:
Heat content
in ith fabric layer
= Heat transferred from - Heat transferred to + heat involved from

the i-1 layer
the i+1 layer
internal reaction.
155
or.
d<Ti>
<Ti-i>-<Ti>
dt
Rhi-i
<Ti>-<Ti+i>
(pc)i
+ I>i>
(5.5)
Rhi
where <Ti> is the average temperature of ith layer, Rhi is the thermal resistance between the
ith layer and the next layer, (pc)i is the heat capacity of ith layer, and Oi is the quantity of
heat per unit time per unit area liberated by condensation or absorption of water vapor.
Similarly, the increase in the amount of moisture in the ith layer is equal to the
moisture transferred from the i-1 layer minus moisture transferred to the i+1 layer,
dMi
<Pi-i>-<Pi>
<Pi>-<Pi+i>
dt
Rei-l
Rei
(5.6)
where Re is the vapor resistance between the ith adjacent layers, Pi is the vapor pressure in
the ith layer, and, Mi is the total mass per unit area of water present in the ith layer.
5.2.2.1. ANALYSIS OF INTERNAL REACTIONS

Internal reactions that can occur as the result of moisture transport in clothing
systems are condensation and absorption by hydrophilic fibers. The total amount of water
(Mi) existing within the ith layer of clothing is assumed to be the sum of water presented as
vapor (Mvi), plus condensation liquid (Mci), and any water absorbed by hydrophilic fibers
(Mai).
ABSORPTION OF WATER VAPOR

Reference 88 assume that water (Mai) absorbed by hygroscopic fibers can be
estimated by assuming that regain is directly proportional to atmospheric relative humidity
so that
156
(5.7)
Mai = ViMfiPi/Ps(Ti)
where Mfi is the mass of the fabric, 7i is the material constant of proportionality derived
from fabric regain measured at 20C and 65% RH, and Ps(Ti) is the saturation vapor
pressure at temperature Ti;
Ps(Ti) = exp[ 16.6536-4030.183/(Ti+235)].
[124]
(5.8)
CONDENSATION OF WATER VAPOR
Farnwonh [791 argues that no condensation can occur within clothing systems until
the water vapor pressure is saturated. If P = Ps(T), water accumulates as liquid by
condensation. The heat released by condensation is
Oi = Hc(dMi/dt)
(5.9)
where He is the latent heat of condensation.

If P < Ps, water remains partly as vapor, but the rest is absorbed by fibers, thus
liberating heat. The relationship of Pi to Mi and Ti and <t>i can be estimated as follows:
Pi = Mi/[Li( 1-Xfi)Mw/(RTi)+YiMfi/Ps(Ti)], and

dMai
Oi = Hs
where
Hs(dMi/dt)
=
dt
(5.10)
(5.11)
1 + Li(l-Xfi)MwPs(Ti)/(RTi7iMfi),
Mvi = Li(l-Xfi)MwPi/(RTi)
(5.12)
from the ideal gas law, Li is the thickness of the ith layer, Xfi is the fractional fiber volume,
Mw is the mass of a water molecule, R is the Bolzmann constant, and Hs is the heat of
sorption.
157
5.2.2.2. ANALYSIS OF SWEATING SKIN LAYER
Boundary conditions in the outer fabric layer, and conditions in the layer adjacent to
the skin are easily defined: Ti = Ta and Pi = Pa in the outer layer and Ti = To and Pi = Po in
the fabric closest to the body. Defining conditions at the surface of sweating skin is a more
difficult task.
ACCIJMMIJLATION OF SWEAT WATER

If water accumulates as a result of sweating at the boundary between the skin and
clothing, the equation for the mass of water on the skin surface is
dMo/dt = Ms - (Po - Pi)/Reo
(5.13)
where Mo is the mass per unit area on the skin surface, Ms is the mass per unit time per
unit area of sweat produced, Po and Pi are the vapor pressure at the skin and in the first
clothing layer, and Reo is the water vapor resistance of the first fabric layer.
PARTIALLY WETTED SKIN

If the skin surface is fully wetted by sweat, Po will be Ps(To). However, a small
quantity of water placed on the skin is unlikely to spread over the whole skin, but will wet
only a portion. The rest of the skin surface will remain dry. Over the portion of the skin
made wet with sweat, the vapor pressure will be Ps(To). Over dry areas, the vapor
pressure will be close to the vapor pressure existing in the first layer of clothing [881. I"
this case, the vapor pressure may be estimated as an average weighted by areas, so that
Po = Ps(To)SWA + Pi[l - SWA],
where SWA is portion of the body surface wet with sweat.
(5.14)
158
WICKING FROM SWEAT SKIN OR CONDENSED WATER
Wicking lowers the physiological sensation of wetness as water is drawn away
from the skin and heat loss is enhanced by an increase in evaporation. Considerable
attention has been paid to the ability of clothing structures to transport liquid water by
capillary action.
Capillary mechanisms are responsible for the transport of liquid water in fabrics
associated with wicking. Liquid wicks through fabric in a two-step process: in the first step
the process can be treated as a one dimensional spreading mechanism; the second step
occurs when the liquid is completely contained within the fabric substrate and the process is
treated as two dimensional spreading of limited volume of liquid.
If the external pressure driving the liquid is negligible in comparison to capillary
pressure, the first step can be explained by Washburn's equation as
L = (rcos07/2|l)O-5tO-5
(5.15)
where L is the distance wicked, t is time, r is the effective capillary radius, 7 is the surface
tension of liquid, 0 is the advancing contact angle, and ^ is the liquid viscosity.
The second type of capillary action has been studied by Kissa [154] who derived an
equation describing two dimensional circular spreading of a small amount of liquid.
According to Kissa this process is governed by the following equation
A = k(WV"\
(5.16)
where A is the area covered by the spreading liquid at time t, k is capillary sorption
coefficient, V is the volume of water applied, and u, m, and n are constants determined by
the type of fiber in the fabric.
Therefore, if sweat transfers from the surface of the skin to the fabric next to the
skin by wicking, water will be depleted from the skin surface according to the following
159
rate equation;
dMo/dt = Ms - Mp - [Ps(To)-Pi]/Reo
(5.17)
where Mp is the rate of water transported by wicking and Mp is

Mp = K(7/|J.)utn-1 = AwLi(l-Xfi),
(5.18)
where Aw is wicked area of the fabric involved in wicking transfer. Pi is

Pi = Ps(Tl)Aw/Adu + P2(1-Aw/Adu)
(5.19)
where Aw/Adu is the ratio of skin surface involved in wicking to total area of the body.
Thus, wicking enhances moisture evaporation in the fabric adjacent to the skin from the
surface of the skin itself.
This means that the total thermal energy dissipated must include internal reactions.
It is not simply the sum of dry and evaporative heat transfer. In fact, the contribution of
internal reactions add to the total heat transfer as follows;
Q(t) = H(t) + E(t) + Qi(t)
(5.20)
where Qi(t) accounts for the effects of internal reactions over time.
5.2.3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THERMAL ENERGY DISSIPATION, FABRIC

STRUCTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
We have shown that the total energy dissipation through a clothing system is
controlled by environmental variables (Ta, Pa, he, he), clothing properties (L/K, L/D, Ma,
Mp), skin conditions (Ts, Ps, ms, SWA), and internal reactions (Mc, Ma, Mp). However,
a deeper analysis of the relationship between the total energy dissipation and environmental
variables or fabric properties is required because these are the most influential and most
controllable parameters affecting comfort.
160
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FABRIC STRUCTURE AND ENERGY DISSIPATION

As discussed in section 4, orthotropic porous thermal conductivity model developed
by the present research shows that thermal transmission is a function of porosity (P), fiber
volume fraction (Xf), fiber arrangement (a, <t>), and the thermal conductivity of fiber (Ki
and Kn). Famworth's [67] combined conduction and radiation model also shows that the
fabric geometry; i.e. fiber volume fraction (Xf), fiber diameter (d), and fabric thickness
(L), are important. Dry energy dissipation can therefore be written in terms of fabric
structural properties, assuming the convective conductivity is negligible, as follows;
H = AT/[L/(Kcd +Krd) + 1/hc]
(5.21)
Kcd = Kasin2^ Pi + Kncos2^- aXf/(1+a) -i-cos^l+a- a Xf)2/{(l+a)[Xf/Ki
where
+(l-Xf)(l+a)/Ka}+ sin2<J)(1-Pi)2{l/[Xf/Ki+(l-Pi-Xf)/Ka]},
Pi = [HS/^XHS/jc^XfVa+a)2]1^),
where
(5.22)
(5.22a)
and Famworth's equation

Krd = [(-F/P)ai + (-KcdBE)a2 + (KcdB)a3]L/AT,
(5.22b)
where a*,, aj, a.2, and aj are constants defined as the following matrix
1
ai
T2-Tm
-F/P
-Kcd(P+B)
-Kcd(P-B)
32
2a(Ti4-Tm4)
-Kcd(P-B)E
-Kcd(P+B)
33
2o(T24-Tm4)
F(L+1/P)
Tl-Tm
(5.22c)
where F = 8oTm3, P = eXf/r, E = exp(-BL), B2 = P2 + FP/Kcd, Kcd is the conductive
thermal conductivity of a fabric (= Koz), a is Boltzmann's constant, L is the fabric
thickness, r = the radius of a fiber, Xf is the fiber volume fraction, Tm is the average
161
temperature of cold (Ti) and hot (T2) plate in K, and e is the fiber emissivity assumed e =
0.95 for most fibers. All parameters are measurable so that Krd can be calculated.
Evaporative heat transfer is also a function of fabric thickness (L), fiber volume
fraction (Xf), and fiber shape coefficient (s); i.e.
where
E = AHvapAP/(L/D + 1/he)
(5.23)
D = Da(l-Xf)/(l+sXf)
(5.23a)
AHvap is the latent heat of evaporation, AP is the difference in vapor pressure between skin
and ambient, and he is the boundary water vapor transfer coefficient.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES AND ENERGY
DISSIPATION
An analysis of boundary layers is required to understand the relationship between
energy dissipation and environmental variables. The boundary heat transfer coefficient (he)
can be expressed as the sum of convective heat transfer coefficient (hcv) and radiative heat
transfer coefficient (hrd) by assuming the heat transfer mechanisms obeys Fourier's first
law of the conduction;
he = hcv + hrd.
(5.24)
Convective heat transfer is driven by two mechanisms; "free convection" due to

density differences in the fluid associated with temperature gradients, or "forced
convection" due to external forces such as wind (>0.1 m/s, Fanger [11]). Generally, hcv is
defined by in free convection,
hcv oc (Tel - Ta)1/4,
(5.25)
hcv oe vn,
(5.26)
and in forced convection,
where Tel is the temperature on the surface of clothing, v is air velocity, and n is a constant
162
(n = 0.5, Gagge [119]). It is obvious that free convection is governed by temperature

difference while forced convection is governed by fluid velocity.
Radiant heat transfer coefficient (hrd) from the outer surface of the clothed can be
expressed as approximately,
hrd ~ 4oeFeTm3
(5.27)
where o is Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.77xl0-8 w/m^K4' e is the emissivity of clothes

(~ 0.97 for most clothes [11]), and Fe is the effective radiation factor = av. 0.71 [11].
Evaporation follows laws very similar to those governing convection. The water
vapor transfer coefficient from the clothed is therefore expressed as a form similar to
convection heat transfer coefficient. In free convection, when heat and water vapor transfer
occur together, the water vapor transfer coefficient is
he oc [Ts(l+0.38Ps/Po)-Ta(l+0.38Pa/Po)]i/4,
(5.28)
When only the water vapor transfer occurs (no temperature difference),
he oc [Ta(Ps - Pa)]1/4
(5.29)
he oc vn
(5.30)
In forced convection,
Buettner [113] derived an empirical formula for standing nude human subject in air current
in the range 0.15 ~ 0.5 m/s; he = 120 v0-5, w/m2kPa
Generally, the heat transfer rate and moisture transfer rate through fibrous material
depend on the differences in temperature and vapor concentration between skin surface and
ambient. However, the boundary heat transfer and moisture transfer have various modes
according to air current. For forced convection (v > 0.lm/s), both heat and moisture
163
transfer of the boundary layer are governed by root air velocity. However, for free
convection (v < 0.1 m/s), they are dependent of quarter power of temperature difference
or/and vapor pressure difference. Radiant heat transfer approximately is proportional to
third power of ambient temperature (in case of indoor room condition, Tmrt closes to
ambient temperature).
5.2.4. PREDICTION OF THERMAL COMFORT

For the human body to maintain a steady state temperature, net metabolic heat
generated (Mn) must be dissipated through garments worn (Q). Heat loss through garments
is thermal (H) as well as evaporative (E); i.e.
Mn = Q = H + E.
(5.31)
This equation has a minimum value, H, which is sensible heat transfer only at SWA = 0
and a maximum value at fully wetted condition; i.e. SWA = 1. The range between the
minimum and maximum values represents the theoretical thermoregulation region satisfying
the first criterion for comfort. In fact, the limit of 20% sweat wetted area (SWA) has been
suggested as the second comfort limit [2]. Applying comfort limit, 0 < SWA < 20%, to
equation 5.31,
H < Mn < H + 0.2 E
(5.32)
Applying Woodcock's energy dissipation formula shows

(6.46/I)(Ts-Ta)< Mn <(6.46/I)[(Ts-Ta)+3.3im(Ps-Pa)]
(5.33)
As an example, assuming the standard room condition; Ta = 23C, RH = 65% (or Pa =

1.826 kPa) and a skin condition; Ts = 33C, Ps(33C) = 5.033 kPa, the comfort equation
becomes:
164
6.46/1 < Mn < 6.46(10 +10.583im)/I
(5.33a)
This equation is illustrated in 3-dimensionaI figure 5.2 which represents the relation among
metabolism, thermal resistance, and permeability index of a fabric and the comfort limits.
tn
COMFORT RANGE
HI
>
UPPER LIMIT
HI
-j
LOWER
>
K-
>
H
O
<
O
_I
o
tn
<
Hi
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
THERMAL RESISTANCE (I, clo)

Figure 5.2. 3-Dimensional View of the relationship among Metabolism (Mn), Thermal
Resistance (I), and Permeability index (im).
165
5.3.1. TEST METHODS
A. MEASUREMENT OF SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSFER
As the key properties affecting clothing comfort, heat and moisture transfer
properties was analyzed over a wide range of environmental conditions. As shown in
figure 5.3, the thermal analyzing system consists of three parts: environmental control
chamber, a component that simulate skin or body, and a computer data acquisition.
ENVIRONMENTAL CHAMBER
COMPUTER
PROGRAMMER
(TEMPERATURE/
HUMIDITY CONTROL)
33
M-H1
AIR
CONTROL
MICROPUMP:
SWEATING
>$-
SKIN MODEL
CONTROLLER
AMPLIFIER
DETECTOR
DIGITAL
INDICATOR
Figure 5.3. Thermal Analyzing System.
COMPUTER
166
CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Tabai ESPEC's Platinous Lucifer Model PL-2G, programmable low temperature
and humidity chamber was used to produce artificial environmental conditions. This
chamber houses a sub-chamber made from Lucite plastic glass for precise control of air
velocity. A skin simulating guarded hot plate, or sweating hot plate, is placed inside the
sub-chamber. Air current impinges vertically on the surface of guarded hot plate. The
chamber temperature is controlled in the range -40 ~ 100C, and humidity in the range 30 ~
98%. Air currents are varied from 0.12 to 0.75 m/sec. Temperature and humidity profile
are automatically programed. Table 5.1 shows the program patterns of chamber
temperature and humidity used in this research.
SIMULATED SKIN MODELS
Simultaneous heat and moisture transfer was measured using a sweating hot plate
(refer to figure 5.4) featuring four simulated sweating glands supplying water to the heated
surface at the rate of 0.002~0.2 ml/min per gland. The water flow is controlled using an
Ismatec cartridge peristaltic pump lined with 0.76 mm diameter Tygon tube. The surface of
the hot plate is covered by a highly wettable and dimensionally stable membrane, which is
made from 1.5oz/sq yd-70/30% polyester/rayon-spunlace-nonwoven, to allow water to
easily spread over the surface.
Four simulated skin-clothing models used, including simulations of dry, dry/space,
wet, and wet/space conditions and configurations. As shown in figure 5.5, for dry model,
a guarded hot plate is used as a heat source and specimen is placed on it. For the wet skin
model, the sweating hot plate is used instead of the guarded hot plate. For the model
dry/space or wet/space model, a 1.5mm or 4.0mm air space is maintained between the
specimen and the surface of the guarded hot or sweating plate.
In addition to the four skin-clothing models, a partially wetted skin model (figure
167
Table 5.1. Chamber Temperature and Humidity Program Patterns.
Pattern
SetNStep
Temperature
RH
Time
24
65
1.5
14
65
1.5
4
65
1.5
-6
0
1.5
-16
0
1.5
-26
0
1.5
Temperature
RH
Time
24
30
4
24
100
1
24
65
4
Temperature
RH
Time
4
0
6
-6
0
6
-16
0
6
-26
0
6
Temperature
RH
Time
4
65
4
14
65
4
24
65
4
34
65
4
36.5
65
4
38
65
4
Temperature
RH
Time
24
65
8
30
65
8
36
65
8
Temperature
RH
Time
24
98
8
30
98
8
36
98
8
"
* Temperature: C, RH: %, Time: hour.
5.6) was used to study the effects of moisture absorption and the migration of water by
capillary wicking mechanisms. Additionally, to examine the distribution of heat and
moisture in clothing systems, 0.001" dia Omega copper/constantan micro-thermocouples
and Diagger thin film micro-hygrometers were used to measure temperature and humidity
levels on the skin surface (wetted membrane), on fabric surface, between fabric layers and
in the ambient air surrounding the ensemble (Figure 5.7).
168
COMPUTER DATA ACQUISITION
In addition to microcomputer system controlling environmental chamber conditions,

an IBM PC-AT 20M Hard Disk System was used to collect and analyze experimental data.
Data Translation Interfacing system, Model DT756-Y, transmitted high voltage signals to
the computer system. Temperature and humidity variations were plotted directly.
B. LIQUID WATER TRANSPORT

Water transport rate was measured according to a vertical wicking strip test
(BS3424 or IST10.3-70). One end of a strip with 25 mm wide and 150 mm long is
clamped vertically and the other is immersed into distilled water at 21 C to about 3mm.
The height to which the water rises with time (0.5, 1,5, 10 min) was measured.
C. SPECIFIC THERMAL AND WATER VAPOR DIFFUSIVITY AND FABRIC
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES.
Thermal conductivity, water vapor diffusivity, IR-transmittance, and fabric
structural properties were evaluated using the methods described in Appendix 5. Fabric
structural properties measured were fabric weight, thickness, fiber volume fraction, optical
porosity, fiber fineness, and fiber directionality. These properties relate to fabric
compactness, considered to be the most important structural parameter affecting transfer
properties.
169
WETTABLE MEMBRANE
POWER
HOT
PLATE
WATER
GUARD
SUPPLY
RELAY BOX(TEMPERATURE CONTROL)
(A) SIDE VIEW
di:
SWEAT GLANDS
(B) TOP VIEW
Figure 5.4. Schematic Diagram of the Sweating Hot Plate.
SAMPLE
HOT PLATE
(A)
SAMPLE
AIR SPACE
HOT PLATE
(B)
SAMPLE
MEMBRANE
(C)
WATER SUPPLY
SAMPLE
AIR SPACE
.i
HOT
M EM8RANE
PLATE
(D)
WATER SUPPLY
Figure 5.5. Four Simulated Skin Models.

(A) Dry Model
(B) Dry/space Model
(C) Wet Model
(D) Wet/space Model
171
WETTABLE
MEMBRANE
Figure 5.6. Partially Wetted Skin Model.
AMBIENT
SENSOR
SCAN
CJ
AMP
FABRIC LAYER
TEMP.
CONTROL
AMP
INT
HOT PLATE
SCAN
TRANS. AMP
Figure 5.7. Block Diagram of Measurements of Temperature and Humidity Distribution.
172
5.3.2. TEST MATERIALS
Groups of nonwoven barrier fabrics which were selected in section 4, table 4.1a
were also used for the analysis of simultaneous heat and moisture transfer on the basis of
end-use function: surgical gown materials, nonwovens used in chemical protective
materials, and nonwoven battings for cold weather insulation.
In addition to single layer fabrics, multiple layer ensembles were analyzed to study
the effects of incorporating layers of different hydrophilicity and porosity in positions
within clothing systems designed to function as protective barriers. Nonwoven fabrics are
often used in multilayer clothing ensembles that include a layer worn next to the skin, a
middle layer and outer shell, the layer or fabric in contact with the skin directly contributes
to sensations of warmth or dampness. The inner layer may be used to wick perspiration
from the skin surface.The middle layer may act as a thermal insulator or water barrier or it
might serve to absorb water condensing underneath the outer layer in the clothing
ensemble. Shell fabrics typically should have good appearance and durability properties;
they might be used to repel water or to provide a wind break. In any case, the physical
properties of individual layer in the clothing system certainly affect total heat and moisture
transfer of the system.
Clothing systems were designed using different configurations of layers or fabrics
depending on the specific demands of clothing function. Figure 5.8 shows possible
configurations and illustrates the internal reactions for cold weather apparel, chemical
protective clothing and surgical gowns. The cold weather clothing system was designed for
situations where high body activity generates perspiration, in activities in which the wearer
requires protection from a cold environment. The chemical protective system assumes
sweating conditions contained within a clothing system that must be impermeable to outside
assault from toxic chemical agents. Surgical gown or operating room apparel assumes
173
sweating conditions in a clothing system that must function as a bacteria barrier as well as
repel body liquids.
A question to be addressed by this research of considerable practical importance
was as follows: which configuration layers provide optimum comfort consistent with
essential protective barrier properties? Figure 5.9 and 5.10 shows configuration strategies
that were evaluated to examine the effects of incorporating layers of different levels of
hydrophilicity and porosity in positions within clothing systems also described to functions
as protective barriers.
COLD WEATHER
AMBIENT
(4 - -30 C, 0% RH)
OUTER SHELL
DIFFUSION
SEMI-PERMEABLE
OR PERMEABLE
LAYER
IllUIIUIlllllllltlllltllllllllllltlllllllll llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll![||||[[|lll[|||[||lllll|[|lll[ll!lll[[|||||llllllllllllllllllllllllll
CONDENSATION
MIDDLE 3
WICKING
HIGH ABSORBENT
RE-EVAPORATION
MIDDLE 2
DIFFUSION
LOW DENSITY
NON-WICKING
MIDDLE 1
DIFFUSION
NEXT-TO-SKIN
WICKING
HIGH ABSORBENT
EVAPORATION
lU'JU'J'JUUU'JUU'J'J'J'JU'J'JU'J'J'J
SWEATING
jl|l)l|ljljlJIJNNI|ljlJljm
wmmmMmmmmmmmmm.
SKIN
Figure 5.8. A Model of Cold Weather Insulation and Possible Internal Reactions.
174
INNER
HYDROPHILIC
HYDROPHOBIC
MIDDLE
HYDROPHOBIC
HYDROPHILIC
OUTER
LOW POROUS
HIGH POROUS
Hydrophilic: R7
LOW POROUS
Hydrophobic: R6, II, 12
HIGH POROUS
Out Shell: CI
Figure 5.9. Multilayer Designs for Studying the Effects of Hydrophilicity.
INNER
MIDDLE
OUTER
HIGH POROUS
HIGH
HIGH LOW
LOW
HIGH LOW
High Porous: S3, M3,12
LOW POROUS
HIGH
HIGH LOW
Low
LOW
HIGH LOW
Porous: CI, C2, II
Figure 5.10. Multilayer Designs for Studying the Effects of Porosity.
175
5.4.1. EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Air velocity. Air movement typically reduces the still air boundary layer above the
fabric surface or/and penetrates into clothing so that thermal and moisture resistance
decreases with increasing in the air velocity of the environment surrounding clothing. As
discussed in section 5.2.3, above 0.1 m/s air velocity, forced convection is a factor to be
considered in analyzing fabric transmission properties [11]. Nelson [114] reports that the
mean convection coefficient, he, of nude human body is proportional to the square root of
air velocity. For clothed body, the mean convection coefficient can be written as a
generalized form:
he e vn.
(5.34)
where n is the constant. Our experiment showed n < 0.5 for low air permeability. Figures,
5.11a and 5.11b, and appendix 12 show all the nonwoven samples except high air
permeability materials, Rl, R7, and 12, obey the above equation which have n in the range,
0.1 ~ 0.32. Similar results were obtained in simultaneous heat and moisture transfer rate
with n = 0.1 ~ 0.55 from as shown in figures 5.12a and 5.12b. n value may be affected by
air permeability, surface smoothness, etc which may make different air boundary layer or
air turbulence. The proportionality depends on the characteristic dimension of the body
such as the size and shape of the body, the nature of its surface and the fluid properties [18,
19]. However, we find that for nonwovens, Rl, R7, and 12, which have high measured
optical porosity and air permeability, both the convective coefficient and water vapor
transfer coefficient obey second power polynomial. This result is in agreement with Stuart
and Denby [120]'s study on the effect of wind penetration on the transfer of heat and water
vapor. The effect of wind penetration is proportional to the velocity squared (v2) and the air
permeability (Ap): i.e.
176
U
I
J/3
I
oi
a
S1
C2
12
R1
R7
R9
A 11
e
GO
021
E<
W
S
4
5
6
AIR VELOCITY, v (xlO cm/sec)
a) Dry/Contact Skin Model.
20
U
E
o
cr
00
w
t<
a:
02
E
00
10
1
S1
A""" C2
D 12
O R1
A
R7
R9
A 11
02
H
<i
w
as
AIR VELOCITY, v (xlO cm/sec)

b) Dry/ Space (4.5 mm) Skin Model
Figure 5.11. Relationships between Dry Heat Transfer Rate and Air Velocity.
.CO
300
:?
a&
w
IX,
CO
EI
200 -
ai
H
E-1
<
cu
100 -
w
>
f<
o
O
a.
<
>
UJ
A
A
o -I
2
S1
C1
C2
12
11
R1
R7
R8
R9
AIR VELOCITY, x 10 cm/sec

a) Wet/Contact Skin McxJel.
1 300
S1
C1
a C2
o 12
11
R1
A R7
A
R8
R9
1 200 H
on
2
2
H
5
W
100 -
as
w
1
Iu
AIR VELOCITY, xlO cm/sec

b) Wet/ Space (4.5 mm) Skin Model).
Figure 5.12. Relationships between Evaporative Heat Transfer Rate and Air Velocity.
H or E oc v2Ap
(5.35)
where H = the dry heat transfer rate and E is the evaporative heat transfer rate. To discharge
internal heat stress, good air permeability may be necessary; but, low density cold weather
batting materials should also prevent cool air penetration. This may be accomplished by
using an additional low permeable out-shell fabric as a wind breaker.
Ambient temperature. Figure 5.13 (and the data in table 5.2 and appendix 14)
show dry thermal energy dissipation through selected nonwovens measured at various
environmental temperature within the range of -30 C to +40 C. Figure 5.14 (and the data
in table 5.4) show the total energy transfer (dry and evaporative heat loss from a simulated
sweating skin) measured over a climate range that includes a simulation of extremely hot
and humid working environments (36.5~38 C, 98% RH). The slope represents a
combined resistance of the energy transferred through the fabric layers and boundary air
layer which depend on the fabric properties and the characteristics of boundary layer
dimension. The slight curvature observed in the correspondence between environmental
temperature and thermal energy dissipation suggests that the fabric thermal and vapor
resistance or/and the boundary heat transfer coefficients (he and he) may be affected by the
surrounding air temperature. Figure 5.15 illustrates that apparent thermal resistance and
evaporative resistance increase with decrease in ambient temperature.
Relative humidity. As shown in table 5.3, the effect of ambient humidity on dry
heat transfer depends on the nature of fiber composing the nonwoven material. The higher
humidity of the surrounding air, the greater the moisture uptake and the greater the thermal
conductivity. Our data show that the dry heat transfer of Bl~3, R4,5, and 7 samples,
made from hydrophilic fibers (wood pulp or rayon), increased by 3~ 5% with an increase
in relative humidity from 30% to 98% at 24C. The dry heat transfer through samples made
with hydrophobic fibers is not affected. In contrast, evaporative heat transfer through the
materials is greatly decreased at higher environmental humidities (table 5.3). This is
179
Table 5.2. Effects of Ambient Temperature on Dry Heat Transfer Rate.(unit =100w/m2AT)
SampleXT
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
BARE
24
14
1.57
1.60
1.36
1.61
1.52
1.40
0.50
0.53
0.39
1.76
1.68
1.59
1.64
1.63
1.43
1.34
1.34
0.92
1.61
3.37
3.60
2.99
3.44
3.27
2.91
1.01
1.04
0.75
3.70
3.53
3.41
3.45
3.38
3.08
2.87
2.78
1.86
3.30
5.04
5.36
4.44
5.19
4.81
4.53
1.52
1.55
1.12
5.47
5.22
5.10
5.10
5.06
4.86
4.29
4.31
2.83
5.06
-6
-16
-26
.
_
-
1.91
1.95
1.42
2.34
2.37
1.73
2.74
2.78
2.03
6.79
8.52
10.28
Table 5.3. Effects of Ambient Humidity on Thermal Resistance.(unit = clo)

SampieNRH
30
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
0.408
0.410
0.465
0.390
0.402
0.468
1.166
1.135
1.507
0.365
0.377
0.403
0.392
0.402
0.434
0.468
0.460
0.675
65
0.401
0.404
0.459
0.390
0.402
0.468
1.166
1.135
1.507
0.365
0.377
0.403
0.382
0.393
0.434
0.460
0.458
0.669
98
Decrease (%)
0.394
0.398
0.453
0.389
0.401
0.468
1.166
1.134
1.507
0.365
0.377
0.403
0.373
0.385
0.434
0.452
0.455
0.663
3.4
2.9
2.5
~0
~0
~0
~0
~0
~0
~0
~0
-0
~0
4.3
~0
3.5
1.1
1.8
180
Table 5.4. Simultaneous Heat and Moisture Transfer (Effects of Ambient Temperature and
Humidity on Simultaneous Heat and Moisture Transfer Rate)
Sample "INRH
Air gap
65
4
65
14
30
24
65
24
98
24
65
34
65
36.5
65 Control
38
limit
SI
4.5
1.5
0.0
6.46
9.73
13.40
5.03
7.60
10.57
4.19
6.14
8.82
3.31
4.96
7.08
2.58
3.72
5.35
1.13
1.76
2.60
0.41
0.76
1.22
0.00
0.14
0.32
38.00
38.40
38.60
S2
4.5
1.5
0.0
6.10
8.79
13.28
4.66
6.98
10.34
3.72
5.72
8.44
3.03
4.57
6.78
2.45
3.63
5.11
0.99
1.59
2.39
0.27
0.55
1.10
0.00
0.02
0.23
37.40
38.10
38.40
S3
4.5
1.5
0.0
6.22
9.59
13.28
4.97
7.49
10.34
3.95
5.98
8.44
3.24
4.51
6.78
2.53
3.51
5.11
1.08
1.67
2.39
0.34
0.72
1.10
0.01
0.14
0.23
38.10
38.30
38.40
CI
4.5
1.5
0.0
5.37
5.97
8.87
3.89
4.31
6.17
2.03
2.57
3.93
1.78
2.32
3.42
1.52
1.78
3.11
0.20
0.24
0.40
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
35.10
35.10
35.20
C2
4.5
1.5
0.0
2.76
3.92
6.72
1.89
2.59
4.22
0.86
1.18
1.85
0.86
1.17
1.84
0.86
1.17
1.84
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
32.20
32.30
32.30
C3
4.5
1.5
0.0
6.05
8.60
12.50
4.71
6.72
10.28
3.99
5.81
8.37
3.13
4.51
6.67
2.30
3.35
5.27
1.08
1.65
2.46
0.33
0.68
1.15
0.00
0.14
0.38
37.60
38.40
38.80
11
4.5
1.5
0.0
3.67
4.08
4.76
2.92
3.21
3.71
2.40
2.58
3.02
1.94
2.07
2.37
1.50
1.59
1.81
0.63
0.66
0.73
0.17
0.23
0.32
0.00
0.00
0.01
36.90
37.30
38.00
12
4.5
1.5
0.0
5.31
4.28
4.46
4.26
3.50
3.68
3.27
2.84
2.95
2.76
2.27
2.43
2.11
1.75
1.85
0.85
0.63
0.66
0.39
0.19
0.22
0.00
0.00
0.00
38.00
37.00
37.20
13
4.5
1.5
0.0
3.74
3.79
3.65
2.83
2.92
2.87
1.99
2.19
2.32
1.58
1.75
1.84
1.19
1.32
1.41
0.48
0.56
0.60
0.10
0.14
0.17
0.00
0.00
0.00
37.20
37.30
37.50
181
Table 5.4 continued

Sample TNRH
Air gap
65
4
65
14
30
24
65
24
98
24
65
34
65
36.5
65 Control
38
limit
R1
4.5
1.5
0.0
9.24
11.39
15.49
7.70
8.86
12.23
6.22
7.58
10.22
4.99
5.99
8.32
3.65
4.51
6.41
1.83
2.19
3.29
0.67
1.07
1.65
0.02
0.25
0.59
38.00
38.50
38.80
R2
4.5
1.5
0.0
7.24
10.24
15.15
5.84
7.83
12.04
4.93
6.66
9.95
3.91
5.14
7.88
2.81
3.84
5.88
1.32
1.85
2.93
0.46
0.63
1.13
0.00
0.12
0.28
37.80
38.40
38.60
R3
4.5
1.5
0.0
6.22
10.50
14.45
4.88
7.88
11.48
3.92
5.78
8.83
3.19
4.86
7.25
2.43
3.94
5.76
1.06
1.71
2.66
0.43
0.63
1.04
0.00
0.05
0.27
38.00
38.10
38.60
R4
4.5
1.5
0.0
6.66
9.76
14.66
5.15
7.65
11.62
4.38
5.93
9.71
3.36
4.67
7.72
2.55
3.53
5.89
1.14
1.68
2.71
0.40
0.76
1.42
0.00
0.20
0.43
37.90
38.50
38.70
R5
4.5
1.5
0.0
6.23
7.97
15.25
4.86
6.29
12.07
4.07
5.56
10.22
3.12
4.07
7.97
2.30
3.25
5.72
1.03
1.38
2.73
0.32
0.59
1.42
0.00
0.12
0.41
37.50
38.40
38.50
R6
4.5
1.5
0.0
7.63
9.67
11.75
6.36
7.97
9.88
5.32
6.56
8.86
4.15
5.12
6.98
3.22
3^93
5.25
1.34
1.77
2.54
0.61
0.83
1.22
0.09
0.19
0.37
38.30
38.50
38.60
R7
4.5
1.5
0.0
7.76
9.92
15.64
6.19
7.86
12.29
5.11
6.26
9.41
3.96
4.93
7.61
2.98
3.74
5.81
1.37
1.76
2.76
0.48
0.69
1.22
0.00
0.09
0.27
37.90
38.20
38.50
R8
4.5
1.5
0.0
6.15
8.14
12.08
4.65
6.26
9.41
3.23
4.37
6.94
2.58
3.40
5.47
1.96
2.68
4.21
0.57
1.12
1.84
0.05
0.36
0.71
0.00
0.02
0.05
36.80
37.70
38.10
R9
4.5
1.5
0.0
5.03
6.08
8.11
3.83
4.74
6.17
3.16
3.72
4.91
2.47
2.97
3.69
1.84
2.26
2.97
0.83
0.91
1.31
0.33
0.41
0.52
0.00
0.00
0.00
36.70
36.80
37.20
15.76
12.36
10.28
8.59
6.98
3.36
1.76
0.60
38.90
Bare
* T=ambient temperature (C), RH=ambient relative humidity (%), Air gap=mm. Air velocity=35 cm/sec,
Bare=no sample (nude), Control limit: thermally regulatory limit (C), Energy unit=l00w/(m2AT).
182
30
-20
-10
10
TEMPERATURE, Ta (C)
Figure 5.13. Effects of Ambient Temperature on Thermal Energy Dissipation (Dry Heat
Loss) under Extremely Cold Weather Condition.
SI
CI
C2
II
R9
R8
BARE
CT*
J/i
X
a
o
<:
CL
,
h
C/i
CO
M
Q
>-1
a
as
w
TEMPERATURE, T(C)
Figure 5.14. Effects of Combined Ambient Temperature and Vapor Pressure on Total
Thermal Energy Dissipation (Dry + Evaporative Heat Loss)
under Extremely Hot Weather Condition.
183
1.8
y= 1.6000 - 0.0043x R*2 = 0.99
"3
1.6
C/5
M
00
W
OS
J
1.4-
<
S
OS
UJ
y = 1.1750- 0.0035x R*2 = 0.99

1.2y = 1.1700- 0.0015x R*2 = 0.87
1.0 -1
-30
1
-20
1
-10
'
1
0
10
r
20
30
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 5.15. Effects of Ambient Temperature on Thermal Resistance.
S1
C1
a C2
o 11
R1
R9
A BARE
100
RELATIVE HUMIDITY, %
Figure 5.16. Effects of Relative Humidity on Total Energy Dissipation
(Dry+Evaporative Heat Loss).
184
undoubtedly due to the lower driving force (humidity difference or vapor pressure
difference), as shown in figure 5.16. The proportionality, the rate at which the total energy
dissipation (dry + evaporative) decreases with humidity, depends on the moisture
permeability of the nonwoven and its reciprocal represents the water vapor resistance: the
total heat transmission of permeable fabrics is sharply lower at higher humidity levels; an
impermeable sample, C2, does not change; semi-permeable fabrics, CI and R8, slightly
decrease.
5.4.2. EFFECTS OF SKIN WETNESS AND SKIN-CLOTHING CONFIGURATION.

Dry. Partially wet, and wet skin. Our experiments show that dry heat transfer
depends on the thickness, thermal conductivity, and on the convection heat transfer
coefficient of the nonwoven material. However, in hot and humid working conditions, or
conditions where the environmental temperature exceeds 34 C (skin temperature), body
temperature cannot be regulated by dry heat transfer only. In fact, Fanger has shown that
the human thermoregulatory system is remarkably effective in extending the heat balance to
include a wide range of the environmental variables [11]. This is accomplished by the
body's regulation of evaporative heat loss through perspiration. The comfort equation 5.33
theoretically represents the thermoregulation mechanism. Figure 5.14 shows how wet skin
extends the thermal control range of various nonwoven barrier fabrics. These data suggest
that the degree to which the body's sweating mechanism extends the comfort zone depends
on the permeability of the fabric. They predict that a highly permeable nonwoven, such as
spunbond sample Rl, extends the control limit from 34 C to 38 C. By comparison an
impermeable polyethylene coated Tyvek sample, C2, cannot extend tolerable environmental
temperature beyond the level of skin temperature (34 C).
Tables 5.5a and 5.5b show in detail the observed relationships between the area of
the skin wetted by sweat on heat and moisture transfer properties. These data also show the
185
effect of sweating on the temperature and water vapor pressure distribution through
selected nonwovens. Figures 5.17a and 5.17b show that, if the fabric is contact with
perspiring skin, the evaporative heat transfer is proportional to the area of skin wetted by
sweat (SWA). This holds true for all fabrics except thick or wickable materials. However,
if an air space exists between the wet skin and fabric or if the nonwoven itself ready wicks
better, much higher thermal energy dissipation is observed. This means that the second
comfort criterion, which requires less than 20% SWA for comfort, is extended to a higher
limit, depending on the skin-clothing configuration or fabric type. High wicking materials
such as R4, R5, and R7 made from polyester/woodpulp or polyester/rayon worn next to
skin remove liquid water from skin surface by capillary absorption. This means that the
SWA on skin surface will be reduced but that the SWA will increase on next-to-skin layer.
The result is that evaporative heat transfer increases and skin will dry faster. Our
experiment show that 38% SWA lets energy dissipate, which is equivalent to that
dissipated from 65 ~ 71% SWA.This means that wicking affects energy dissipation to
increase 1.71 ~ 1.87 times as much as expected by SWA on skin surface. The ratio is
called the coefficient of effective evaporation (defined as the ratio of energy dissipation to
that expected by SWA on skin surface). Other observations relate to the predicted effect of
an air space between the skin and fabric on energy dissipation in the presence of sweating.
Moisture vaporized from a sweating skin surface diffuses into air space as it transfers
through the fabric. This phenomenon increases the evaporative heat transfer, thereby
lowering the vapor pressure that exists in the air space between the skin and the fabric. Our
experiments indicate an increase 18 ~ 31 % in energy dissipation due to the effect of air
space (coefficient of effective evaporation: 1.18 ~ 1.31). The lower the permeability of the
barrier fabric, the greater the effect of the air space. This means that we must apply the
coefficient of effective evaporation (j) to comfort equation 5.33, so that
(6.46/I)(Ts-Ta)<Mn<(6.46/I)[(Ts-Ta)+16.5j SWA im(Ps-Pa)]
(5.36)
186
Table 5.5a. Effects of Sweat wetted Area on Energy Dissipation and the Distribution of
Water Vapor Pressure and Temperature between Fabric Layers in Skin Contacting Model.
Property
S3
CI
C2
II
R1
R8
R5
R7
H(w)
E(w)
100
39
0
100
39
7.19
3.77
1.53
5.66
2.24
4.25
2.80
1.78
2.48
1.03
2.14
1.79
1.60
0.54
0.20
3.28
1.84
0.71
2.57
1.13
8.10
4.37
1.76
6.34
2.61
5.69
3.16
1.51
4.18
1.65
7.72
5.87
1.59
6.13
4.28
8.02
5.67
1.47
6.55
4.20
Rh(clo)
Re(clo)
0
100
0.46
0.67
0.40
1.51
0.46
7.01
1.01
1.48
0.41
0.58
0.48
0.91
0.44
0.64
0.48
0.59
im
39
100
39
1.68
0.68
0.27
3.76 17.49
0.27 0.07
0.11 0.03
3.47
0.68
0.29
1.46
0.70
0.28
2.23
0.52
0.21
0.90
0.70
0.49
0.90
0.81
0.53
Q(w)
SWA(%)
Pos.
Eff. Evap. Area

Evap. Efficiency
Vapor
pressure
distribution
(kPa)
Temperature
distribution
(C)
40.20 40.10 40.08 42.66 39.95 40.94 70.81 65.35

1.05 1.04 1.04 1.11 1.04 1.07 1.84 1.70
100
Ps
PI
Pa
5.53
2.90
1.93
5.56
2.66
1.95
5.59
1.84
1.83
5.59
3.00
1.98
5.50
3.38
1.97
5.53
3.23
1.92
5.53
3.78
1.85
5.53
4.63
1.87
39
Psl
Ps2
PI
5.56
2.07
2.85
5.59
2.61
2.41
5.59
4.80
1.44
5.59
2.75
2.66
5.53
1.84
3.11
5.56
2.76
2.02
5.56
3.43
4.03
5.53
3.92
4.65
Ps
PI
Pa
1.58
1.98
1.99
1.68
1.97
1.95
2.54
2.06
1.92
1.63
2.08
1.94
1.61
2.15
1.91
1.51
1.99
1.91
1.57
2.13
1.98
1.45
1.69
1.90
100
Ts
T1
Ta
34.7
28.2
23.9
34.8
29.6
24.2
34.9
29.9
23.8
34.9
26.6
24.2
34.6
30.3
24.2
34.7
28.7
23.7
34.7
30.7
24.1
34.7
33.4
24.1
39
Ts
T1
Ta
34.8
30.0
24.1
34.9
30.0
23.9
34.9
29.4
23.8
34.9
27.5
23.8
34.7
31.0
23.8
34.8
28.4
24.1
34.8
29.1
24.0
34.7
31.6
23.8
Ts
T1
Ta
35.0
27.8
24.1
35.0
28.8
23.9
35.0
29.4
23.7
35.1
26.8
24.0
35.0
29.9
23.8
35.0
28.0
23.8
35.0
28.8
24.1
35.0
29.6
24.1
Q(w)=total energy dissipation (100w/m2)=H(w)+E(w), H(w)=sensible energy dissipation (100w/m2kPa),

Rh=thermal resistance (clo), Re=water vapor resistance (clo), im=permeability index, SWA=sweat wetted
area (%), Pos.=measuring position, Eff. Evap. Area=effective evaporating area=ratio of heat loss at 39%
SWA to heat loss at 100% SWA, Evap. Efficiency=evaporating efficiency=ratio of eff. evap. area to sweat
wetted area (SWA), Psl=vapor pressure on wet skin,. Ps2=vapor pressure on dry skin, Tl=temperature on
fabric surface, T2, P2 =temperature and vapor pressure at reverse side of the fabric, * Test conditions: 24C,
65% RH, 10 cm/sec air velocity.
Table 5.5b. Effects of Sweat wetted Area on Energy Dissipation and the Distribution of
Water Vapor Pressure and Temperature between Fabric Layers in Skin/Space Model.
Property SWA(%)
S3
CI
C2
11
R1
R8
100
39
0
100
39
4.25
2.35
0.88
3.37
1.47
2.68
1.81
0.93
1.75
0.88
2.05
1.42
0.91
1.14
0.51
2.56
1.45
0.57
1.99
0.88
4.96
2.77
1.09
3.87
1.68
3.25
1.90
0.81
2.44
1.09
Rh(clo)
Re(clo)
0
100
39
0.81
1.15
0.31
0.75
2.26
0.17
0.79
3.43
0.11
1.25
2.00
0.28
0.66
0.99
0.29
0.87
1.59
0.24
im
100
39
0.70
0.31
0.33
0.17
0.23
0.11
0.62
0.28
0.67
0.29
0.55
0.24
44.29
50.39
46.04
45.14
43.66
44.64
1.15
1.31
1.20
1.18
1.14
1.16
Q(w)
H(w)
E(w)
Pos.
Effective Evap. Area

Efficiency of Evap.
Vapor
pressure
distribution
(kPa)
Temperature
distribution
(C)
100
Ps
PI
P2
Pa
5.56
4.22
2.48
1.91
5.58
4.39
2.11
1.93
5.61
4.97
1.72
1.92
5.59
5.56
2.60
1.89
5.56
4.19
2.64
1.93
5.58
4.73
2.55
1.93
39
Psl
Ps2
PI
P2
Pa
5.56
2.94
3.32
2.47
1.93
5.59
3.61
3.73
2.18
1.93
5.62
4.72
4.92
1.96
1.94
5.61
3.99
4.01
2.39
1.94
5.59
3.09
3.32
2.26
1.95
5.59
3.72
3.93
2.21
L94
Ps
PI
P2
Pa
1.66
1.92
1.99
1.98
1.66
1.93
1.98
1.99
1.69
1.93
1.83
1.93
1.63
1.92
2.02
1.99
1.64
1.97
1.84
1.95
1.50
1.94
1.90
1.98
100
Ts
T1
T2
Ta
34.8
29.9
26.5
23.9
34.9
30.6
27.1
23.7
35.0
32.8
28.8
23.8
34.9
32.5
26.0
23.7
34.8
29.8
27.6
23.9
34.9
31.9
27.0
23.9
39
Ts
T1
T2
Ta
34.8
29.2
27.3
24.0
34.9
29.6
27.1
24.0
35.0
32.6
30.6
24.0
35.0
32.4
26.2
24.0
34.9
29.1
26.8
24.0
34.9
30.5
26.9
24.0
Ts
T1
T2
Ta
35.0
29.7
26.8
24.0
35.0
29.1
26.7
24.2
35.0
29.1
25.9
23.8
35.1
31.2
26.2
24.1
35.0
29.1
25.9
23.8
35.0
30.3
26.4
24.1
188
120
SWEAT WETTED AREA, SWA (%)
a) Wet/Contact Model
w
02
PJ
[x.
00
Z
<
02
H
<
u
K
BJ
>
a3
E
cr
ui
-a- R8
2
<>
UJ
60
80
100
120
SWEAT WETTED AREA, SWA (%)

b) Wet/Space (4.5 mm) Skin Model.
Figure 5.17. Effects of Sweat Wetted Area on Evaporative Heat Transfer Rate.
189
The coefficient of effective evaporation (j) depends on the water vapor permeability of the
fabric and on the thickness of the air layer. Any internal reactions, such as condensation,
absorption, and wicking, also affect the coefficient of effective evaporation. Data on the
temperature and vapor pressure distribution in the skin-clothing system explain thermal
transport from the skin surface through the air layer between the skin and fabric and
through the fabric to the outside environment. Figures 5.18 and 5.19 illustrate these
distributions. For skin that is partially wet by sweating, vapor pressures (Psi) adjacent to
the portion of the skin that is wet are almost saturated. On the other hand, the vapor
pressure adjacent to the dry portion of skin show lower. This holds for permeable fabric
systems. However, vapor pressures in the impermeable (C2) or semi-permeable (CI, II,
and R8) fabric systems are comparatively higher. The predicted result is that permeable
fabrics will generate a dry sensation, while impermeable feeling will produce a wet
sensation. This is specially true for impermeable fabrics which produce vapor pressure
approaching saturation, even above the area of the skin that is not wet with sweat.
Therefore, these materials may generate a feeling of discomfort, though the SWA has not
exceeded 20 %. Temperature distribution in the skin-clothing system also explain the
effects of evaporative heat transfer. Our experiments show that an impermeable PE coated
Tyvek sample, C2, produced higher temperatures in the skin-clothing air gap when skin
was wet by sweat than temperatures generated when skin was dry while a permeable
nonwoven, S3, produced relatively lower temperatures both when skin was dry and wet.
This observation indicates that there was moisture condensation in the impermeable fabric
system, so that the endothermic energy generated by condensation increased the tempera
ture of fabric layer. In spite of endothermic condensation, energy dissipation increased with
increasing SWA in the impermeable fabric system. The amount of endothermic energy
generated by moisture condensation in the fabric system should be same as that of
exothermic energy transferred by evaporation in closed system. However, the difference in
the energy balance is actually created not by vapor penetration through the clothing
190
6.0
SWA=0
SKIN
AIR LAYER
FABRIC
LAYER
AIR BOUNDARY
LAYER
COORDINATES (THICKNESS), mm
a) Permeable Nonwoven (S3)
6.0
SWA=0
1.5 H
0
1
2
1
4
1
6
b) Impermeable Nonwoven (C2)

Figure 5.18. Water Vapor Pressure Profiles in Partially Wet/Space Model.
191
35
~
Ts
30
T1
25
SWA=100
SWA=39
SWA=0
T2
a) Permeable Nonwoven (S3)
35
Ts
T2
\
\
%
Tp
o SWA=100
A SWA=39
SWA=0
Ta
1
2
1
4
1
6
b) Impermeable Nonwoven (C2)
Figure 5.19. Temperature Profiles in Partially Wet/Space Model.
192
system, but by heat conduction. The probable scenario is that condensing liquid drips from
the fabric onto the sweating hot plate where it re-evaporates and re-condenses on the fabric,
thereby enhancing the evaporative heat loss. The cycle of moisture condensation and reevaporation establishes a quasi-steady state condition in the skin-clothing system.
Air space. We have seen that the most important effect of the air space between the
skin and clothing is to increase thermal and water vapor resistance. Figures 5.20a and
5.20b illustrate the effect of a skin-clothing air gap on the relationships between the
measured thermal energy dissipation rate (dry heat transfer rate and evaporative heat
transfer rate). Most nonwoven materials obey the classical governing laws of thermal and
moisture transfer resistance (equations 5.1 and 5.2). However, the situation is more
complicated for highly porous nonwovens, like the spunbonded sample, Rl, spunlace
nonwovens, R6 and R7, and the low density insulating material, 12. In these cases, thermal
and water vapor resistance is substantially reduced by the presence of air gap between the
simulating sweating surface and the fabric layer. The importance of the air gap in affecting
heat and moisture through the fabric system is undoubtedly related to the role of convective
air current, which are able to penetrate porous fabrics. Figure 5.11b and 5.12b show that
the effects of air penetration increase with increasing in air velocity and increase with
increase in the thickness of the air gap. Air space also increases the efficiency of moisture
evaporation from partially wetted skin.
5.4.3. EFFECTS OF INTERNAL REACTIONS

Condensation and Re-evaporation. The rate of moisture evaporation from sweating
skin depends on the water vapor pressure and on the temperature gradients between the
skin and the environment. For a clothed body in a cool environment, sweating can produce
moisture condensation within the clothing system, since the saturated water vapor pressure
probable scenario is that condensing liquid drips from the fabric onto the sweating hot plate
193
U
I
w
-a- S1
1
I
co
co
s>1
g
W
AIR SPACE (mm)

Figure 5.20a. Effect of Skin-Clothing Air Gap on Thermal Energy Dissipation (Dry Heat
Loss) Measured in Air Currents, 65 cm/sec.
300 -r
u
I
2
200 -
2
<:
CO
CO
HH
JH
9
OS
100
AIR SPACE (mm)

Figure 5.20b. Effect of Skin-Clothing Air Gap on Thermal Energy Dissipation
(Dry+Evaporative Heat Loss) Measured in Air Currents, 65 cm/sec.
194
existing in the cooler outer layers of the system is considerably lower than that of the
warmer inner layers [109]. When the level of body activity drops, evaporative cooling is no
more needed. The accumulated water in the clothing will continue to evaporate, producing
what is referred to as a post-exercise chill [173]. If Pa(T) = Ps(T), condensation takes.
When Pa(T) < Ps(T), water re-evaporates [79]. The endo-thermal'condensation process
increases the temperature within fabric layers while sweat evaporation from the surface of
the skin as a result of moisture condensation lowers the body temperature. Figure 5.22
shows the effects of moisture condensation in a multiple fabric system
(skin/R7/S3/Il/Il/Il/Cl/ambient ) surrounding by a cold weather environment (-6C, 0
RH%). Figure 5.21 illustrates a typical cold weather clothing system used in this
experiment, which includes semi-permeable Tyvek (CI) as an outer layer, three layers of
Thinsulate insulator (II), a highly permeable non-wettable nonwoven (S3), and highly
absorbent membrane (R7) as a next-to-skin layer. Microthermocouples and thin film
humidity sensors are placed between layers to detect the humidity and temperature (refer to
figure 5.7). In this experiment, a sweating rate controlled at 0.1 ml/min was applied for one
hour. Figures 5.22a show energy dissipation changes over a period of 600 minutes:
before, during, and after the sweating. The vapor pressure and temperature distribution
across the clothing system are shown in figure 5.22b and 5.22c. These data show that, at
the onset of sweating, the highly absorbent membrane absorbs moisture from the simulated
sweating surface. The water vapor pressure increases at the surface of hydrophilic but
water repellent fabric layer (S3), the moisture vapor pressure builds up beneath the semi
permeable out most fabric layer to reach its saturation level within few minutes after the
onset of sweating. The thermal energy dissipation rate reaches a maximum value in about
10 mins; temperature increases at the same rate as that of energy dissipation. The vapor
pressure registered at the first layer of Thinsulate batting maintains at 75% where the vapor
pressure at the surface of outer fabric layer reaches 20%. This experiment suggests that a
steady state condition exists for several hours after the sweating has stopped due to
195
AMBIENT
Ta
Pa
T5-t' T 4"
T3
P5.
P4
EDGE
INSULATION
P 3
HOT PLATE
WATER SUPPLY
Figure 5.21. Multiple Layer Model of Cold Weather Insulator and Detecting Temperature
and Vapor Pressure Gradients
Sweating
-100
100
300
500
TIME, min
Figure 5.22a. Profile of Energy Dissipation during a Period of Simulated Sweating.
196
Po
4
c3
Sa
w
04
D
V5
CO
P2
9
05
0DS
O
CL,
<
P3
Sweating
>
P4
0
300
100
-100
500
TIME, min
Figure 5.22b. Profile of Water Vapor Pressure at Each Fabric Layer during
a Period of Simulated Sweating.
Tb
30
<P
B3
Qi
D
H
W
Q2
20
T3
10
Sweating
0
-5
-100
100
300
500
TIME, min
Figure 5.22c. Profile of Temperatuer at Each Fabric Layer during a Period
of Simulated Sweating.
197
accumulation of excess sweat. After this the simulated skin surface dries and temperature
and energy loss through the cold weather clothing system are observed to drop sharply.
This temperature drop lowers the saturation vapor pressure, thus producing moisture
condensation within the insulating layers. When the skin and the fabric layer contacting the
skin are completely dry, re-evaporation of condensed moisture occurs and the temperature
maintained within the insulating fabric layers drops by a few degree. In the cold external
environment, water condensed beneath outer clothing layer freezes to form a layer of ice.
This means that effective insulation is lowered as a result of frozen moisture. This effect
persists a long time after sweating has stop. This is consistent with the view that, in cold
Arctic environments, degradation of clothing insulation can present a serious exposure
hazard [79].
Absorption. Hygroscopic absorption of water vapor can affect thermal energy
dissipation through clothing in the same way as moisture condensation. Water evaporating
from the skin will diffuse pan of the way through clothing layers before it is trapped and
liberates its heat of vaporization. It is thought that this process raises clothing temperature
Table 5.6. Effect of Water Vapor Absorption on Energy Dissipation Rate

Sample
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
R3
R4
R5
R7
R8
R9
Moisture
Regain(%)
5.6
5.2
3.6
~0
~0
~0
~0
8.9
9.5
8.3
2.3
3.9
Heat Loss
40% RH
1.58
1.46
1.53
1.63
1.57
1.52
1.56
1.70
1.82
1.65
1.42
1.15
Minimum
Peak
Maximum
Decrease
1.22
1.22
1.26
1.62
1.55
1.50
1.56
1.42
1.15
1.22
1.28
0.46
0.36
0.24
0.27
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.28
0.67
0.43
0.14
1.69
w/kg
Fiber
5.8
3.5
3.7
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.0
8.0
10.5
8.3
1.0
2.7
* Moisture Regain measured at 24C, 65% RH, air velocity 0.1 m/sec, and dry/contact skin model
198
MAX. REDUCTION
TIME, t (min)
Figure 5.23. Thermal Energy Dissipation in a Changing Humidity Environment.
199
[88]. However, while condensation can occur only at saturated vapor pressure, absorption
can take place whenever the vapor pressure changes. Therefore, absorption cannot be
observed under steady state conditions. Furthermore, the amount of moisture absorbed
varies with the hydrophilicity of the fibers composing the fabric layers. Generally, the heat
of absorption of hydrophilic fiber is between 2500 ~ 3000 J/g water over the middle range
of humidities [174]. Spencer-Smith [175] and Woodcock [84] suggest that the highly
hydrophilic clothing material enhance heat loss after the onset of sweating. Farnworth [88]
on the other hand observed that the effects of hydrophilic clothing is to reduce heat loss
during sweating. In our Thermolabo experiments, that used as sweating hot plate,
absorption did not have a significant effect on heat transfer. In this circumstance,
evaporative heat loss is high enough to overpower reduction in heat loss brought about by
heat of absorption. To examine this phenomena we deviced another experiment that
explored the effect of absorption as result of a rapid change in the humidity surrounding the
clothing system. These conditions were experimentally simulated by increasing the
humidity in the environmental chamber surrounding the guarded hot plate from 40% to heat
loss when the environmental humidity exceeds 90%. The observed reduction in the rate of
heat loss is related to the rate of water absorption of the clothing fabrics. Integrating of the
reduction in heat loss with respect to time yields the total heat of absorption created by a
changing environmental humidity. In turn, the heat of absorption is proportional to the
product of differential heat of sorption of the fabric material and the amount of water
absorbed by a hygroscopic fiber: i.e. the moisture regain of the fiber. We estimated the
effects of water vapor absorption by using the maximum heat reduction per unit fabric
weight (table 5.6). These estimates predict the energy dissipation of highly hygroscopic
fabrics (e.g.100% cotton) will be lowered by a maximum 10.5 w/kg fiber, cotton or
rayon/polyester composite materials (SI ~ S3, R4, R7), by 3.5 ~ 8.3 w/kg fiber, aramide
or mixed fabrics (R9, R8), 1 ~ 2.7 w/kg fiber, and hydrophobic fibers (polyolefin: CI ~
C3, polyethylene terephtalate: R1 ~ R3), 0 -0.3 w/kg fiber. We conclude from these
200
experiments that the use of hydrophilic fabrics.will lower heat transfer through clothing
worn in sweating conditions. Absorption effects are likely to be significant at the onset of
sweating, as a new microclimate is developed within the clothing system. However,
absorption effects are not expected to be significant in high humidity climates or after
steady state humidity conditions are reached.
Wicking. From the standpoint of clothing comfort, a fabric with high liquid
absoiption and transport power could have a substantial advantage over a fabric with lesser
ability to absorb and wick moisture. Such fabrics can prevent uncomfortable tactile
sensations associated with wetness. They can also provide a better heat transfer as a result
of a larger evaporation rate that develops as water spreads into a larger area [158].
However, studies show that liquid water collection in clothing seldom reaches levels
sufficient to induce wicking, especially in cold environments [143]. Nevertheless, wicking
transport may be important in certain situations, such as in tropical clothing, where quickdrying and cooling characteristics are important [144]. Transport of moisture in liquid form
is claimed by some researches [147-149] but disputed by others [150,151] as an important
contributor to the thermal comfort of fabrics worn next to the skin. In any case,
considerable attention has been paid to the ability of clothing fabrics to transport liquid
water by capillary action [176,177].
Our experiments show that any nonwoven fabrics made with hydrophilic fibers
wick water (figure 5.24a). Samples made from 100% cotton or cotton mixtures have a very
high wicking rate. It is interesting that an aramide fabric, which is semi-hydrophilic, shows
a high initial wicking behavior. Capillary action of this material is not sufficient to transport
water very far in a vertical test. Hydrophobic fibers (polyester, polypropylene), the
presence of water repellent finishes, or a Teflon film laminate has negative effect on
capillary water transport. In general, the measured wicking heights for wickable
nonwovens are in good agreement with those predicted from theory: h = atb, where h is
wicking height, t is time, a and b are constants (figure 5.24b).
201
200
E
E
SiO
M
w
X
o
100-
TIME, mm
Figure 5.24a. Venical Wicking of Barrier Nonwovens.

E
e
200
EC
O
w
ac
a
z
S
o
log(h)=log(a)+(b)log(t)
a
<
EZ
w
e*J
W
CU
X
w
38.2 0.39
47.9 0.41
27.4 0.45
0
100
200
PREDICTED WICKING HEIGHT, mm

Figure 5.24b. The Relationship between Measured and Predicted Wicking Heights.
202
The wicking ability of a fabric can affect thermal energy dissipation and comfort in
two ways: when a highly wickable fabric contacts perspiring skin, it can remove water
from the skin surface by capillary action. This effecting drys and reduces the area of the
skin wet with sweat. If the clothing system is a multifabric ensemble, transport of water
away from the skin will increase the wetness of adjacent outer fabric layers. This means
that the level of evaporative heat transfer increases and that skin will dry much faster. Our
experiments show that wicking enhances an increase 71 ~ 87 % in energy dissipation (table
5.5a). The second phenomenon associated with wicking through multifabric layers is
related to the condensation of liquid water in the outer layers of the clothing system. We
can speculate that excessive condensation might block pores in the fabric structure,
preventing water vapor from penetrating through the clothing system. Furthermore,
condensed water could drip back onto the skin inducing unwanted body cooling or causing
an uncomfortable wet sensation after sweating has stopped. This scenario suggests that
absorbable fabric layer placed under the layer where condensation takes place could prevent
reducing in moisture diffusivity and evaporation through the system. To investigate the
effect of condensation in multiple fabric assemblies, we made up the layered systems
shown in figure 5.25a. In both assembles, the outer or shell fabric is a semi-permeable
Tyvek sample (CI). A highly hygroscopic nonwoven (R7) was also used for the makeup
of both systems. However, the difference in the clothing systems lies in the contact
between the semi-permeable barrier and the absorptive layer. Figure 5.25b shows that there
is about
5%
difference in energy dissipation at equiliblium state between two models.
Though the amount of difference is not so great, this experiment proved our hypothesis on
2nd effect of wicking.
5.4.4. EFFECTS OF FABRIC PROPERTIES

In section 4, we discussed the relationships between thermal conductivity and water
203
outshell
J
S55SSSSS55S
ww/A
wicking
^wi
HYDROPHILIC
condensation
air layer
HYDROPHOBIC
HYDROPHOBIC
La
next-to-skin
SKIN
MODEL 1
MODEL 2
SWEAT
Figure 5.25a. Models to Investigate the Effect of Condensation in Multiple Fabric

Ensembles.
10cC,65%RH
25 cm/sec AIR
MODEL 2
23 era/see AIR
2.0 -
MODEL 1
1.0 SWEATING
40
50
60
TIME, min
Figure 5.25b. Effects of Wicking of Condensed Water.
100
204
vapor diffusivity and fabric structural properties. We conclude from this analysis that fiber
volume fraction is the most influential factor affecting the thermal conductivity of fabrics.
Fiber volume fraction and shape coefficient are the most important structural variables
affecting water vapor diffusivity. We have also shown that intrinsic thermal water vapor
resistance functions of fabric thickness. Table 5.7 shows data of measured physical and
structural properties of the fabrics including intrinsic thermal resistance of single fabric
(Rhcl), intrinsic water vapor resistance of single fabric (Reel), fabric thickness, fiber
volume fraction, optical porosity, and air permeability. The following discussion will focus
on how these fabric properties affect overall thermal and water vapor resistance of clothing
systems.
Table 5.7. Physical and Structural Properties of Barrier Nonwovens.

Sample
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
WT
L0.5
Xf0.5
Po
Ap
Rh(cl)
61.9
68.0
72.4
39.8
84.3
60.6
119.8
70.7
98.0
19.6
33.8
105.5
34.8
63.7
44.2
52.0
133.5
255.3
0.423
0.284
0.643
0.179
0.295
0.654
4.520
5.400
5.600
0.208
0.295
0.608
0.178
0.268
0.485
0.656
0.992
2.210
8.7
15.3
7.1
20.8
31.2
8.7
3.0
0.8
1.4
8.3
9.0
14.5
13.1
14.6
6.9
5.2
9.0
8.9
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
7.9
0.0
52.9
23.1
0.9
2.1
0.2
17.7
11.4
0.0
0.1
86
28
102
0
0
52
76
1300
378
1250
771
221
91
35
611
647
0
120
4.19
4.04
4.17
3.56
4.86
3.93
3.41
4.90
3.96
3.12
3.32
3.62
3.13
3.98
3.29
3.17
4.34
4.51
0.052
0.038
0.080
0.024
0.025
0.088
0.571
0.592
0.733
0.038
0.050
0.079
0.028
0.037
0.078
0.098
0.127
0.292
Re(cl)
0.15
0.281
0.057
0.50
0.322
0.20
2.25
0.008
0.000 619.00
0.26
0.253
0.301
1.50
0.327
1.65
0.301
1.86
0.06
0.321
0.316
0.09
0.24
0.256
0.114
0.16
0.178
0.34
0.284
0.17
0.20
0.325
0.055
1.80
0.289
0.76
* W=fabric weight (g/m2), L0.5 & Xf0.5=fabric thickness (mm) and fiber volume fraction (%) at 0.5
gf/cm2 compression load, Po=optical porosity (%), Ap=air permeability (ft3/min/ft2), K=thermal
conductivity (w/mC), D=water vapor diffusivity (cm/sec), Rh(cl)=intrinsic thermal resistance of fabric
(clo), and Re(cl)=intrinsic water vapor resistance of fabric.
205
Effects of Intrinsic Thermal and Water Vapor Resistance on Simultaneous Thermal
and Evaporative Heat Transfer through Fabrics. Woodcock's [83, 84] analytical model
computes energy dissipation as the sum of dry and evaporative heat loss. Each term can be
defined by the resistance to sensible or evaporative heat flow through the clothing ensemble
as described by equation 5.3a. Equation 5.1 shows that overall thermal resistance is the
sum of intrinsic thermal resistance (Rhcl) and the thermal resistance of air and boundary
layers. We measured the intrinsic thermal resistance of fabrics by using a specially
modified Thermolabo. These methods of measurement are discussed in section 4.
Statistical analysis shows that the total thermal resistance of clothing system, fabric and air
layers, is highly correlated with the intrinsic thermal resistance of the component fabrics
(figure 5.26). The vertical intercept of a plot of system insulation against the thermal
resistance of single fabric layer represents the contribution of boundary and internal air
layers. The relative contribution of air layers increases with an increase in the thickness of
the air layer. The slope of these plots indicates the effects of compression on fabric
thickness. Barker and Woo [146] show that the thermal resistance of fabrics decreases with
an increase in compressive loading. If compression effect are considered, the average
intrinsic thermal resistance of our test fabrics, under no compressive load, will be 1.49
times as indicated. This is true since fabric thickness was measured at an applied pressure
of 6.0 gf/cm2. Any loss in effective clothing insulation as a result of the incorporation of air
layers is probably due to air currents. We have seen that it is easier for air to penetrate the
fabric when there is a layer of air between the skin surface and the fabric.
As shown in figure 5.27 our experimental results confirm the classic relationship
(equation 5.2) between the water vapor resistance of clothing systems (fabric + air layer +
boundary air layer) and the water vapor resistance of single fabric (fabric only). From these
data we can estimate the boundary water vapor transfer coefficient to be 239 w/m2kPa,
using equation 5.2.
206
a
20
Ct
ffl
U
y = 7.287+ 1.1272x R = 0.93

y = 5.1866+ 1.3684* R = 0.98
y = 3.1895 + 1.4898x R = 0.99
</)
C/5
W
oi
J 5
< "
10 o
w X
j
<
OS
Cti
>
Rh(space 0)
Rh(space 1.5)
Rh(space 4.5)
INTRINSIC THERMAL RESISTANCE, Rh(cl) (xO.l clo)

Figure 5.26. Relationships between Overall Thermal Resistance and Intrinsic Thermal
Resistance of the Fabric.
<D
OS
BJ
U
40
y = 10.5408 + 0.8829x R = 0.97

y = 7.2587 + 0.9199X R = 0.99
y = 4.4711 +0.819x R = 0.95
30 -
t-N
t/3
w
OS
OS
2 5
<
> o
OS X
20-
U1
10 -
Re(space 0)
Re(space 1.5)
Re(space 4.5)
r~
i
20
30
10
INTRINSIC WATER VAPOR RESISTANCE, Re(cl)
(xO.l sqcm-sec/g)
Figure 5.27. Relationships between Overall Water Vapor Resistance and Intrinsic Water
Vapor Resistance of the Fabric.
207
Effect of Fabric Thickness. Fabric thickness is known to be a primary factor

determining thermal comfort since thickness is a major determinant of thermal insulation
and water vapor transmission. Figure 5.28 shows the relationships we observed between
thermal resistances, Rh and fabric thickness, L. These data also show the effect of the size
of the air space between the skin and insulating fabric. We note a predictably high
correlation between thermal resistance and fabric thickness. Equation 5.1 indicates that
thermal resistance is proportional to fabric thickness and inversely proportional to the
convective heat transfer coefficient, he. The slope of a graph in figure 5.28 is equivalent to
the reciprocal of the average thermal conductivity of a group of samples. The average
thermal conductivity is estimated to be 0.037 w/mC in dry/contact model. 0.040 w/mC in
dry/space 1.5, and 0.050 w/mC in dry/space 4.5 mm for barrier nonwovens. The thermal
conductivity estimated from dry/contact model is close to that measured by a specialized
Thermolabo thermal conductivity measuring device. The increase in thermal conductivity
with an increase in the size of the dead air space is related to convective heat transfer.
Figure 5.29 shows the effect of the thickness of the air layer between the fabric and skin on
thermal insulation. Nonlinearity of the graph can be explained by decrease in boundary
layer thermal resistance with increasing the thickness of internal air layer.
Effect of Fiber volume fraction. Although fiber volume fraction is an important
factor influencing both thermal conductivity and water vapor diffusivity, its effects on the
thermal and water vapor resistance is not easily identified because of the strong interaction
with fabric thickness. We can estimate the effects of fabric structural variables on thermal
and moisture resistance from the relationship
Rh ~ L/K(Xf) ~ L/Xf,
(5.37)
and
Re ~ L/D(Xf,s) - L(l+sXf)/(l-Xf)
(5.38)
where L is fabric thickness and K(Xf) is the thermal conductivity of the fabric. The thermal
conductivity of the fabric is a function of fiber volume fraction (Xf). Water vapor
208
20
y = 7.4119 + 1.3351x R = 0.91

y = 5.3128 + 1.6399x R = 0.97
y = 3.3139 + 1.7951x R = 0.98
10 -
El
O
1
Rh(space 0)
Rh(space 1.5)
Rh(space 4.5)
5

Figure 5.28. Relationships between Thermal Resistance and the Fabric Thickness.
o
W"
U
2
2
00
53
UJ
as
J
<
w
as
-J
J
<
oi
w
>
O
AIR THICKNESS, mm
Figure 5.29. Effects of the Thickness of Air Layer on Overall Thermal Resistance.
209
40
y=11.88+2.29x R=0.93
n C1
y=8.10+2.91x R=0.98
y=4.73+3.04x R=1
30 C1
Z 20 C1
o
X
B
10 -
D|S^" '
Q
B
1
Re(space 0)
Re(space 1.5)
Re(space 4.5)

Figure 5.30. Relationships between Water Vapor Resistance and Fabric Thickness.
AIR THICKNESS, mm
Figure 5.31. Effects of the Thickness of Air Layer on Water Vapor Resistance.
NORMALIZED WATER VAPOR RESISTANCE
NORMALIZED THERMAL RESISTANCE
(Re/L, clo/cm)
31
era"
c
(Rh/L, clo/cm)
r\a
o
l
o
1
CO
O)
o
'
o
1
211
diffusivity, D(Xf,s) is a function of fiber volume fraction and shape coefficient (s).
Therefore, to further explore the effects of fiber volume fraction, we can normalize
measured values of thermal and moisture vapor resistance dividing by fabric thickness.
Figure 5.32 and 5.33 plot Rh/L vs. 1/Xf and Re/L vs. (l+sXf)/(l-Xf). We see from these
plots that normalized thermal resistance is highly correlated with fiber volume fraction.
Rh/L increases linearly with the reciprocal of fiber volume fraction, for as long as this
parameter has a value less than 1. When Re/L exceeds 1.0 the proportionality decreases.
We notice that a low density cold weather batting material, 12, has low normalized thermal
resistance. This is undoubtedly related to the fact that low density battings are easily
penetrated by convective and radiant heat. This result is similar to the relationship observed
between thermal conductivity and fiber volume fraction as discussed in section 4. At the
same time, water vapor resistance, normalized by fabric thickness is highly correlated with
the parameter, (1+sXf)/(l-Xf). Again, a result similar to the relationship observed between
water vapor diffusivity and fiber volume fraction.
Effect of Optical porosity. Optical porosity is an important parameter controlling
moisture diffusion rate. Yoon and Buckley [158] showed that moisture diffusion resistance
is proportional to fabric thickness and the reciprocal of optical porosity: Re U. L/Po. This
formula may be applied to the single fabrics but not to multilayer fabric assemblies.
Nonwoven fabrics can be permeable to water vapor transmission, even though they are
opaque to light. The present research developed an original formula for predicting water
vapor transmission through fibrous materials from a knowledge of fiber volume fraction,
shape coefficient, and optical porosity (equation 4.31). Because optical porosity is itself
controlled by the fiber volume fraction of the fabric, neglecting optical porosity produces
only a small error in the estimate (equation 4.33 and equation 5.23a). Figure 5.34 is a plot
of the water vapor resistance of selected nonwoven samples against optical porosity
normalized by fabric thickness (Po/L). These data show that highly porous nonwovens
such as Rl, R6, and R7 are also highly permeable to water vapor transmission. At the
212
same time, low density batting material (12) is transparent to light transmission but have
low moisture vapor permeability. Some opaque nonwovens (SI ~ S3, C3, II ~I2, R3 R5, and R9) offer little resistance to moisture vapor transfer. A Tyvek sample (CI) and a
Teflon laminate (R8) are semi-permeable primarily because of the high density micro-fiber
(CI) or micro-porous film (R8) structure. Another Tyvek sample (C2) is impermeable due
to the presence of a non-porous PE coating. These results indicate that water vapor
diffusion cannot be explained solely on the basis of optical porosity. Our experiments
suggest that the production method used to produce the nonwoven, and the finish
application greatly affect heat and moisture transfer. A calendered flush spun nonwoven
sample (CI) is so compact and thin that it has low thermal resistance but very high moisture
resistance. Melt spunbonded nonwovens (R1 and R2) are relatively thin and highly porous,
so that they show low thermal resistance and little moisture resistance. Embossed wet laid
nonwovens (S2, R4, and R5) are both thin and porous, properties which together result in
low thermal resistance and moderate resistance to moisture.
o
x
<^
Re(space 0)
Re(space 1.5)
Re(space 4.5)
ai
W
U
z
<
H
CO
W
05
06
0
-B-
CL
<
>
a!
-EL
100
200
300
Po/L
Figure 5.34. Effect of Optical Porosity on Water Vapor Resistance.
213
5.4.5. EFFECTS OF MULTIPLE LAYER COMBINATION.
Multiple layer assemblies were designed to study the effects of incorporating layers
of different water vapor diffusivity and hydrophilicity in positions within clothing systems
as shown in figures 5.9 and 5.10. The results are summarized in tables 5.8a and 5.8b. The
effects of multiple layers of cold weather insulator on heat and moisture transfer were
examined at -6C, 0% RH. For these cold weather insulators, four and six layers models
were designed. Multilayer samples of surgical gown materials and chemical protective
materials were designed as two layers models, combining with a highly permeable and
strongly hygroscopic material, R7. These hot environmental models were analyzed at
24C, 65% RH and 40C, 65% RH. At 40C, energy transfer could not be measured
because heat reversely flows from ambient to body, so that its effect was estimated by
cooling of body temperatures (hot plate temperature).
Combination of the Fabrics Having Different Moisture Permeability. Figure 5.35a
illustrates an example of the combinations of the fabrics with different moisture
permeability in cold weather clothing system. Cold designs 10 and 11 consist of same
component fabrics but the arrangement of component fabrics are different. Design 10
includes a highly permeable fabric (M3) as a next-to skin layer and a semi-permeable fabric
(CI) as the out-shell layer and design 11 is opposite to design 10 in the arrangement of
component layers. Our experiments show that design 10 permits higher heat loss and faster
drying than design 11. This difference can be explained by the effect of condensation. In
the design 10, water vapor evaporated from skin surface easily diffuses through high
permeable next-to-skin layer and batting layer and then a part of water vapor penetrates outshell layer but its large part condenses beneath cooled semi-permeable shell layer.
However, the design 11 allows only a small part of water vapor to diffuse through semi
permeable next-to skin layer. The small amount of water vapor makes no or very little
condensation through out-shell layer. Hence, the design 10 more effectively cool down
Table 5.8a. Energy Transport through Multiple Layer Clothing

(cold weather insulators, -6C,0% RH).
Design
COLD 1
COLD 2
COLD 3
COLD 4
COLD 5
COLD 6
COLD 7
COLD 8
COLD 9
COLD 10
COLD 11
Combinations
Rh(clo)
Re(clo)
I1/R7/M9/C1
I1/M9/R7/C1
I1/M9/R7/S3
I1/R7/M9/S3
R7/M3/I1/I1/I1/C1
R7/C1/I1/I1/I1/M3
M3/I2/R7/S3
R7/M3/I2/S3
R7/M3/I2/C1
M3/I2/R7/C1
C1/I2/R7/M3
1.565
1.570
1.640
1.639
2.667
2.699
1.719
1.722
1.715
1.706
1.701
3.890
3.945
3.474
3.429
4.788
6.011
4.430
3.950
4.700
4.202
5.766
im
0.402
0.398
0.472
0.478
0.557
0.449
0.388
0.436
0.365
0.406
0.295
Effect of Hydrophilicity: Cold 1 & 2, Cold 3 & 4, Cold 7 & 8, Cold 9 & 10.
Effect of Water Vapor Permeability: Out shell = Cold 1 & 4, Cold 2 & 3, Cold 8 & 9;
Next-to-skin = Cold 5 & 6, Cold 10 & 11
Table 5.8b. Energy Transport through Multiple Layer Clothing

(hot environment use).
Design Combination Rh(clo)

HOT 1
HOT 2
HOT 3
HOT 4
HOT 5
HOT 6
R7/S1
R7/S2
R7/S3
R7/C1
R7/C2
R7/C3
1.017
0.904
0.997
0.905
0.900
1.015
24C 65% RH
Re(clo)
im
2.542
2.330
2.205
3.884
13.613
2.076
0.400
0.388
0.452
0.233
0.066
0.489
40C 65%RH
Dry
Wet
39.64
39.23
39.55
39.25
39.21
39.63
Rh(clo) = thermal resistance in clo, Re(clo) = water vapor resistance in clo,

im = permeability index, Data at 40 C, 65% RH represent skin temperatures.
35.12
35.08
35.10
37.01
39.15
34.99
215
internal heat stress and more quickly drys skin surface than the design 11. This effect was
also confirmed by six layers models, cold 5 and cold 6. The effects of different water vapor
permeability in out-shell layer were examined using designs cold 1 & 4, cold 2 & 3, cold 8
& 9, and hot models. It is the same result as expected to be that a high permeable shell
fabric would give higher heat loss than a low permeable material. This result is reconfirmed
from an analysis of cooling of body temperature at 40C. At dry condition, body is heated
to nearly ambient temperature but at wet condition, high permeable out-shell fabrics cool
down body to regular body temperature while an impermeable fabric does not affect
Combination of the Fabrics Having Different Hvdrophilicitv. It was discussed in
section 5.4.3 that the hydrophilicity of the material affected the energy transfer hygroscopic
materials may control the microclimate between skin and fabric at low humid condition by
absorbing or desorbing water vapor. However, at high humid or sweating condition, the
heat of absorption is very small [174] and absorption easily reaches equilibrium state. If
wicking occurs, the effects are very significant. Two considerations on the effects of
wicking have been discussed in section 5.4.3. One is concerned in wicking on skin
surface. In wet/contact mode, highly wickable fabric quickly drys up sweat skin surface.
Cold multiple models 8 and 9 show higher heat loss than corresponding designs, cold 7
and 10. The other is concerned in wicking of condensed water. Wicking moves down
liquid water condensed on cooled outer fabric and then induces re-evaporation. This effect
is significant for condensation reaction high enough to induce wicking, particularly for high
activity cold weather clothing. The second effect was examined by sets of cold models 1 &
2 and 3 & 4, but the effect was not clear.
216
ii
LOW POROSITY
ffiGH POROSITY
outshell
i ^CONDENSATION
air layer
next-to-skin
fflGHPOROSrTY
LOW POROSITY
,\N\\
^ SWEATING SKIN
MODEL "COLD 10"
nsr-n
MODEL "COLD 11"
Figure 5.35a. Multilayer Models to Investigate the Effect of Combination of the Fabric
having Different Water Vapor Diffusivity.
-6 t, o% RH
65 cm/scAIR
|COLD 10(SKIN/M3/I2/R7/C1)
mmm
: COLD 11 (SHN/C1/I2/R7/M3)
SWEAjlTNG
-10
20
30
40
50
60
70
TIME, min
Figure 5.35b. Effect of Combination of the Fabrics Having Different Water Vapor
Permeability.
217
5.4.6. PREDICTING COMFORT FROM MEASURED FABRIC PROPERTIES
Five different types of variables affect heat and moisture transfer. The first group is
environmental variables. The temperature and humidity of the surrounding environment
drive heat transfer and water vapor diffusion through the clothing system. Air currents
accelerate heat transfer, reduce boundary still air layers and may even penetrate through
porous fabric materials. The second group of variables is associated with the sweat
generated on the skin and the configuration of the clothing system, especially the degree of
contact between the fabric and skin. We have seen that sweating controls internal heat
stress and extends the activity range over which the human body is in thermal balance with
an extreme environment. Air layer in the clothing system increase the resistances to heat
transfer and water vapor diffusion. A third group of variables relate to internal reactions
associated with moisture condensation or wicking. Wicking and absorption processes can
accelerate energy transfer through clothing. They are important factors whenever the body
generates a significant amount of sweat to wet the skin surface. On the other hand,
absorption of moisture by hydrophilic clothing materials can be a factor in thermal energy
transfer, even in conditions of relatively low humidity. The fourth class of controlling
variables are important in multilayer clothing systems where the combination and position
of hydrophilic or moisture permeable fabric layers influence thermal and moisture transfer
through the system. The fifth group of variables are the properties of the constituent
fabrics. The intrinsic thermal and water vapor resistance of component fabric layers is
highly correlated with the simultaneous transfer of heat and moisture. Fabric thickness and
fabric solidity are influential parameters controlling thermal energy dissipation. Other
structural parameters including fiber directionality, optical porosity, and shape coefficient
can have a considerable affect on energy dissipation. For nonwoven structures structural
variables impacting energy and moisture transfer are the type of nonwoven (e.g. fiber
composition, manufacturing method), post treatment and the presence of moisture
218
Table 5.9. Comfort Range of Barrier Nonwovens.
a) Single Layer Samples.
Sample Air Space
RH T V
Min
0
Comf
Max
Min
1.5
Comf
Max
Min
4.5
Comf
Max
SI
40 24 25
65 24 25
90 24 25
159
161
163
287
267
237
801
692
575
109
111
114
208
193
177
556
484
400
76
77
79
156
141
132
399
331
292
S2
40 24 25
65 24 25
90 24 25
157
160
162
290
260
232
774
664
552
110
112
114
204
188
175
539
457
390
76
77
79
145
134
128
354
303
276
S3
40 24 25
65 24 25
90 24 25
139
141
142
273
244
215
761
658
548
99
100
101
197
176
164
544
445
389
75
75
75
150
137
127
376
324
284
CI
85 25 65
85 30 65
85 35 65
187
83
-21
218
103
-16
362
203
6
110
49
-12
131
63
-9
202
109
1
81
36
-9
98
47
-7
157
88
3
C2
85 25 65
85 30 65
85 35 65
179
79
-20
185
84
-19
202
100
-15
108
48
-12
111
51
-11
127
62
-8
79
35
-9
81
37
-8
89
44
-6
C3
85 25 65
85 30 65
85 35 65
164
-18
-18
260
-6
-6
717
41
41
99
-11
-11
166
-4
-4
389
26
26
71
-8
-8
117
-3
-3
311
18
18
11
65 24 25
0 0 65
0-20 65
55
195
310
93
262
381
245
527
659
46
166
263
81
225
328
203
450
564
45
156
248
82
224
320
201
421
527
12
65 24 25
0 0 65
0-20 65
57
265
421
89
355
514
201
760
967
55
276
439
85
384
563
208
744
922
56
329
522
94
494
693
199
944
1200
13
65 24 25
0 0 65
0-20 65
43
153
243
70
209
301
178
432
529
40
146
233
68
202
292
170
413
511
37
134
212
65
202
282
155
378
462
RH =ambient relative humidity (%), T =ambient temperature (C), v =air velocity (cm/s), Air Space = mm
Comfort Range: Min = minimum comfort limit (w/m), Comf = thermal comfort limit, Max= thermal
regulatory limit. Unit: w/m2
219
b) Multiple Layer Samples.
Code
Combination
RH
Min
Comf
Max
HOT1
HOT2
HOT3
HOT4
HOT5
HOT6
R7/S1
R7/S2
R7/S3
R7/C1
R7/C2
R7/C3
65
65
65
85
85
85
24
24
24
30
30
30
25
25
25
65
65
65
65
71
65
29
29
25
94
100
95
36
31
40
209
213
214
68
40
99
COLD1
COLD2
COLD3
COLD4
COLD5
OOLD6
COLD7
COLD8
COLD9
COLD10
COLD11
I1/R7/M9/C1
I1/M9/R7/C1
I1/R7/M9/S3
I1/M9/R7/S3
M3/I2/R7/S3
R7/M3/I2/S3
M3/I2/R7/C1
R7/M3/I2/C1
C1/I2/R7/M3
R7/M3/U/I1/I1/C1
R7/C1/I1/U/U/M3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-20
-20
-20
-20
-20
-20
-20
-20
-20
-20
-20
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
223
222
213
212
203
202
204
204
204
131
129
251
249
244
243
227
228
227
230
223
153
147
360
358
369
367
324
338
319
332
297
243
218
* Cl=Tyvek, C2=Coated Tyvek, C3=Composite, Il=Thinsulate, I2=Carded, R7=Hygroscopic spunlace,

M3=0.5 oz/yd^, Meltblown, M9=1.5 oz/yd^ Meltblown.
impermeable coatings or films. These parameters sometimes bring about complex

interactions so that their effects can not simply be analyzed.
ESTIMATING A COMFORT RANGE FOR VARIOUS NONWOVEN MATERIALS.
We have developed an analytical model that can be used to predict the level of body
metabolic activity likely to produce human comfort from fabric thermal and moisture
transfer properties.
Equation 5.36 is the predictive formula. To demonstrate the application of the
models and experimental approach, we chose three groups of nonwoven fabrics:
nonwovens typically used as surgical gown materials, nonwovens used in chemical
protective clothing, and low density nonwoven structures appropriate for use as cold
220
weather insulators. We used the specially modified Thermolabo to measure the thermal
energy dissipation through these materials. We used three different skin models: a dry skin
model, a skin model 20% wet with sweat and a model that simulates the situation existing
when the entire skin surface is wet with water. In addition, three skin-clothing
configurations were simulated: the case where the fabric is in direct contact with the skin,
and the cases where a 1.5 mm or 4.5 mm air space exists between the fabric and the
simulated skin surface. The calculated metabolic comfort limits are given in table 5.9 (refer
to appendix 15) for single and multilayer assemblies. Figure 5.36 and 5.37 graphically
represent the predicted comfort zones and illustrate how, for different nonwoven samples,
environmental humidity and the air space between the fabric and skin affect the predicted
range for comfort. The thermal comfort zone includes the metabolic range extended by 20
% of body surface that is wet by sweat (subjectively comfort range). The thermal
regulatory zone is the comfort range extended by fully wet skin surface (thermodynamically
comfort but subjectively discomfort).
COMPORT ZONE FOR SURGICAL GOWN NONWOVENS
The comfort range of nonwovens used in surgical gowns was evaluated at room
temperature (24C) with the humidity set at three different levels: 40%, 65% and 90% RH.
Three single layer fabrics were evaluated: a PET/wood pulp sample produced by a
hydroentangled process (SI), a PET/wood pulp sample produced by a wet-laid process
(52) and a foam coated PET/Rayon sample manufactured using a hydroentangled method
(53). Figure 5.36a shows that the effect of environmental humidity, at room temperature,
is to decrease the limits of the metabolic comfort zone. These data indicate that the comfort
range is reduced as the air gap between the skin and fabric increases. From the standpoint
of material comparisons, our model predicts that higher levels of body activity could be
sustained, in comfort, in garments mode from nonwoven samples SI and S2 (in
221
comparison to S3). Figure 5.37a shows that the combination of these nonwovens with an
absorbent spunlace material (R7) produced a reduction in the predicted metabolic levels that
can be tolerated within the comfort zones.
COMFORT ZONE FOR CHEMICAL SUIT MATERIALS
The comfort range of nonwovens used in chemical protective clothing was
evaluated at a high humidity level (85%) and at three temperature levels* 25C, 30C and
35C. Three single layer fabrics were evaluated: a permeable meltblown sample, C3, a
Tyvek sample (CI) and a coated Tyvek sample (C2). Figure 5.36b shows that evaluated
environmental temperatures have a predictable effect in lowering the comfort tolerance
range. This model also shows that the moisture permeable meltblown sample (C3) should
permit higher working activities in sustained comfort (in comparison with Tyvek samples).
However, none of these nonwovens can be expected to provide comfort at the highest test
temperature (35C). In this case, heat flows from the hotter environment to the body. This
means that fabric provide an insulative barrier, actually protecting the body from external
heat stress (the negative value of the predicted metabolic level is indicative of a reverse heat
flow). At 30C, only the permeable nonwoven (C3) provides comfort. As in the case with
surgical gown materials, figure 5.37a shows that the addition of an absorbent spunlace
material (R7) produced a reduction in the predicted metabolic levels that can be tolerated
within the comfort zones.
COMFORT ZONE FOR COLD WEATHER INSULATORS
The comfort zone for nonwovens that might be used as cold weather insulating
material was evaluated in controlled environments that simulate winter indoor conditions
(24C, 40% RH), freezing (0C, 0% RH) and an arctic environment (-20C, 0% RH).
Figure 5.36c shows that at room condition, all single layer insulators perform too high
THERMAL
COMFORT ZONE
THERMAL
REGULATORY ZONE
METABOLIC RATE, w/m
Figure 5.36a. Comfort Range of Surgical Gown Fabrics, (air velocity: 25 cm/sec)
THERMAL
COMFORTZONE
THERMAL
REGULATORY ZONE
METABOLIC RATE, w/m
Figure 5.36b. Comfort Range of Chemical Protective Nonwovens (air velocity: 65 cm/sec)
224
THERMAL
COMFORT ZONE
THERMAL
Sail
REGULATORY ZONE
METABOLIC RATE, w/m
Figure 5.36c. Comfort Range of Cold Weather Insulators (air velocity: 24C, 25 cm/sec;
0C, 65 cm/sec; -20C, 65 cm/sec)
51
R7/S1
52
R7/S2
53
R7/S3
ci
R7/C1
MAXIMUM METABOLIC CONTROL LINE

i
THERMAL
COMFORT ZONE
C2
THERMAL
REGULATORY ZONE
R7/C2
C3
R7/C3
METABOLIC RATE, w/m
Figure 5.37a. Comfort Range for Multiple layers of Surgical Gown Fabrics
and Chemical Protective Nonwovens.
226
1111
THERMAL
COMFORT ZONE
5 THERMAL
REGULATORY ZONE
1
l
l
l
l
11111
MINIMUM METABOLISM
CONTROL LINE :
MAXIMUM METABOLISM
CONTROL LINE
j
1
0
200
400
600
METABOLIC RATE, w/m
800
1000
Figure 5.37b. Comfort Range of Multiple Layers of Cold Weather

Insulators.
227
insulation effect, so that they are comfortable at only minimum activity level: sleeping or
rest(metabolic rate 50 ~ 60 w/m2). At -20C, 12 does not provide comfort due to air
penetration. Other insulators can provide comfort conditions only at extremely high activity
level (metabolic rate 300 ~ 400 w/m2) like climbing, running, etc. Four layer multiple
models do still not perform enough insulation for low ambient temperature, -20C. Six
layer multiple models (Rh = 2.7 clo, im = 0.5) provide comfort condition at medium
activity level.

1. Environmental variables including air velocity, ambient temperature, and
humidity significantly affect heat and moisture transfer through nonwoven fabrics. The rate
of heat and moisture transfer through most nonwoven barrier fabrics is proportional to n
power (n<0.5) of air velocity. In highly porous materials, heat and moisture transfer is
proportional to the square of the wind velocity, due to the effect of wind penetration
through low density samples.
2. Environmental temperature is a force driving heat transfer through nonwoven
materials. Thermal resistance increases with decreasing ambient temperature. If the skin is
dry, environmental humidity has only a slight effect on heat transfer through hygroscopic
materials: the higher the relative humidity the greater the heat transfer rate due to the
increase in the moisture regain of the fabric. If sweating is involved, the effect of humidity
is greater. In the case of sweating skin, humidity plays as a major role in the transfer of
heat and moisture. The magnitude of these effects depends more on the structural properties
of the fabrics than the hydrophilicity of component fibers.
3. Sweating extends the predicted comfort zone. The extent to which evaporative
transfer affects comforts depends on the degree of sweating, skin-clothing configuration
and fabric type. We found that, for the case of skin partially wet, the actual heat transfer
228
rate is greater than expected based on the sweat wetted area. This is because water vapor
diffuses through larger portion of the fabric layer than evaporating area (SWA) on the
surface of skin. We have demonstrated a modified comfort equation in which a coefficient
of effective evaporation (ratio of diffusing area to evaporating area) is applied as a
correction factor. The existence of an air space between the skin surface and fabric layer,
internal reactions, and the water vapor permeability of the fabric itself contribute to the
coefficient of effective evaporation.
4. Laboratory models that simulate sweating and different skin-clothing
configurations provide considerable information into the effects of real skin conditions.
Analysis of the temperature and water vapor pressure distribution provides good insight
into the the role of the contribution of heat and moisture transfer mechanisms to the energy
dissipation through clothing systems.
5. The existence of air layer within clothing assembles increases thermal and water
vapor resistance of most nonwoven materials. However, an air space reduces the
resistances of highly porous materials due to the effects of wind penetration.
6. In a cool environment, moisture condensation in fabric layers occurs readily
whenever sweating is involved. Condensation generally enhances moisture evaporation and
thermal energy dissipation. This is because the heat caused by the evaporation of moisture
from the skin surface is greater than the heat energy evolved through condensation process.
However, too much moisture condensation can block micropores in the fabric structure,
reducing water vapor diffusion.
7. Absorption of moisture by fabrics has a transient effect on energy transfer
through the system. The heat of absorption generally decreases with an increase in the
moisture regain of constituent fibers. This means that the effect is significant at the onset of
sweating, diminishes as the humidity buildup and a steady state is attained in the clothing
system.
229
8. Wicking occurs readily in hygroscopic nonwovens in contact with a wet
simulated skin surface. Liquid water transport by wicking of moisture condensed in fabric
layers is far less likely to occur, simply because sufficient water is not accumulated through
condensation process to initiate capillary transport. The wicking of water from the skin
surface accelerates heat transfer, primarily because it increases the effective evaporating
area.
9. Strategies for combining fabric layers to affect moisture and thermal permeability
of clothing ensemble were demonstrated: placement of a water absorbing layer next to the
skin surface effectively controls the microclimate around the body by absorbing or and
wicking moisture. Use of impermeable outer layer in the clothing system increases thermal
resistance and prevents air penetration. Use of impermeable outer layer also reduces water
vapor transmission and promote moisture condensation in cold environments. Heat and
moisture dissipation are improved by the placement of a water absorbing layer adjacent to
an impermeable outer shell fabric.
10. Our research confirms previous studies that have shown that structural features,
not the component fiber, are the most important controllers of moisture vapor diffusion
through fabrics. Our results also indicate that the structural properties having the greatest
impact on combined heat and moisture transfer are fabric thickness, fiber volume fraction,
optical porosity, air permeability, and moisture diffusion. Key structural properties are
controlled by the type of nonwoven, post treatment and the presence of impermeable
coatings or films.
11. The predicted comfort zone for nonwoven barrier fabrics can be extended to
include environmental temperatures several degrees in excess of skin temperature (34C).
The factor of fabric design most influential in extending the range of the comfort zone is the
ability of the nonwoven to transmit moisture vapor.
230
Therefore, this research provides a deeper understanding of the relationships of

fabric designs, nonwoven structures, and internal reactions and the heat and moisture
transmission properties important to human comfort, especially in extreme conditions of
heat and humidity. This program should suggest ways to engineer nonwoven fabrics to
optimize their comfort performance in various working environments
231
6. DYNAMIC TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION AS A MEASURE OF
ASSESSMENTS IN WARM/COOL FEELING OF A MOTION BODY
6.1. INTRODUCTION
Warm/cool feeling is felt when an object is touched. A metal object at room

temperature gives a cool sensation to the touch. When a wooden object is touched, this
impression is more fleeting, less intense, or perhaps even absent. This situation is reversed
when the temperature of the object is higher than the body temperature. Metal objects feel
colder or hotter than wooden objects, even though their actual temperature are the same.
This phenomenon is due to the different capabilities in transient heat conduction, which
arises a very short time after the touching of the skin to the material surface [30]. The
transient heat conduction is a function of the heat capacity and of the heat conductivity. In
rough surface or compressible materials like fabrics especially, a third factor is the area of
contact between the fingers and the materials [30, 178]. Hence, contacting warm/cool
sensation seems be related to the tactile comfort rather than thermal comfort. However, a
human body is more often in motion than at rest. The motion body is always accompanied
with instantaneous contact with clothing. Therefore, the thermal comfort of clothed body in
motion will be affected by instantaneous contact sensation. Warm/cool feeling must be an
important parameter affecting clothing comfort [166] as well as thermal resistance and
water vapor resistance.
As a measure of warm/cool sensation in clothing fabrics, transient heat conduction
has been reviewed by only a few studies. On earlier date, Rees [164] noticed a sudden
decrease in the temperature of his hot plate when certain fabrics were first applied. The
drop in temperature was taken as a measure of the cold feel or chilling effect of the fabrics.
Hollies [165] used Rate-of-Cooling Method to evaluate the nature of a fabric surface.
Recently, Kawabata [30] theoretically analyzed the relationships between warm/cool feeling
and material properties. He has developed a device measuring transient conduction [166]
232
and proposed qmax value as a measure of warm/cool feeling. This device uses a preheated
copper plate as a simulation of a contact body. When a preheated hot plate is manually
placed on a fabric sample bedded by foam sheet (insulation), heat flux-time curve is plotted
and maximum transient heat flux (qmax) is measured. This method is a simulation of
warm/cool sensation felt when a fixed object is contacted with fingers or body. However,
we are interested in warm/cool sensation felt by a clothed man whose skin surface may
periodically contacts clothes he wears when the body is in motion such as walking. A
dynamic transient heat conduction measuring system has been proposed as a simulation of
a moving body, which includes self-heating system and automatically provides cyclic
measurements under exact compression loads.
6.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

6.2.1. HUMAN WARM/COOL SENSORY MODEL
The skin consists of two main parts; the epidermis and the dermis as shown in
figure 6.1. There are many kinds of receptors in this skin layer which transfer the
information about outer-environment to the central nervous system. Purely thermal
sensations are detected by cold, warm, and pain receptors in the epidermis and dermis of
the skin, which respond to temperature changes. It is known that "Krause's end bulb"
governs the cool feeling and "Ruffini's ending", warm feeling [24]. When skin is touched
by an object different in temperature, the steady temperature distribution in skin is disturbed
making the thermoreceptor in skin to develop warm/cool signals. When the temperature of
a contact object is lower than that of skin, heat flows from the skin to the object, and it is
thought that the cool feeling arises from this short term transient heat conduction. The
sensitivity to thermal stimuli is a very strong function of the area stimulated. The entire
body can detect a rapid change of 0.01C, but an area of one square centimeter can detect
only changes of 1C, or more [2].
233
Beneath the dermal layers is a layer of loose connected tissue, the subcutaneous
tissue, which attaches the skin to underlying organs. The skin layer is continuously heated
by hot blood stream flowing through the subcutaneous plexus. When skin contacts a cool
material, heat flows from skin to the material. The skin temperature instantly drops and
Krause's end bulb in the dermis detects the temperature changes and informs to the central
nervous system so that we may feel cool sensation.
6.2.2. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION WITHIN
HUMAN SKIN
Figure 6.2 shows a two layer slab model which consists of the skin layer in 0 < x <
Li and the clothing layer in Li < x < L2 as an one-dimensional simulation of warm/cool
sensation. The coordinate (x) takes x = 0 at the boundary between skin and subcutaneous
tissue and increases toward the clothing layer. Originally, two layers are separated apart
but at t = 0 the skin contacts the surface of clothing. The contacting interface x = Li is very
important to warm/cool feeling because the transient heat flux in a composite medium
usually reduces due to the discontinuity of temperature at interface and the degree of
reduction depends on the perfectness of thermal contact [90,179]. The transient heat flux is
proportional to the contact area between skin and fabric surface, which is related to the
surface characteristics of specimen such as smoothness, hairness, compressibility, etc [30].
For generality we assume contact resistance at the interface in term of the unit interface
conductance, hi, defined as
hi = (-K8T/8x)/AT,
(6.1)
where (-K8T/8x) is the heat flux and AT is temperature drop at interface between materials
1 and 2. When there is perfect contact, the temperature drop AT vanishes and hi ~ >; then
there is temperature continuity Ti = T2 at the interface but usually a discontinuity in
temperature gradient, since Ki * K2 in general. Clothing layer is assumed to be
234
EPIDERMIS
KRAUSE'S END BULB
RUFFlNrS ENDING
DERMIS
SUBCUTANEOUS
TISSUE
BLOOD
Figure 6.1. Simplified Diagram of Human Warm/Cool Sensory
1) CONVECTION INTO AMBIENT

2) CONSTANT TEMPERATURE
3) INSULATOR
X = L2
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
\ ^ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ^ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ^ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ^ ,
S
/
N \ \ \ \
/ / / /
W / / / / / / / / ' / / / / / / /
t t T/ * M\
T
/ / / / / / / / /
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ N \ \ \ \ \ \
Hf TI
s n n n s s s n n '
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / . * A \ M / / /
\ \ \ V \ \ N \ \ N \ N \ \ \ \ \ \
V S S X N S N S S S *
/ / / / / / / / / / /
S \ N N S \ S \ S S S \ \ S \ S \ S \ "
\ \ S \ S N S N S N *
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / * *
r ^ i n nr n
h A R R T I
A r \ L l l \ l V y
///////////////////,
/ / / / / / / / / / / / /
/ /\ /\ S/ /*
\ /\ /\ /\ \/ N
X = LI
SKIN
X =0
SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE
Figure 6.2. Two Layer Slab Model for Analyzing the Transient Heat Conduction in Skin.
235
homogeneous porous media. In addition, constant heat capacity (c), thermal conductivity
(K), and density (p) are assumed in both clothing and skin layer. For first contact in
dynamic model or single contact model, the temperature of fabric layer is assumed to be
equal to ambient temperature (Ta) and the initial temperature gradient in skin layer is
assumed to be linear as equation 6.8b [30]. From second contact in dynamic model, Fi
and F2 can be formulated in very complex form according to the amount of heat conduction
occurred at first contact and the interval to the next contact. But for simplification, this
analysis used general forms, Fj(x) in skin layer and F2(x) in the clothing layer. For time t
> 0 the boundary at x = 0 is kept at To independent of time. The boundary condition at x =
L2 (outside the clothing) is considered in three different cases which may be representative
of most warm/cool simulations: heat dissipation by convection into ambient; heat
dissipation by conduction into a heat sink maintaining constant temperature; and insulation.
Convection boundary may be applied to a clothed motion body exposed to ambient. The
second case will be the simulation of sensation at touching a fabric on the metal desk and
the third, on the wooden desk. The next-to-skin fabric insulated by low density batting
materials may also be considered as another third case.
Based on above two layer model and the assumptions, one dimensional partial
differential equation of transient heat conduction is given as
8Ti(x,t)/8t = aiSî/Sx2
inO<x<Li,
t>0
(6.2)
8T2(x,t)/8t = a282TV8x2
in Li < x < L2,
t>0
(6.3)
where T(x,t) is the temperature distribution, a is the thermal diffusivity, t is time, and
subscripts, 1 and 2, represent the skin layer and fabric layer, respectively.
Subject to the boundary conditions
Ti(x,t)
= To
atx = 0,
t>0
(6.4)
236
at interface
(6.5)
Ki8Ti/5X = K28T2/8X
atx = Li,
t>0
at interface
(6.6)
K28TV8X = -hc(T2-Ta)
atx = L2,
t > 0,
for ambient
(6.7a)
K28T2/8X = 0
atx = L2,
t>0,
for insulator
(6.7b)
atx = L2,
t> 0,
for constant temperature (6.7c)
t>0
II
atx = Li,
3
><
Ki5Ti/8x = -hi(Ti-T2)
where K is the thermal conductivity,
To
is the body core temperature, Ta is ambient
temperature, and hi is the unit interface conductance, and he is the convective heat transfer
coefficient at the outer boundary.
And the initial conditions
Ti(x,0) = Fi(x)
in 0<x<Li,
(6.8a)
T2(X,0) = F2(X)
in Li < x < L2
(6.9a)
where at first contact,

Fl(x,0) = To + (Ts - To)x/Ll,
(6.8b)
F2(x,0) = Ta
(6.9b)
Using the transformation method of nonhomogeneous outer conditions into homogeneous

ones and the orthogonal expansion techniques [90] gives the temperature distribution
Ti(x,t), i = 1,2 (notation of layers) as follows
Li
Ti(x,t) = Vi(x) + (1/Nn) exp(-Bn2t) Gin(x)[J Gin(x')Ji(x,)dx'

x'=0
n=l
12
(p2c2)/(pici) j G2n(x')J2(x')dx'
u
(6.10)
237
where Vi(x) is the steady state component of the temperature distribution:

for convection heat flow boundary:
Vi(x) =To-(To-Ta)x/[Ki(Rl+Ri+R2+Rc)],
(6.11a)
V2(x) =To-(To-Ta)[Ll(K2/Kl-l)+x]/[K2(Ri+Ri+R2+Rc)];
(6.12a)
for the constant boundary temperature

Vi(x) = To-(To-Ta)x/[Ki(Ri+Ri+R2)],
(6.1 lb)
V2(x) = To-(To-Ta)[Li(K2/Ki-l)+x]/[K2(Ri+Ri+R2)];
(6.12b)
and for the insulated boundary

Vi(x)
= V2(x) = To,
(6.1
lc and 6.12c)
Ri = Li/Ki = the thermal resistance of skin layer,
(6.13a)
Ri = 1/hi = the thermal resistance of interface,
(6.13 b)
R2 = (L2-Li)/K2 = the thermal
(6.13c)
resistance of clothing,
Rc = 1 /he = the thermal resistance of boundary air,

Ll
Nn =
(6.13d)
L2
G2in(x')dx'+
(p2c2) / ( p i c i )
x'=0
J G22n(x')dx'
(6.14)
Ll
Ji(x) = Fi(x) - Vi(x),
(6.15a)
J2(x) = F2(X) - V2(x),
6.15b)
Gin(x) = sin(Bnx/ai0-5),
(6.16a)
G2n(x) = An sin(Bnx/a20,5) + Dn cos(Bnx/a20,5),
(6.16b)
An = [(piciKi)0-5 Bn/hi cos(aBn) + sin(aBn)] sin(bBnLi/L2)

+ U cos(aBn) cos(bBnLi/L2),
(6.17a)
238
Dn = [(piciKi)0 5 Bn/hi cos(aBn) + sin(aBn)] cos(bBnLi/L2)

(6.17b)
- U cos(aBn) sin(bBnLi/L2).
Bn's are the eigenvalues which are a series of positive roots of the following equation:
for convection heat flow boundary
tan[bBn(Li/L2-l)] =[Ubn+Ptan(an)+Pn (p lciKO^/hiytUPbBn tan(aBn)-bBn2 (piciKi)-5/hi];
(6.18a)
for the constant boundary temperature

U tan[bBn(Li/L2-l)] = tan(aBn)+Bn (p iciKi)-5/hi;
(6.18b)

Ucot[bBn(Li/L2-l)] =-tan(aBn)-Bn(piciKi)-5/hi;
(6.18c)
where a = Li/ai0-5, b = L2/a20-5, U s [piciKi/((p2c2K2)]-5, P = hcL2/K2 =

RC/R2, and n = 1, 2,...
(6.19)
Assumed the thermoreceptors are located at about half of the thickness of the skin,
the rate of energy density change which is proportional to temperature change is derived as
q(0.5Li,t) = pici8T/8t
=0.5L1
oo
LI
(-Bn2/Nn)exp(-Bn2t)Gin(0.5Li)[Pici
n=l
J Gin(x,)Ji(x,)dx'
x'=0
L2
p2c2 j G2n(x')J2(x')dx']
u
(6.20)
239
The power required to compensate for energy lost due to transient conduction can be
expressed in the term of heat flux at x = 0 as follows
H(0,t) = -Ki 8T/8t | x=0
= V'(0)+ ](-Bnai-5/Nn)exp(-Bn2t)[Pici
n=l
jGin(x')Ji(x')dx'
x'=0
12
+ p2C2
jG2n(x,)J2(x')dx']
(6.21)
Ll
where for the convection heat flow boundary

V'(0) = (To-Ta)/(R 1 +Ri+R2+Rc),
(6.22a)
for the constant temperature boundary

V'(0) = (To-Ta)/(Rl+Ri+R2),
(6.22b)

V'(0) = 0.
(6.22c)
Equation 6.20 gives a maximum value at t = 0 but in fact, it takes a little time for the
receptor to develop warm/cool signals. Kawabata [30] reported that warm/cool feeling is
sensed at 0.2 ~ 0.3 sec after the contact and a high correlation was obtained between the
peak value of the rate of energy density change and warm/cool sensation. Equation 6.20 at
first contact can be rewritten as the following approximation:
[(Ts-To)+(To-Ta)Y(L2,Rt)]
q(0.5Ll,t) = exp(-Bn2t)
11=1
(6.23)
(f+gRi+jRo)
240
where Ro = l/(p2c2K2)05 and Y(L2,Rt) =: 0 for insulated boundary; (p+rL2+sL22)/
(Ri+Ri+R2+Rc) for convective heat flow boundary; and (p+rL2+sL22)/(Ri+Ri+R2) for
constant temperature boundary; f, g, j, p, r, and s are the functions of n.
Equation 6.23 contains material variables; heat capacity (P2C2), thermal conductivity
(K2), thermal resistance (R2), fabric thickness (L2), and interface resistance (Ri) and
environmental variables; initial skin temperature (Ts), ambient temperature (Ta), and outer
boundary resistance (Rc). The larger the heat capacity of the material and the difference
between skin temperature and material temperature, the stronger the sensation. The larger
the interface resistance and boundary resistance, the less the sensation. The effects of
interface and outer boundary conditions are particularly important. Equation 6.20 indicates
that the rate of energy density change is inversely proportional to the interface resistance.
The interface conductance or the perfectness of contact at the interface obviously depends
on the surface characteristics as discussed above. The contact perfectness is usually
expressed in term of the area of contact [30]. The surface treatment of the fabric produces
an even greater effect than the nature of the structure: roughening the fabric surface by
raising, milling, etc reduces the area of contact appreciably; smoothing the fabric surface by
calendering, film coating, etc increases the area of contact. We notice that the area of
contact of the compressible material is also greatly affected by load pressure of figures or
body. On the other hand, our case studies on boundary conditions show that the evaluation
of warm/cool feeling can be made incorrectly. Examining steady state conduction term,
V(x), included in J(x) and eigenvalues, Bn, informs that the q(t) at constant temperature
boundary or convection heat flow boundary is affected by the thermal resistance of
boundary air layer and/or that of clothing while at insulated boundary, not affected. This
implies that warm/cool feeling of a thin material insulated or very thick material may be
more affected by its surface properties than by its thermal resistance but that of a thin fabric
bedded on high conductive substance such as a metal sheet or water circulating bath, etc
241
may significantly relate to its thermal resistance. If a fabric is exposed in air, it may be
affected by both surface property and thermal resistance.
It is logically expected that under steady state condition or no contact motion
between skin surface and the clothing, clothing comfort depends on energy balance
between a clothed body and environment. Then, the thermal resistance of the clothing will
be a primary factor affecting clothing comfort. However, in contacting motion system,
there is no more steady state because heat flows transiently when a moving body contacts
clothing. In this situation, transient heat conduction (warm/cool feeling) may greatly affect
clothing comfort. Generally, the transient heat conduction is much greater than the steady
state heat conduction. Equation 6.21 expresses non-steady state energy dissipation as the
sum of the component of the steady state heat transfer (V'(x)) and that of the transient heat
transfer. Periodically contacting motion being assumed, a man may feel different sensation
from that expected from a steady state measurement.

6.3.1. TEST METHODS
LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION
Simulation of Warm/Cool Sensory Model. We have discussed about human
warm/cool sensory system and derived the mathematical equations of transient heat
conduction in human skin in section 6.2.1 and 6.2.2. Warm/cool feeling can be expressed
in terms of the rate of energy density change (r lcidT/dt) sensed by the thermoreceptor
such as "Krause's end bulb" and "Ruffini's ending [24] located in the skin layer.
Likewise, a simulation of human warm/cool sensory model (a guarded hot plate) has been
specially designed to physically predict warm/cool sensation as shown in figure 6.3a. This
device includes a piece of aluminium plate with area, 50 x 50 mm2, and thickness 1 mm as
242
a simulation of skin layer and a thin printed heater is attached on the back side of aluminium
plate to maintain constant temperature as a simulation of the subcutaneous tissue with hot
blood stream (heat source). A precise temperature sensor is installed inside the skin
simulator as the simulation of thermoreceptors. This skin simulator is connected to
Thermolabo electronics system which controls temperature and processes data detected.
Compared to Thermolabo II shown in figure 6.3b, a difference is that this device has selfheating system as well as the human skin is continuously heated by hot blood stream to
q(t:
HOT PLATE
H(t)
T(t)
GUARD
Figure 6.3a. Self-Heating Skin Simulator
q(t)
HOT PLATE
GUARD
Figure 6.3b. Thermolabo Preheated Skin Simulator
243
compensate energy lost when skin contacts a cool material, while Thermolabo uses a
separated heater so that additional heat is not supplied during experiment. The self-heating
system creates not only the profile of transient heat conduction (pici8T/8t) but also that of
skin temperature (T(x,t)), and electric power required (-KiST/8t). This system also allows
cyclic measurement, combining compression device as a simulation of a motion body,
which will be discussed in the next section.
Dynamic Motion Body. Figure 6.4 shows the dynamic transient heat conduction
measuring system. This system consists of a guarded hot plate (simulation of human body)
as discussed in last section and dynamic compression device, Model KES-FB-3,
(simulation of body movement contacting with clothing). The guarded hot plate acts as a
heat source as well as a sensor, which detects transient heat flow created when the hot plate
contacts with the surface of the fabric. The hot plate is joined with the plunger of
compression device. The measured sample is put on a sample plate (ABS microporous
foam sheet with 120(W)xl50(L)x4.5(T)mm and density 50kg/m3 or metal plate) which is
the top end of the bottom plate of which lower part is directly connected to the force
transducer. The hot plate descents at the rate of 0.2 mm/sec driven by a synchronous motor
to compress the sample. When the compression force reaches to preset pressure 6.0
gf/cm2, the motor turns automatically to recovery process. When the hot plate contacts
with the surface of sample, transient heat flow occurs and gives a peak value (qmax).
Cyclic test is possible at intervals of 30 to 60 sec. Simultaneously, we get the profiles of
the transient heat conduction, the temperature, energy dissipation, and compression, using
dynamic transient heat conduction measuring system.
The simulation of a dynamic motion body will permit a unique examination of
variations in transient heat conduction as a result of cyclic contact between the fabric and
the thermal probe. Information generated by this procedure should provide unprecedented
insight into the thermal sensations generated in a dynamic clothing system and should
provide realistic simulation of the sensations generated as clothing movement causes
244
POTENTIOMETER
GEAR SYSTEM
MOTOR
q(t) & T(t)
DETECT
HOT PLATE
POWER
H(t)
SAMPLE
FOAM
BED
AMPLIFIER
FORCE TRANSDUCER
P(t)
Figure 6.4. Diagram of Dynamic Body Motion Simulator (Dynamic Transient Heat
Conduction Measuring System).
245
transient contact between fabric and skin surfaces.
Experiments were conducted at two boundary conditions: insulated boundary and
constant temperature. Convective heat flow boundary was not conducted because of its
difficulty in letting the guarded hot plate precisely contact an unbedded fabric in ambient.
Two experimented conditions may be upper and lower limits and the convective heat flow
boundary should give medium values between above two limit values. Actually, the form
sheet which was used as an insulator is not the perfect insulator. Because it has the thermal
conductivity similar to that of air, the data measured using ABS insulator will be close to
those expected at convective heat flow boundary. Experiments were conducted at standard
room condition (22C, 65% RH) and the hot plate was controlled at about 35C. Three
methods (Manual Loading Preheated Hot Plate Method-Thermolabo Method, Manual
Loading Self-Heating Hot Plate Method, and Dynamic Loading Cycle Test) were
compared. The peak values (qmax) were taken as measures of warm/cool feeling. The data
were converted in w/m2oC and were uniformly ranked from 1 to 18 in order of low values
to compare to subjective ranking. Difference between maximum and minimum qmax values
was divided into eighteen regions. Samples in same region were marked as same rank.
SUBJECTIVE MEASUREMENT OF WARM/COOL FEELING

Subjective test method for warm/cool feeling has not much been published. Seven
point psycho-physical ASHRAE scale [163] and Hollies five scale [1] have been proposed
for evaluation of thermal sensation but these methods are related to steady state heat
balance, which is another field of thermal sensation different from warm/cool feeling
related to transient heat conduction in which we are interested. Subjective test method for
evaluation of warm/cool feeling related to transient heat conduction was in detail reported
by Kawabata [180]. By his description, six experts who had worked in hand evaluation at
finishing process for more than 10 years participated in his study. Experts ranked 20
246
specimens of woven fabrics for men's outwears in order of warm feeling from 1 for the
most warm one to 20 for the most cool one by group discussion. First, two experts divided
winter uses and summer uses into each three groups of warm, cool, and medium feeling.
Then, comparing specimens in six groups were ranked 20 samples. The order was
rechecked by the other four experts, comparing closely ranked samples. He analyzed the
regression between subjective ranks and qmax values. Subjective test method used in this
research is similar to Kawabata's in ranking and grouping. But some are different from
Kawabata's. A schematic diagram of evaluation process is illustrated in figure 6.5. Ten
students, who are not experts in hand evaluation but have studied M.A or Ph.D program in
similar fields so that they have enough knowledge about textile hand, participated in
warm/cool evaluation. Samples were individually placed on ABS foam sheets as same as
used in laboratory transient heat conduction test and conditioned at standard room condition
(22C, 65% RH). Each student evaluated eighteen nonwoven barrier fabrics, touching
samples with his fingers, at different time. First, author divided samples into three groups
of similar barrier functions: a group including surgical gown fabrics (SI ~ S3) and
chemical protective fabrics (CI ~ C3), a group including cold weather battings (II ~ 13) and
some thick reference fabrics (R7 ~ R9), and the others (R1 ~ R6). Then one sample was
randomly selected from each group to re-divide them into six groups. After conditioning,
three samples included in each group were again divided into three groups of warm, cool,
and medium feeling. A set of six samples in each group was carefully ranked from 1 to 6.
When two or more samples gave same feeling, they were ranked as same level and the next
rank was marked as one or two more figures. These three ranked groups were linked each
other by head-tail comparisons (the rank No.l in the group of cool feeling was compared to
the rank No.6 in the group of medium feeling. If the rank No.l in the group of cool feeling
is felt cooler than the rank No.6 in the group of medium feeling, two groups are directly
linked. If not, the rank No.6 in the group of medium feeling is again compared to the rank
No.2 in the group of cool feeling. Similarly, the group of warm feeling was linked to the
18 SAMPLES
Jr
FUNCTIONAL, GROUPING
COLD WEATHER
BATTINGS (3)
SURGICAL GOWN
FABRIC (3)
CHEMICAL
PROTECTIVE(3)
REFERENCE (3)
REFERENCE (3)
1
1
RANDOM SAMPLING
GROUPING
1
WARM
F
MEDIUM
F
COOL
F
5
I
6
I
GROUP RANKING
1
L
2
L
3
|
4
L
5 6
|
I
3
I
4
I
5
I
3 4
I
|
INDIVIDUAL SUBJECTIVE RANKING

12
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
AVERAGE SUBJECTIVE RANKING

2
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Ir
REGRESSION
t
qmax
1
RANKING
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
t
qmax VALUES
Figure 6.5. Diagram of Subjective Evaluation Process.
248
group of medium feeling. Then the linked three groups gave a fully ranked series. Then
we got ten fully ranked series from ten evaluators. Finally average rank of ten series was
compared to the rank of qmax values.
PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF FABRIC PROPERTIES

Fabric properties measured were fabric weight, thickness, fiber volume fraction,
and porosity. These properties relate to fabric compactness, considered to be the most
important structural parameter affecting heat transfer properties. Test methods are described
in Appendix 5. The thermal properties such as thermal conductivity and thermal resistance
discussed in section 4 and 5 were used to analyze the correlation with transient heat
conduction.
6.3.2. TEST SAMPLES

Groups of nonwoven barrier fabrics which were selected in section 4, table 4.1a,
were also used for the analysis of transient heat conduction on the basis of end-use
function: surgical gown materials, chemical protective materials, and cold weather battings.
The measured thermal and structural properties of barrier nonwovens are shown in tables
6.1. Barrier nonwovens are spread in the wide range of weight, 20 ~ 255 g/m2, thickness,
0.18 ~ 4.6 mm, fiber volume fraction, 0.8 ~ 31.2 %, thermal conductivity, 0.03 ~ 0.05
w/m2oC. Chemical protective fabrics, CI and C2, are composed of so high packed
ultrafine fiber matrix that they allow only a little air space among fibers to protect a body
from the penetration of toxic chemicals such as pesticides. These samples have very
smooth surface due to calendering and resin coating, respectively. Surgical gown materials
made from hygroscopic fibers show a little bit looser structure than chemical protective
clothes. Embossed S2 are still compact enough for bacteria barrier. Cold weather battings
are very thick and compressible. They contain a lot of air space for good insulation. The
249
reference group includes high porous polyester spunlace nonwoven (R6), polyester/rayon
spunlace nonwoven (R7) with large pore size, Gore-tex laminated Kevlar/Nomex spunlace
nonwoven (R8), needlepunched Nomex felt (R9), thin wet-laid nonwoven (R4, R5), and
polyester spunbond (R1-R3). These samples supported the main sample groups by
extending the property range to extreme limits.
Table 6.1. Thermal and Structural Properties of Banier Nonwovens.
Sample
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
L6.0
BD6.0
Xf6.0
0.341
0.239
. 0.518
0.133
0.190
0.539
3.020
4.500
4.500
0.182
0.259
0.445
0.134
0.230
0.398
0.480
0.851
2.040
182
285
140
299
444
112
40
16
22
108
131
237
260
277
111
109
157
125
10.7
18.2
8.8
28.0
48.9
10.6
5.4
1.0
1.4
9.5
10.3
19.8
17.4
17.0
8.4
7.1
10.5
11.0
123
169
80
268
256
73
11
11
9
172
128
81
234
173
83
66
51
22
0.0419
0.0404
0.0417
0.0356
0.0486
0.0393
0.0341
0.0490
0.0396
0.0312
0.0332
0.0362
0.0313
0.0398
0.0329
0.0317
0.0434
0.0451
(BD*K)0-5
2.76
3.39
2.41
3.26
4.64
2.10
1.16
0.88
0.93
1.83
2.08
2.93
2.85
3.32
1.91
1.85
2.61
2.38
* L6.0 and Xf6.0: fabric thickness (mm) and fiber volume fraction measured at 6.0 gf/cm2 pressure load,
K=thermal conductivity (w/m2oC), k=thermal conductance (w/mC), (BD*K) ^=squarc root of the product
of bulk density (BD, kg/m3) and thermal conductivity (K).
250

6.4.1. COMPARISONS AMONG THREE METHODS
Characteristics of Curve Patterns. Figures 6.6a illustrates the rate of energy density
change (q(t)), temperature change (T(t)), and the rate of energy transfer (H(t)) of an
insulated boundary model with respect to time, being measured using self-heating method
and preheated method. The curves of q(t) show very similar patterns, having peak values
at same elapsed time. But their magnitudes and curve patterns after peak point are different
due to difference in their heat supply models. The rate of energy density change of selfhearing model sharply decreases to less than zero. This difference is clearly explained by
temperature profiles. Self-heating method show that when a material is touched, the
temperature of skin simulator instantly drops but immediately recovers to over initial
temperature while in the preheated method, skin temperature decreases in exponential form.
This shows that self-heating method is more closed simulation of human skin than
preheated method. Figure 6.6a also shows a profile of energy lost, H(t). Its response is
same as that of temperature profile, T(t), but is delayed, comparing to that of q(t). That is,
the response to warm/cool sensation is much faster than that to energy balance. On the
other hand, four physical properties (q(t), H(t), T(t), and P(t)) simultaneously measured
using dynamic method are plotted in figure 6.6b. P(t) represents the change of compression
pressure change with respect to time. An onset point of compression pressure can be
considered as a contacting point and the next zero compression pressure, as a leaving point.
Five cycles of contacting-leaving are sequentially plotted. The pattern of each cycle is a little
different from that of manual loading and the magnitude is much less than that of manual
loading. These differences are considered to be because in dynamic loading the hot plate
slowly contact the surface of a fabric at the rate of 0.2 mm/sec until compression load
reaches preset pressure, so that the temperature of the fabric increases a little over ambient
temperature before contacting as well as that in a clothed human body. Therefore, the
251
SELF-HEATING
q(t)
PREHEATED
H(t)
SELF-HEATING
SELF HEATING
T(t)
PREHEATED
TIME (t), SEC

Figure 6.6a Profiles of the rate of energy density change, q(t), temperature change, T(t),
energy transfer rate, H(t) measured, using self-heating method and preheated method.
252
1
r r
q(t)
^0*)
H(t)
T(t)
~]f
V"~T
P(t)
TIME (t), min
Figure 6.6b. Profiles of the rate of energy density change, q(t), temperature change, T(t),
energy transfer rate, H(t), and compression load, P(t) measured, using the Dynamic
Method.
253
temperatures of test fabrics just before contacting are not same and the degree of
temperature change may depend on the heat capacity (r 2c2d2) of the fabrics: approximately
DT = Q/(r 2c2d2) where Q is the energy gained per unit time. Non-equality in the
temperature of material may give different results from quick loading (manual loading). The
same results are shown in high compressible materials such as low density battings, which
acts as buffers against a heat shock. q(t) in cyclic test does not give any difference in qmax
value between the contact and the nexts though T(t) and H(t) give large difference. It
implies that dynamic method performs very stable qmax measurement.
Repressions Among Three Methods. Table 6.2 shows qmax values measured
according to dynamic method, manual self-heating method, and Thermolabo manual
preheated method. Figure 6.7a shows a regression between the self-heating method & the
preheated method and figure 6.7b, between the dynamic method & the manual methods,
respectively. There is a high regression with R2 = 0.98 between quick contact models,
self-heating model and preheated model. The correlation between dynamic method and
manual method show a little less regression with R2 = 0.89 (self-heating model) and 0.86
(preheated model). Particularly, light samples CI, Rl, and R2 show relatively low qmax
values in the dynamic method. This implies that the dynamic method is affected by not
only surface properties but also the heat capacity of the material while quick contact model
is more affected by surface properties as discussed in last section.
6.4.2. RELATIONSHIPS OF qmax TO BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND FABRIC

PROPERTIES
Effects of Boundary Conditions. A ABS foam sheet for an insulated boundary
model and a metal sheet for a constant temperature boundary model were examined, using
the dynamic method as shown in table 6.3. For this experiment we additionally used two
sets of polypropylene meltblown nonwovens having almost same structural properties
except the thickness. Each set includes three samples which are nearly same in thermal
Table 6.2. Comparisons of qmax among the Dynamic Method, Self-Heated Method, and Preheated Method.
Sample
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
Dynamic Model
Reverse
Face
qmax cv% qmax cv%
0.24
0.31
0.22
0.28
0.59
0.18
0.08
0.05
0.07
0.14
0.15
0.28
0.21
0.30
0.14
0.16
0.20
0.17
3.94
1.75
3.82
2.65
1.33
4.79
1.91
3.07
2.21
3.27
5.29
0.88
2.82
1.09
2.17
3.35
1.81
4.95
0.23 2.19
0.33 3.95
0.19 4.45
0.30 5.02
0.37 3.72
0.20 3.86
0.08 4.51
0.05 5.01
0.07 5.55
0.16 3.52
0.16 2.88
0.29 0.90
0.21 4.89
0.32 1.28
0.17 4.28
0.17 4.44
0.34 1.61
0.20 1.62
Self-Heatine Model
Face
Reverse
qmax cv% qmax cv%
4.54 3.96
5.50 2.89
4.23 1.39
5.73 2.60
10.01 4.23
3.24 1.40
1.34 5.04
0.62 5.44
1.39 6.41
3.02 3.65
3.07 4.02
4.79 2.83
3.82 3.41
5.92 3.31
2.44 5.45
2.95 3.98
2.46 5.61
2.56 5.32
unit: qmax=w/m^C, Conditioning: 65% RH, 22C, ABS foam bed.
3.88
6.29
2.88
6.57
5.82
3.31
1.28
0.67
1.27
3.01
3.19
4.83
4.27
5.70
2.27
3.34
6.32
2.64
2.18
3.11
1.68
3.97
1.91
1.34
2.93
9.15
3.37
1.16
1.92
2.14
1.86
1.41
3.21
2.88
3.44
3.67
Preheated Model
Face
Reverse
qmax cv% qmax cv%
11.79
12.43
10.34
14.62
20.67
8.38
4.28
2.73
4.21
8.07
8.21
10.91
9.71
13.84
6.93
7.61
6.78
6.64
2.74
2.54
3.18
2.14
3.44
0.85
2.25
5.83
3.52
2.06
1.30
1.65
4.68
0.90
1.05
1.05
2.08
3.47
10.13 2.34
14.20 3.64
7.63 1.11
14.30 4.70
12.75 4.19
8.17 2.29
4.20 3.88
2.93 4.71
4.16 1.91
7.66 3.20
7.61 4.68
11.24 2.50
10.34 5.17
13.34 1.86
6.72 5.58
8.15 2.90
14.51 1.05
6.99 4.77
255
y= 1.7776+ 1.9697X R=1.00

U
I
Ss
cr
J
w
a
0
1
H
<
W
K
uLj
tu
00
2
4
6
8
10
PREHEATED MODEL, qmax (w/sqmC)
Figure 6.7a. Regression between the Self-Heating Method and Preheated Method.
U
E
a"
x
Self-heating, face
Self-heating, reverse
Preheated
Preheated
o
z
3
<
o
-j
_]
<
D
Z
<
DYNAMIC LOADING, qmax (w/sqmC)

Figure 6.7b. Regressions between the Dynamic Method and Manual Methods (SelfHeating Method and Preheated Method)
256
Table 6.3. Effects of Sample Beds on qmax Measured Using Dynamic Model.
Sample
Form
Metal
Sample
Form
Metal
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
R1
R2
R3
11.0
14.0
10.0
12.6
26.4
8.2
3.7
2.3
6.4
6.6
14.4
80
119
47
149
146
40
6
5
100
94
74
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
M2
M3
M6
M8
M9
9.5
12.3
6.5
7.3
8.8
7.7
6.6
6.7
7.0
7.9
6.8
147
115
59
38
32
14
105
82
35
21
18
* Foam: ABS form sample bed, Metal: metal sample bed. Conditions: auto dynamic method, 6.0 gf/cm2
compression load.
conductivity but only different in thermal conductance. Figure 6.8a shows that when metal
bed is used, qmax linearly increases with increasing thermal conductivity, but when foam
bed, qmax is not affected by thermal conductance. This is also confirmed by a set of barrier
nonwoven samples in figure 6.8b. This result is in agreement with the fact that a
mathematical equation 6.23 includes the thermal resistance term of the fabric in the constant
temperature boundary model but in the insulated boundary model. We could not conduct an
experiment in the convective heat flow boundary model due to its large variation in
contacting. However, we expect that in this model, the effects of thermal resistance of the
fabric very much decreases due to large thermal resistance of boundary air layer.
Effects of Fabric Properties. We have theoretically discussed that qmax may be
affected by fabric properties:(P2c2K2)0-5 and interface conductance (hi). P2C2K2 can be
written in term of structural properties as
P2C2K2
= [pfcfXf+paca(l-Xf)]K2 ~ cfpfXfK2 ~ cfp2K2, since pf pa
(6.24)
where pf is the fiber density, p2(~pfXf) is the bulk density of the fabric, and cf & ca are
257
120'
100 -
y= -5.8905+ 0.6908x R=1.00
80 -
METAL
FOAM
y = 6.9624-0.0018x R = 0.55
20
i
40
60
80
100
120
THERMAL CONDUCTANCE, k(w/sqmC)
140
Figure 6.8a. Effects of Sample Beds on Selected Nonwovens.
200
y = 4.7542+ 0.5903x R = 0.98
100
0
0
1 00
200
300
THERMAL CONDUCTANCE, k (w/sqmC)

Figure 6.8b. Effects of Sample Beds on Barrier Nonwovens.
258
specific heats of fibers and air, respectively. The specific heats of test samples are in very
narrow range, 1.21 (cotton)- 1.34 (polyester) J/gK [174]. Hence, assumed that fiber
properties are constants, plotting of qmax vs. fabric structural properties, P2K2, is shown
in figure 6.9. There are high regressions between qmax and P2K2 on face side in all test
models:
qmax = 17.3(p2K2) 0 - 5 -1.9,
R2=0.92
for dynamic model,
(6.25a)
qmax = 287.4(p2K2)0-5-35.3,
R2=0.91
for self-heating,
(6.25b)
qmax = 200.1(p2K2 )-5+12.3,
R2=0.89
for preheated model.
(6.25c)
But the regressions on reverse side are not acceptable as R2= 0.62 ~ 0.74. We found that
several samples (S3, C2, and R8) show quite different qmax values in the face and reverse
sides. All these samples are composites, featuring different surface properties in the face
and reverse. S3 is a foam coated nonwoven, C2 is PE resin coated one, and C3, Teflon
film laminated. The surface treated by resin or film is very much smoother and has higher
qmax than untreated fibrous surface. It is obviously that smoothing surface performs better
thermal contacting, i.e. reduce the interface resistance (1/hi). The interface resistance can
also be reduced by increasing contacting pressure. Increasing contacting pressure may
increase the contacting area. We observed as shown in figure 6.10 that qmax sharply
increased with increasing in contacting pressure in the low range of pressure, less than
5g/cm2. Over 10g/cm2, it reaches at equilibrium. The more compressible the materials, the
more sensitive to contacting pressure. The precise pressure control may therefore be
required for evaluation of warm/cool feeling.
6.4.3. RELATIONS OF q(t) TO TRANSIENT ENERGY LOSS AND TEMPERATURE
CHANGE
Self-heating body simulation permits simultaneous measurements of transient heat
loss (H(t) and temperature change (T(t)) as shown in figure 6.7. Table 6.4 shows
259
SQRT(BD*K)
Figure 6.9. Effects of Fabric Physical Properties on qmax.
250
240
5"
eS
g.
230
220
10
COMPRESSION PRESSURE, g/sqcm

Figure 6.10. Effects of Contacting Pressure on qmax.
12
Table 6.4. Transient Heat loss and Temperature Change

Manual Loading
Sample Maximum Temperature
heat loss at peak
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
67.18
89.53
65.38
82.21
132.66
68.47
42.07
27.85
35.29
37.79
49.36
71.42
52.15
78.52
48.27
46.58
59.59
58.54
34.56
34.41
34.61
34.45
34.04
34.57
34.85
35.01
34.94
34.82
34.78
34.45
34.70
34.48
34.80
34.74
34.66
34.65
Dynamic Cyclic Loading

;
Maximum heat loss
Temperature (at Peak)
1*23
45
123
45
21.75
23.98
20.90
22.59
25.97
20.80
13.77
12.89
13.84
16.95
17.63
25.40
20.12
22.39
17.42
18.82
22.45
25.77
19.75
21.39
18.52
20.33
22.70
17.42
11.57
11.63
12.22
15.88
16.43
20.80
18.33
20.04
16.29
17.16
19.00
19.40
19.35
20.92
18.10
20.19
22.63
17.28
11.26
11.46
12.03
15.77
16.37
20.28
17.98
19.45
16.20
16.83
18.43
18.46
19.16
20.69
17.92
20.16
22.57
17.28
11.16
11.48
11.99
15.78
16.35
20.39
17.78
19.22
16.17
16.65
18.16
18.13
18.98
20.45
17.75
20.22
22.57
17.29
11.15
11.50
11.99
15.75
16.33
20.40
17.77
19.04
16.16
16.55
17.98
17.92
35.19
35.14
35.21
35.18
35.11
35.19
35.42
35.51
35.44
35.32
35.32
35.13
35.22
35.15
35.35
35.23
35.19
35.12
35.24 35.25 35.25 35.25

35.20 35.22 35.22 35.23
35.27 35.27 35.27 35.27
35.23 35.25 35.25 35.25
35.18 35.19 35.19 35.19
35.25 35.26 35.26 35.26
35.48 35.49 35.50 35.50
35.54 35.54 35.54 35.53
35.51 35.51 35.51 35.51
35.35 35.36 35.35 35.36
35.33 35.34 35.34 35.34
35.22 35.24 35.24 35.23
35.25 35.26 35.26 35.26
35.20 35.21 35.23 35.23
35.37 35.35 35.35 35.35
35.27 35.28 35.29 35.29
35.23 35.25 35.25 35.25
35.25 35.25 35.26 35.27
* Number of contact. Unit: Heat Ioss=w/m2oC, Tcmpcrature=C. Conditioning: 65 % RH, 22C, ABS foam bed.
261
140
y = 21.7931 + 10.6548X R = 0.95

120
y
S
c
100
*
s
80
ffi
60
40
20
10
12
qmax, w/sqmC
Figure 6.11a. Relationships between qmax and Hmax in Manual Loading Model.
y = 35.1873 * xA0.3361 R = 0.91
Hmaxl
ZT
C/J
20 -
Hmax2
y = 29.5838 * x*0.3259 R = 0.96

-0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
qmax, w/sqmC
Figure 6.1lb. Relationships between qmax and Hmaxi and Hmax2 in Dynamic Loading
Model.
262
35.2
y = 35.34-0.0131x+2.56e-5xA2
R = 0.99
35.0
34.8
34.6
34.4
34.2
34.0
20
40
60
80
100
1 20
140
Hmax, w/sqmC
Figure 6.12a. Relationships between Hmax and Tmax in Manual Model.
35.6
y=36.31-0.08 lx+0.0013xA2 R=0.99

Tmaxl
Tmax2
35.5-
35.4-
35.3-
35.2-
35.1
10
20
Hmax, w/sqmC
Figure 6.12b. Relationships between Hmax and Tmaxi and Tmax2 in Dynamic Loading
Model.
263
U
E
a"
T
a
E
-A- R9
NO. OF CYCLE
Figure 6.13a. Effects of the Number of Cycle on Hmax.
35.5
35.4-
U
x"
C3
35.3-
35.2-A- R9
35.1
2
NO. OF CYCLE
Figure 6.13b. Effects of the Number of Cycle on Tmax.
264
maximum heat losses and temperature changes at peak point on barrier nonwovens, being
measured using manual loading self-heated model and dynamic cyclic loading model. We
found that there are good relationships among qmax, Hmax (maximum heat flow rate at
peak), and Tmax (maximum temperature change at peak) though there are phase delays in
time among them. Figure 6.1 la shows a high regression (R2= 0.94) between qmax and
Hmax at manual loading. Figure 6.11b also illustrates the regressions between qmax and
Hmaxl (1st contact) and Hmax5 (5th contact) at dynamic cyclic loading. This result
indicates warm/cool feeling may indirectly but significantly affect thermal comfort because
H(t) is another response to skin-clothing contact and it is an important parameter involved
in thermal balance equation. Temperature response supports this result as shown in figures
6.12a and 6.12b. Temperature changes at same phase as the rate of heat loss. We expect a
sequential response to contacting shock as warm/cool feeling is followed by the disruption
of energy balance and the temperature change of a body and then we may instantly feel
discomfort. Figures 6.13a and 6.13b show Hmax and Tmax according to the number of
cycle in dynamic model. Generally, first response is greater than the nexts. After 4th or
5th contact, an equilibrium state is achieved and the response becomes constant. This state
may be similar ro that of clothed motion body.
6.4.4. CORRELATIONS OF qmax WITH SUBJECTIVE TEST

Table 6.5 shows warm/cool rankings measured on 18 barrier nonwoven samples,
according to three laboratory methods and human subjective method. Individual results of
subjective test are also shown in Appendix 16. The regressions between subjective results
and qmax values are analyzed in figure 6.14 on dynamic model, manual self-heating
model, and manual preheated model, respectively. The regression equations are obtained
as follows;
Sr = 0.99qr + 0.19,
R2 = 0.86
for dynamic model,
(6.26a)
265
Sr = 0.98qr + 0.30,
R2 = 0.84
for self-heat model,
(6.26b)
Sr = 0.99qr + 0.22,
R2 = 0.85
for preheated model.
(6.26c)
where Sr is the subjective ranking, qr is the qmax ranking, and R2 is the regression
coefficient.
All three methods show reasonable regressions with subjective measurement,
having regression coefficients R2 = 0.84 ~ 0.86. We can conclude that there is no
difference among three methods except that the dynamic model is preferably affected by
heat capacity (p2C2K2) as discussed in section 6.4.1. If we give our attention to samples
R1 & R2 and R8 & R9, two former samples are ranked in a lower number than the others
in dynamic model but opposite, in manual models. R1 and R2 are very thin and porous but
there is no hair on the surface. R8 and R9 have hairy surface but relatively thick and heavy.
Table 6.5. Comparisons of Laboratory Measurement to Subjective Results.

Sample
Subjective
Ranking
Dynamic
Auto
Self-Heating
Manual
Preheated
Manual
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
15
16
15
13
18
8
3
2
2
7
7
9
12
15
6
10
8
6
13
17
12
15
18
9
3
1
3
5
5
15
11
17
5
9
9
9
13
16
12
16
18
9
3
1
3
9
9
14
11
16
5
9
5
5
14
15
12
17
18
9
3
1
3
9
9
13
11
16
5
9
5
5
* Conditioning: 22C, 65% RH. Sample: Barrier, Face
266
20
y = 0.4318 + 0.9781*
R = 0.91
S3
EI
10 -
OS
S
a a
10
20
20
y = 0.5 + 0.9593x R = 0.92
O
z
2
or
.
10 OS
x
scr
a
10
20
y = 0.4318 + 0.9664x
O
2
2
as
5
20
R = 0.92
-^0
10 -
O"
<0^
H
10
20
SUBJECTIVE RANKING
Figure 6.14. Regression between Subjective Ranking and qmax Ranking Measured, using
(a) Dynamic Model,
(b) Manual Self-Heating Model, and
(c) Manual Preheated Model.
267
This implies that quick loading Relation (manual loading) is more affected by interface
resistance or surface properties but slow loading (dynamic method), by heat capacity.
However, subjective results show similar sensations on these two sets of samples.
In the general, samples having relatively smooth surfaces or samples made from
hygroscopic fibers (cotton or cotton mixtures) are ranked in high numbers: CI and C2 have
the most smooth surface and high packed structures since calendering or resin coating; S2,
R4, and R5 are made from cotton fibers and treated by calendering process. Samples, such
as II, 12, and 13, felt relatively warm feature low fiber volume fraction, high
compressibility, and hairy surface. Conclusively, three laboratory models are good
simulators to predict warm/cool feeling. Particularly, the dynamic method provides precise
and stable measurement and are closely simulated warm/cool sensation of motion body. In
addition to warm/cool sensation, it simultaneously informs us of energy loss and
temperature change which may directly correlate with clothing comfort. It is also
confirmed in subjective test that both interface resistance and heat capacity are the most
influential parameters.
1. The transient heat transfer between human skin and contacted object was
theoretically analyzed at three different boundary conditions: two extreme conditions
(insulated and constant temperature) and a convective heat flow boundary for a real clothed
body.
2. On the basis of the theoretical analysis of the transient heat transfer, a dynamic
model and a manual self-heating model were designed, in addition to Thermolabo manual
preheated model. It was experimentally found that these three models highly correlated
with one another. As a result of subjective evaluation, there is no significant difference
among three methods in warm/cool assessment except that the dynamic model is preferably
268
affected by heat capacity of the fabric while manual models are more affected interface
resistance. Particularly, the self- heating motion body of the dynamic model provided
precise and stable measurement and lots of information about cyclic contacts. It
simultaneously informed of the rate of energy density change, q(t), energy transfer rate,
H(t), temperature change, T(t), and compression rate, P(t).
3. It was confirmed that qmax highly correlate with warm/cool sensation evaluated
by human subjective test and a high qmax value corresponds to the cool feeling and a low
qmax value to warm feeling [30]. We found that Hmax and Tmax, maximum heat transfer
rate and maximum temperature change in the skin layer occurred when skin surface
instantly contacts clothes, highly correlated with qmax value. Hmax and Tmax are
important parameters involved in thermal balance equation, this result indicates warm/cool
feeling may indirectly but significantly affect thermal comfort.
4. Boundary conditions, interface resistance, and physical properties of the fabric
were important parameters affecting warm/cool feeling. Especially, qmax based on
constant temperature boundary (metal bed) was proportional to the thermal conductance of
the fabric or the fabric thickness, qmax based on the insulated boundary (foam bed) was
affected primarily by interface resistance and proportional to square root of the product of
thermal conductivity and heat capacity but, on contrary to the constant temperature
boundary, not affected by fabric thickness. We expect that qmax based on convective heat
flow may be closed to that based on the insulated boundary due to large boundary air
resistance.
269
7. SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION OF CLOTHING COMFORT

7.1. INTRODUCTION
The thermal comfort properties of clothing systems and textile materials can be
estimated by both physical and physiological test methods. Umbach [127] describes five
types of test methods including two levels of physical tests and three levels of physiological
tests. The physical tests use various devices to simulate the heat and water vapor
production by the skin. Physical tests are typically more accuracy and less expensive than
physiological tests. Physiological tests involve the use of human subjects dressed in test
clothing and performing work in a controlled environmental chamber, or in field tests.
Because of the difference in physiological reactions among human subjects (due to age,
sex, physical fitness, acclimatization.), there can be a large deviation in physiological trials.
Moreover, makes the physiological tests are expensive and time consuming. Hollies [ 13]
argues that human wear trials are essential to fully explore the complex array of factors
affecting the perception of comfort. Certainly, it is necessary to analyze correlations
between subjective and objective measurements to verify the validity of any thermal
comfort factors predicted from laboratory measurements made on fabrics.
Two methods have been generally used to obtain information in human subjective
trials in controlled environmental chambers. Rohles and Nevins [163], Mclntyre [107],
Gagge [161], Goldman [128], and others [11, 12, 122, 123, 144] evaluated clothing
comfort using a thermodynamic approach. This approaches requires precise monitoring of
human physiological response including measurement of temperature and humidity,
oxygen consumption, heart rate, weight loss, and other physical and physiological values.
The ASHRAE seven point psycho-physical scale [124] is frequently used as a measure to
quantify thermal sensations.
Hollies [1, 182], LaMotte [35], and others [150, 183] evaluate clothing comfort in
terms of mechanical and thermal sensations: i.e. tactile comfort. They also use controlled
270
environmental test facilities. Human subjects are asked to describe comfort sensations
produced when wearing test garments in a microclimate of varying temperature and relative
humidity. Hollies [1] uses a special five point comfort scale to quantify perception of
following sensations: damp, snug, stiff, cold, picky, scratchy, clammy, heavy, sticky.
Most subjective trials are carried out on complete garments or garment
combinations. Some have been made on patch samples, where the concern is with only one
or two sensations: skin roughness and pleasantness [184]; chilling & clamminess [185].
Hollies [186] has also proposed a simple patch test method. He has concentrated on
analyzing the relationships between this simple patch test and the results of full garment
trials. The merits of patch tests is that they are simpler and require less time to conduct. We
developed a special test to obtain the information on comfort perception used by the present
study. This method fully described below.

7.2.1. PREPARATION OF TEST SAMPLES
Table 7.1 lists the nonwoven fabrics and fabric systems used in experiments that
evaluated human comfort response in various environmental conditions. Single layer
fabrics and fabric ensembles were selected to represent different clothing types including
materials appropriate for use in surgical gowns, chemical protective clothing and cold
weather apparel. Materials were selected to include nonwovens having a range of heat and
moisture transfer properties. Layered ensembles were included to assess the effect of a
hygroscopic (spunlace) layer in a position next to skin. For the purpose of the subjective
trials, these materials were made up and sewn in the form of a sleeve that could be worn
over the forearm of the test participant. Figure 7.1 shows how materials were sewn
together to form the sleeve used in the test.
271
Table 7.1a. Selected Samples.

Code Process
Composition
Wet-Laid
Hydroentangled
Foam Coated
Spunbond Tyvek
PE Coated Tyvek
Thinsulate
Spunlace
Melt-Blown
Melt-Blown
S2
S3
CI
C2
11
R7
M3
M9
Rh(cl)
Re(cl)
PET/Wood Pulp
Rayon/PET
0.284
0.643
0.038
0.080
0.50
0.20
100% PE
100% PE
PP/PET
70/30% PET/Rayon
100% PP
100% PP
0.179
0.295
4.520
0.656
0.332
1.156
0.024
0.025
0.571
0.098
0.051
0.185
2.93
619.14
1.50
0.20
0.10
0.37
Rh(cl) & Re(cl) = Intrinsic Thermal Resistance and Water Vapor Resistance of Fabrics Measured in Section
4. Units: Rh(cl) = clo, Re(cl) = cm2-sec/g. L = Fabric Thickness, mm measured at 0.5 g/cm2 load pressure.
Table 7.1b. Single and Multiple Combinations Used for Subjective Evaluation.
Group
Code
Combinations
Group 1
HT1
HT2
HT3
HT4
HT5
HT6
HT7
HT8
CD1
CD2
S2
S3
CI
C2
R7/S2
R7/S3
R7/C1
R7/C2
R7/I1/M9/C1
R7/M3/I1/I1/I1/C1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
Group 5
L
0.284
0.643
0.179
0.295
0.940
1.299
0.835
0.951
6.511
14.727
Rh
im
0.84
0.86
0.72
0.74
0.90
1.00
0.91
0.90
1.57
2.67
0.57
0.65
0.27
0.04
0.39
0.45
0.23
0.07
0.40
0.56
* Rh & im = the overall thermal resistance and permeability index measured on the basis of the contact
model. Unit: Rh = clo, im = no unit, L = the total thickness of multiple layer (the sum of the thickness of
each component measured at 0.5 g/sqcm).
272
7.3.2. TEST METHODS

TEST INSTRUMENTS
Subjective trials proceeded when participants placed their forearms into an
environmental chamber. The temperature and humidity inside the chamber was varied over
time to simulate various environmental conditions. This chamber is the same as used in
section 6 but was modified to have two glove ports. Modified sub chamber allowed wind
to uniformly blow down on two forearms at a controlled air velocity. Figure 7.2 shows the
whole chamber in which two forearms worn different samples are put through glove ports.
The chamber can control temperature in the range -40 ~ 100C, and humidity in the range
30 ~ 98%. Air currents can be varied from ~ 0.12 to 0.75 m/sec. Temperature and humidity
profile are automatically programed.
Sweating conditions were artificially controlled by an Ismatec cartridge peristaltic
micropump. The micropump supplies water to the skin surface through four 0.76 mm dia
Tygon tubes at the rate of 0.002 ~ 0.2 ml/min per gland. The temperature and humidity of
skin surface and ambient were measured by Omega 0.001" dia copper/constantan microthermocouples and Diagger thin film microhygrometers.
WEAR PROTOCOL AND SUBJECTIVE COMFORT RATING (SCR) SCALE
Twenty five men, ages 24 - 39, participated in the subjective evaluation which was
conducted under varied environmental conditions. A group of five subjects evaluated a
paired sample group and the results were reported as an average value. A subject assessed
warm/cool and wet/dry feeling, comparing the sensations felt by his two forearms worn
different paired samples. The wear protocol are summarized in table 7.2. Different
procedures of functional samples were designed based on real environmental conditions
used generally. Single layer samples and cold weather battings were evaluated over three
273
15 mm
150 mm
SEWING UNE
Hr
500 mm
Figure 7.1. Sleeve Sample
ENVIRONMENTAL CHAMBER
(MICRO-PROGRAMMER)
SUB CHAMBER
(AIR CONTROL)
WATER
SUPPLY
TEMPERATURE
HUMIDITY SENSOR
yy////////////,
FOREARMS
C\C\C\
Figure 7.2. Subjective Evaluation System
COMPUTER
274
Table 7.2. Summary of Procedure in the Wear Protocol.

Time
(min)
Surcical Gown
Single
Double
Layer
Layer
Chemical Protective
Single
Double
Layer
Layer
t=5
24C, 65%RH
v = 0.25 m/s
30C, 85%RH
v = 0.75 m/s
-10C, 0%RH
v = 0.75 m/s
t=10
Reset chamber condition
t=15
30C, 65%RH
v = 0.25 m/s
35C, 85%RH
v = 0.75 m/s
0C, 0%RH
v = 0.75 m/s
t=20
Reset chamber conditions or start sweating.
t=25
35C
30C
65%RH 65%RH
v = 0.25 m/s
Dry
Wet
40C
35C
85%RH 85%RH
v = 0.75 m/s
Dry
Wet
24C, 40%RH
v = 0.75 m/s
stop
stop
stop
t=30
stop
stop
Cold Weather Battings

Four & Six
Layer
Dry
* Wet Condition: 5 minutes-artificial sweating (t=20 ~ 25).

* t = Comfort rating period (subjective warm/cool and wet dry feeling, instrumental measuring skin
temperature and humidity).
Table 7.3. Subjective Comfort Rating.Scales

Warm/Cool
Wet/Dry
Hot
Wet
Warm
Moderately Damp
Slightly Warm
Slightly Damp
Neutral (no sensation)
Dry (no sensation)
Slightly Cool
-1
Cool
-2
Cold
-3
275
steps of environmental change at dry skin conditions: for surgical gown materials each 10
minutes at 24C, 30C, 35C (65% RH); for chemical protective materials each 10 minutes
at 30C, 35C, and 40C (85% RH); and for cold weather battings each 10 minutes at 10C, 0C, and 24C. The wear protocol of multiple layer samples of surgical gown and
chemical protective materials consisted of two steps of environmental change and two
sweating steps: e.g. for two layer chemical protective nonwovens; 1) 10 minutes at 30C,
85% RH, 2) 10 minutes at 35C, 85% RH, 3) 5 minutes of sweating at 35C, 85%RH,
and 4) 5 minutes after sweating at 35C, 85% RH. At 5-minute intervals, warm/cool and
wet/dry ratings were assessed according to four point subjective comfort scale and comfort
rating chart as shown in table 7.3 and appendix 17, respectively. Warm/Cool comfon were
rated from 0 to +3: neutral to hot or cold. The negative values represent cold sensation
while the positive ones, warm sensation. Wet/dry comfort were rated from 0 (dry) to 3
(wet). At the same time, two skin physiological parameters, skin temperature and water
vapor pressure at skin surface, were measured to support the rationality of subjective
evaluation, using micro-thermocouples and thin film humidity sensors.
CALCULATIONS OF COMFORT RANGE AND METABOLIC RATE
As discussed in section 5, for the human body to maintain a steady state
temperature, net metabolic heat generated (Mn) must be dissipated through garments worn
(Q). Heat loss through garments is thermal (H) as well as evaporative (E);
Mn = Q = H + E.
(7.1)
Applying Woodcock's energy dissipation yields

Mn = [(Ts -Ta) + 16.5 SWA im (Ps -Pa)]/(0.155 I),
(7.2)
where Ts and Ta are the skin temperature and ambient temperature (C), respectively, Ps
and Pa are the water vapor pressure (kPa) on skin surface and in the ambient, respectively,
276
im is the permeability index, I is the thermal resistance (clo), and SWA is the sweat wetted
area. The controllable comfort range is defined by the range of activity level which can
provide comfortable condition under fixed environment The lower comfort limit (minimum
controllable limit) of the comfort range is defined by the dry heat transfer rate (only H term)
and the upper comfort limit, the sum of evaporative heat transfer rate from 20% wetted skin
surface (SWA = 0.2) and dry heat transfer rate. Therefore, the comfort range was
calculated according to the following equation when Ps is assumed to be saturated vapor
pressure at T = Ts:
(Ts-Ta)/(0.155I)<Mn<[l/(0.155I)][(Ts-Ta)+3.3im(Ps-Pa)]
(7.3)
The comfort limit is different from thermally controllable limit (maximum controllable limit)
defined by the sum of evaporative heat transfer rate from fully wetted skin surface (SWA =
1) and dry heat transfer rate.
For the calculation of actual metabolic rate, the measured values of Ts, Ta, Ps, Pa
im, and I and SWA = 1 were used where Ps is either saturated or non-saturated.

Predicted Comfort Range and Metabolic Rate. Table 7.4 includes warm/cool and
wet/dry comfort ratings assessed by human subjects and controllable comfort range and
actual metabolic rate predicted by physical measurements under varied environment. The
activity level, 60 w/m2, has experimentally been known to represent the metabolic rate
produced by human at rest [1]. This activity level corresponds to that during arm/patch
test.used by this research Therefore, 60 w/m2 is assumed to be comfort line at this
evaluation. If the predicted energy dissipation of clothing is 60 w/m2, there is a balance
between internal metabolic rate and energy dissipation through clothing. This state is called
neutral or comfort. When energy dissipation in more than 60 w/m2, men may feel cool and
Table 7.4. Subjective Comfort Evaluation.
Sample
Environment
Time AirTa Air Pa
Subiective Measurements (SCR)

W/C
W/D Skin Ts Skin Ps
Predicted Metabolism
H
E
Q
Predicted Comfort Range

Min
Comf
Max
HT1
5
10
15
20
25
30
24
24
30
30
35
35
1.94
1.94
2.76
2.76
3.66
3.66
0.20
0.35
0.95
1.13
1.70
1.95
0.30
0.68
0.80
1.00
0.93
1.40
31.90
32.18
33.03
33.23
34.27
34.63
1.51
1.52
2.37
2.17
3.30
3.22
60.7
62.8
23.2
24.8
-5.6
-2.0
-4.8
-4.7
-4.4
-6.6
-3.9
-4.9
55.9
58.1
18.9
18.1
-9.6
-6.9
60.7
62.8
23.2
24.8
-5.6
-2.0
66.9
69.2
28.3
30.0
-1.7
2.1
91.9
94.8
48.8
50.9
13.9
18.7
HT2
5
10
15
20
25
30
24
24
30
30
35
35
1.94
1.94
2.76
2.76
3.66
3.66
0.16
0.34
1.06
1.33
1.85
1.99
0.30
0.48
0.73
0.99
1.00
1.43
32.30
32.80
33.28
33.55
34.50
34.57
1.53
1.52
2.37
2.17
3.33
3.14
62.3
66.0
24.6
26.6
-3.8
-3.3
-5.1
-5.2
-4.8
-7.3
-4.1
-6.4
57.1
60.8
19.8
19.3
-7.8
-9.6
62.3
66.0
24.6
26.6
-3.8
-3.3
69.5
73.6
30.-4
32.7
0.8
1.3
98.4
103.9
53.9
56.9
18.9
19.6
HT3
5
10
15
20
25
30
30
30
35
35
40
40
3.61
3.61
4.78
4.78
6.27
6.27
1.01
0.80
1.13
1.07
2.20
2.35
0.76
0.80
1.12
1.21
1.30
1.40
33.75
33.50
34.65
34.80
35.90
36.00
3.88
3.93
4.69
4.95
5.61
5.76
33.6
31.4
-3.1
-1.3
-34.9
-34.9
1.7
2.0
-0.6
1.1
-4.1
-3.2
35.3
33.4
-3.7
-0.3
-39.0
-38.1
33.6
31.4
-3.1
-1.3
-34.9
-34.9
35.6
33.3
-2.2
-0.4
-35.4
-35.4
43.7
41.1
1.4
3.5
-37.2
-37.0
HT4
5
10
15
20
25
30
30
30
35
35
40
40
3.61
3.61
4.78
4.78
6.27
6.27
0.93
0.68
1.00
0.95
2.15
2.13
0.80
0.88
1.38
1.92
1.98
1.85
32.50
32.40
33.13
33.43
34.37
35.40
3.54
3.70
4.41
4.74
5.27
5.69
21.8
20.9
-16.3
-13.7
-49.1
-40.1
-0.1
0.1
-0.3
-0.0
-0.9
-0.5
21.7
21.0
-16.6
-13.7
-50.0
-40.6
21.8
20.9
-16.3
-13.7
-49.1
-40.1
22.0
21.1
-16.2
-13.6
-49.3
-40.2
22.9
22.0
-16.0
-13.3
-49.9
-40.6
HT5
5
10
15
20
25
30
24
24
30
30
30
30
1.94
1.94
2.76
2.76
2.76
2.76
0.00
0.10
0.70
0.90
-0.60
0.00
0.30
0.30
0.50
1.00
1.20
2.20
33.60
33.80
34.80
34.80
34.00
34.40
1.83
1.96
2.63
2.58
5.32
5.44
68.8
70.3
34.4
34.4
28.7
31.5
-0.8
0.1
-1.0
-1.3
18.3
19.2
68.0
70.4
33.5
33.1
47.0
50.7
68.8
70.3
34.4
34.4
28.7
31.5
73.5
75.0
38.4
38.4
32.3
35.4
92.2
94.0
54.5
54.5
47.0
50.7
Environment
Sample
Time AirTa Air Pa
Subjective Measurements (SCR")

W/C
W/D
Skin Ts Skin Ps
Predicted Metabolism
Predicted Comfort Range
Min
Comf
Max
HT6
5
10
15
20
25
30
24
24
30
30
30
30
1.94
1.94
2.76
2.76
2.76
2.76
0.10
0.20
0.90
1.00
-0.60
0.00
0.30
0.30
0.50
1.00
1.20
2.00
33.30
33.50
34.00
34.20
34.10
34.20
1.59
2.12
2.50
2.37
5.35
5.38
60.0
61.3
25.8
27.1
26.5
27.1
-2.6
1.4
-1.9
-2.9
19.2
19.5
57.4
62.6
23.9
24.2
45.7
46.6
60.0
61.3
25.8
27.1
26.5
27.1
64.7
66.1
29.6
31.0
30.3
31.0
83.6
85.3
44.8
46.6
45.7
46.6
HT7
5
10
15
20
25
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
3.61
3.61
4.78
4.78
4.78
4.78
0.30
0.60
1.20
1.30
-0.30
-0.14
0.61
0.78
1.01
1.08
2.02
2.10
33.64
34.00
34.82
35.04
34.10
34.50
3.39
3.88
4.34
4.57
5.35
5.47
25.8
28.4
-1.3
0.3
-6.4
-3.5
-0.9
1.2
-1.8
-0.9
2.4
2.9
24.9
29.5
-3.1
-0.6
-4.0
-0.7
25.8
28.4
-1.3
0.3
-6.4
-3.5
27.1
29.8
-0.6
1.0
-5.9
-3.0
32.5
35.5
2.0
3.9
-4.0
-0.7
HT8
5
10
15
20
25
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
3.61
3.61
4.78
4.78
4.78
4.78
0.20
0.50
1.14
1.26
-0.06
0.18
0.61
0.68
0.82
1.13
2.04
2.13
33.40
34.20
34.92
35.14
34.80
35.10
3.13
3.69
4.20
4.48
5.56
5.65
24.4
30.1
-0.6
1.0
-1.4
0.7
-0.6
0.1
-0.7
-0.4
1.0
1.1
23.8
30.2
-1.3
0.6
-0.4
1.8
24.4
30.1
-0.6
1.0
-1.4
0.7
24.8
30.6
-0.4
1.2
-1.2
0.9
26.3
32.4
0.5
2.1
-0.4
1.8
CD1
5
10
15
20
25
30
-10
-10
0
0
24
24
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.19
1.19
-1.60
-1.98
-1.64
-1.06
0.00
0.64
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.15
0.20
30.08
29.50
29.68
29.80
31.04
31.72
0.21
0.30
0.46
0.50
1.89
1.87
164.7
162.3
122.0
122.5
28.9
31.7
0.9
1.2
1.9
2.1
2.9
2.9
165.6
163.6
123.9
124.6
31.9
34.6
164.7
162.3
122.0
122.5
28.9
31.7
168.3
165.8
125.5
126.0
31.7
34.7
182.6
179.7
139.5
140.1
42.8
46.4
CD2
5
10
15
20
25
30
-10
-10
0
0
24
24
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.19
1.19
-0.70
-0.84
-0.70
-0.44
0.30
0.70
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.12
0.15
0.20
31.10
31.10
31.20
31.50
32.30
32.94
0.30
0.29
0.53
0.53
1.92
1.79
99.3
99.3
75.4
76.1
20.1
21.6
1.0
1.0
1.8
1.8
2.5
2.1
100.3
100.3
77.2
78.0
22.6
23.7
99.3
99.3
75.4
76.1
20.1
21.6
102.4
102.4
78.5
79.3
22.6
24.2
114.9
114.9
91.1
92.1
32.7
34.8
* Ta=ambient temperature (C), Pa=ambient water vapor pressure (kPa), Ts=skin temperature (C), Ps=skin water vapor pressure 9kPa), SCR (W/C)
& SCR (W/D)=warm/cool and wet/dry subjective comfort ratings, H, E, and Q=predicted metabolic rate (dry, evaporative, and total).
to
-J
279
when less than 60 w/m2, feel warm. At dry skin condition, the predicted metabolic rate is
close to the lower limit of comfort range. Surgical gown materials may be comfortable at
24C. At 30 ~ 40C, they may be comfortable at very low activity level, 0 ~ 30 w/m2
according to calculated comfort range. However, it is known that the minimum metabolic
rate of human body is about 40 w/m2 i.e. at the metabolic rate less than 40 w/m2, comfort
is never achieved. That is, surgical gown materials and chemical protective materials at
higher than 30C are always felt warm. On the other hand, cold weather insulators require
higher metabolic rate than 60 w/m2 below 0C and less metabolic rate than 60 w/m2 at
24C. They may be felt comfortable at any ambient temperature between 0 and 24C.
Relations of Subjective Warm/Cool Comfort Ratines to Predicted Metabolic Rate.
The relationship between predicted actual metabolic rate and subjective warm/cool comfort
ratings was regressively analyzed in figures 7.3. The regression equation is
y = -0.019x+1.102, R2 = 0.758
(7.4)
where y is the warm/cool SCR, x is the predicted metabolic rate (w/m2), and R2 is the
regression coefficient. The predicted metabolic rate relatively well correlate with warm/cool
SCR's except ones at sweating. Sweating gives underestimated SCR's comparing to
expected metabolic rates. These represent local SCR's at partially wetted area rather than
overall SCR's. The regression equation shows the neutral sensation at about 60 w/m2 of
the metabolic rate. This result well correspond to that discussed in the last section. The
regression is reasonable because the arm/patch method was conducted at rest.
Predicted metabolic rates of surgical gown materials (HT1, 2, 5, and 6) at 24C
ambient temperature are in the range, 55 ~ 70 w/m2 and in the range, 0 ~ 0.35. They are
considered to be thermally comfortable at 24C, 65% RH. The more the ambient
temperature increases the warmer the feeling. It implies that surgical materials used in this
research may be felt less comfort at higher activity levels such as surgical operations, so
that some sweating will be required to maintain the comfortable state. Data show that
280
artificial sweating cools down skin temperature and gives less warm sensation. Chemical
protective fabrics show warmer comfort ratings at ambient temperature, 30 ~ 40C, and
humidity, 85% RH, considered as real hot and humid conditions such as Florida weather.
Sweating was effective on reducing external heat stress. Adding hygroscopic next-to-skin
layer to single layer protective assembly also reduces the heat stress. This may be because
the strong hydrophilicity of the next-to-skin layer controls microclimate by absorption
between skin surface and next-to skin layer or increasing thermal resistance may reduce
external heat stress (less heat flow in). On the other hand, multi-laid cold weather battings
of both 4 layer and six layer give cool comfort ratings below 0C and give little warm
ratings. It is estimated that neutral conditions of four layer and six layer at rest may be
achieved at 10 ~ 15C. To get a comfortable condition at freezing temperature, higher body
activity or increasing the thermal resistance of the clothing assembly is required.
Relations of Warm/Cool SCR to Skin Temperature. The validity of perceived
warm/cool evaluation was examined by skin temperature measured using microthermocouples. Figure 7.4 shows that there is a high regression, between warm/cool SCR
and skin temperature, of which equation (1) is
y = 0.632 Ts- 20.127, R2 = 0.906
(7.5)
where Ts is the skin temperature (C) measured. However, surgical and chemical
protective materials multi-laid using a hygroscopic material, cotton/rayon blend, R7 as a
next-to-skin layer was under-rated by about one scale in their warm/cool SCR comparing to
corresponding skin temperatures. When these materials are wetted, by about two scales.
The former can not be simply explained. It may be caused by differences in contacting
sensation among test samples within no affecting skin temperature. It has been discussed in
section 6 that transient heat conduction occurred when skin contacts with clothing may
effect the clothing comfort. The latter can be explained to be caused by local SCR's at area
28
y = 1.299 - 0.020x RA2 = 0.92
-100
#
B
Single & Battings

Double (HT5-HT8)
WET(HT5~HT8)
100
200
PREDICTED METABOLIC RATE (Mn), w/sqm

Figure 7.3. Relationship between Subjective Comfort Ratings and Predicted Metabolic
Rate.
28
Single & Battings

Double (HT5-HT8)
WET(HT5~HT8)
30
32
34
36
SKIN TEMPERATURE, Ts (C)
38
Figure 7.4. Relationship between Warm/Cool SCR and Skin Temperature.
282
partially wetted rather than overall SCR's as discussed above. This relationship is similar to
that between heat loss and the surface temperature of a guarded hot plate in the laboratory
measurement of energy dissipation rate.
Relations of Wet/Drv SCR to Water Vapor Pressure on Skin Surface. Dampness or
wetness is another important parameter affecting clothing comfort [1]. Wet/dry ratings
relates to the water vapor pressure or wetness on skin surface. Figure 7.5 shows that the
higher the water vapor pressure on the skin surface the higher the wet/dry SCR. The
regression equation is resulted as follows
z = 0.288 Ps + 0.005, R2 = 0.742
(7.6)
where z is the wet/dry SCR and Ps is the water vapor pressure on the skin surface (kPa).
Cold weather batting assemblies, CD1 and CD2, show relatively dry SCR's due to low
water vapor pressure (0 ~ 1.19) on the skin surface. Single layer surgical gown materials
(HT1 and HT2) and chemical protective materials (HT3 and HT4) were felt moderately wet
at high temperature (30 ~ 40C) and humidity (2.76 ~ 6.27 kPa) conditions which some
sweating was found at. The water vapor pressure on the skin surface are affected by not
only non-clothing variables such as the rate of perspiration or sweating and ambient
humidity level but also clothing variables such as water vapor permeability or moisture
absorbability. At high perspiration or sweating, higher water vapor permeability reduces
water vapor pressure on the skin surface and accelerate moisture evaporation. Particularly,
when skin contacts with clothing, wet/dry SCR is affected by moisture absorbability,
or/and wetness of a fabric. Hydrophobic fiber materials sometimes form thin liquid film on
the surface of fibers which gives sticky sensation when skin touches with it. Strongly
hygroscopic fiber materials absorb moisture so that less or no liquid film forms on the
surface of fibers. Figure 7.6 shows that an impermeable fabric model, HT4 or HT8, was
much damper than a semi-permeable fabric, HT3 or HT7. Two layer models interlined by
a hygroscopic fiber material (R7), HT7 and HT8, were felt much less damp at non-
283
a<
u
oo
OS
U
CO
JH
Di
Single & Battings

Double (HT5-HT8)
WET(HT5~HT8)
0.052+ 0.301x RA2 = 0.79
- 0.015 + 0.226x RA2 = 0.58
%
B*
SKIN VAPOR PRESSURE, Ps (kPa)

Figure 7.5. Relations of Wet/Dry SCR to Water Vapor Pressure on Skin Surface.
W
-1
<
U
CO
15
TIME (min)
30
I
35
I
40 or 35 WET
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE, Ta (C)
Figure 7.6. Effects of Fabric Properties (Permeability and Hydrophilicity).
284
sweating condition (period 0 ~ 20 min) than single layer models of hydrophobic fabrics,
HT3 and HT4. At sweating (period 20 ~ 30 min), all of two-layers models show high
dampness due to wetted next-to-skin layer. Wet/dry comfort ratings may relate to the
evaporative term of comfort equation 7.2 which is the function of water vapor pressure on
the skin surface. However, it is difficult to directly correlate wet/dry SCR with evaporative
heat transfer rate because many other variables such as hydrophilicity, surface properties,
etc get complicatedly involved in wet/dry sensation.

1. The metabolic rate predicted by physical measurements relatively well correlate
with simple subjective warm/cool ratings. The regression equation showed thermally
neutral state at about 60 w/m2 of metabolic rate which corresponds to the activity level at
rest [1]. Higher metabolic rate than 60 w/m2 was rated cool and Lower, warm. The
regression is reasonable because the arm/patch method was conducted at rest. Predicted
thermal comfort was credited by simple subjective evaluation.
2. There is a high regression (R2 = 0.91) between warm/cool SCR and skin
temperature. The relationship is similar to that between heat loss and the temperature of the
guarded hot plate in the laboratory measurement. Wetted or strongly hygroscopic next-toskin layer was under-rated in the warm/cool SCR. Local sensation at instant contacting may
affect overall SCR.
3. Wet/dry SCR correlates with water vapor pressure. The higher the perspiration
rate, sweating rate, or ambient humidity, the less the wet/dry comfortability. Increasing in
hydrophilicity or moisture permeability reduces the dampness. It is difficult to directly
correlate wet/dry SCR with the evaporative term of predicted metabolic rate because many
other variables such as hydrophilicity, surface properties of the next-to-skin layer, etc get
complicatedly involved in wet/dry sensation.
285
4. The effect of sweating on external heat stress was analyzed using the simulated
sweating system. However, there was found an limitation in analyzing the effect of internal
heat stress such as exercise, etc.
286
8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This research produced new and highly useful laboratory procedures for measuring
the heat and moisture transfer properties of textile materials. This research also produced
original analytical models which can be applied to describe heat transfer and moisture
diffusion through fibrous structures. Additionally, an analytical model was advanced for
predicting the thermal comfort of clothing systems from laboratory measurements. These
tools were used in a program that sought to provide fundamental insights into the role of
fabric structural parameter on heat and moisture transfer mechanisms through specially
selected groups of nonwoven barrier fabrics exposed in hot and humid or extremely cold
environments. This research produced a deeper understanding of the role of wicking,
absorption and condensation phenomena in the transfer of heat and moisture through single
layer fabrics and through multiple layer clothing ensembles. The observed correlations
among objective and subjective measurements of thermal comfort phenomena provided
solid verification of the analytical models developed by this program. Same of the major
conclusions of this analyses can be summarized as follows:
1. Fabric thickness is the primary structural factor affect heat and moisture transfer
through fibrous materials, a result which confirms classic theories. Original models for
thermal conductivity and moisture vapor diffusivity developed provided considerable
insight into structural effects, and the relative contribution of different transfer mechanisms.
2. Convective heat transfer through nonwoven fabrics, ranging from 0.8 to 31.2 %
fiber volume fraction was not observed by this research. Radiative transfer is a significant
factor only when the fiber volume fraction is less than 3%. Conduction of heat through the
air space in the structure was shown to be the primary transfer mode. Fiber volume fraction
is the most influential structural parameter controlling heat transfer, although fiber
directionality was also found to significantly affect the thermal conductivity of nonwoven
287
materials. Fiber diameter had little affect on conductive transfer, but did affect heat transfer
by radiation through low density (less than 3% fiber volume fraction) nonwovens. This
research suggests that the optimum nonwoven insulation would use fibers with low thermal
conductivity (e.g. polypropylene) and would be made with fine diameter fibers. The ideal
thermal insulation would have approximately 3 % fiber volume fraction, complete fiber
separation, and fiber orientation parallel to fabric plane.
3. This analysis indicates that fiber volume fraction and fiber shape are the most
important parameters affecting the water vapor diffusivity of nonwoven samples. Water
vapor diffusivity decreases with increase in fiber volume fraction and with the flatness of
the component fibers. The effects of the other structural properties including fiber fineness
and optical porosity are negligible. Finishing of the nonwoven as calendering, embossing,
resin coating or film laminating reduces the air tunnels through these materials as it
increases fiber volume fraction. These processing steps also increase the flatness of the
fiber cross section and contribute to lower the moisture vapor permeability of the
nonwoven.
4. Environmental variables including air velocity, temperature, and humidity greatly
affect heat and moisture transfer through nonwovens. Our experiments show that heat and
moisture transfer rates are roughly proportional to the square root of the air velocity
surrounding the sample. The heat and moisture transfer rates of highly porous materials is
proportional to the air velocity squared, a result of the effect of wind penetration through
porous fibrous structures. As indicated in Woodcock's equation, environmental
temperature and humidity act as driving forces on sensible and evaporative heat transfer.
Thermal resistance increases with a decrease in the ambient temperature. Under conditions
that simulate dry skin, ambient humidity only slightly affects heat resistance, and then only
for hygroscopic materials. When sweating involved in the skin clothing configuration,
higher environmental humidities lower the level of evaporative heat transfer rate through
materials.
288
5. Our models predict that sweat produced by the human body can extend the
comfort zone considerably. The magnitude of sweating effects depends on a number of
factories including skin conditions, skin-clothing configuration, and fabric types. A model
that simulates partially wetted skin predicts higher energy dissipation. We attribute this
effect to an increase from which water may diffuse through the clothing system. The air
space between skin surface and fabric layer, internal reactions within fabric layers, and the
water vapor permeability of component fabrics are all important factors controlling thermal
energy dissipation in the presence of moisture.
6. Measurement of the temperature and water vapor pressure profiles within
clothing systems provided a useful explanation of simultaneous heat and moisture transfer.
Insight gained into internal reactions is helpful in understanding heat and moisture transport
behavior, especially in extreme environmental conditions. Therefore, moisture
condensation occurs easily in cold environments. Moisture condensation enhances
evaporation through clothing systems even impermeable materials are part of the ensemble.
Excessive condensation can block micropores in fabric layers, thereby reducing water
vapor diffusion. Absorptions effects are important at the onset of sweating, but less
important factors after steady state environment is established in high humid conditions.
Wicking, occurring on the skin surface, accelerates heat transfer as a result of increased
effective moisture evaporating area. Air layers within clothing ensembles increase thermal
and water vapor resistance. The use of hygroscopic materials, placed next to the skin,
effectively controls the microclimate on the skin surface by absorption and wicking. The
use of high density outer layer increases thermal resistance by preventing air penetration.
However, an impermeable outershell but reduces water vapor transmission and promotes
condensation in cold environments. This research shows that the use of a wickable
material, placed duely beneath an impermeable outshell layer has the effect of improve heat
and moisture transport by removing water that condenses on the shell fabric.
289
7. Based on a theoretical analysis of transient heat transfer, Kawabata's

Thermolabo device was modified to provide additional information on transient heat
transfer between the skin and fabric surface. The modified Thermolabo permits precise and
stable measurement and provides considerable information on the heat transfer occurring in
cyclic contact between skin and fabric surface. It simultaneously measures the rate of
energy density change, transient energy dissipation, skin temperature change and the
compression load. Experiments confirm that qmax is highly correlated with warm/cool
sensation generated in human subjective testing. We also show that Hmax (maximum heat
transfer rate when skin surface instantly contacts clothes) and Tmax (maximum temperature
change) significantly correlate with the qmax value. This results implies that the warm/cool
sensation, measured by a modified Thermolabo, could be a significant factor in overall
thermal comfort.
8. The comfort index predicted by analytical models from laboratory measurements
of fabric heat and moisture transfer properties correlates with subjective comfort rating
given in a simple test devised by this research. For simulated dry skin condition, our
simple subjective protocol is highly correlated with the model's prediction of comfort.
These experiments show that the sensation of warmth or coolness is associated with skin
temperature and the thermal energy dissipation rate. The importance of the next-to-skin
layer in clothing comfort was confirmed. A wet or strongly hygroscopic next-to-skin fabric
layer was under-rated in the warm/cool subjective comfort rating. On the other hand, the
wet/dry subjective comfort rating correlates with the water vapor pressure measured on
skin surface. The higher the perspiration, sweating or ambient humidity, the less the feeling
of comfort associated with wetness. Therefore, the use of a hydrophilic or moisture
permeability fabric layer next to the skin effectively reduces the sensation of dampness. Our
simple subjective method provided fast assessment but is limited to extent that it can be
used to evaluate internal heat stress.
290
9. Predictions of comfort by the methods developed by this research provide a basis

for designing clothing systems for various environmental conditions and levels of
metabolic activity. Therefore, we observe that the predicted comfort potential of nonwoven
barrier fabrics can be extended to include environmental temperatures several degrees in
excess of skin temperature. The factor of fabric design most influential in extending the
range of the comfort zone is the ability of the nonwoven to transmit moisture vapor.
This research provides a deeper understanding of the relationships of fabric
designs, nonwoven structures, and internal reactions and the heat and moisture
transmission properties important to human comfort, especially in extreme conditions of
heat and humidity. This program should suggest ways to engineer nonwoven fabrics to
optimize their comfort performance in various working environments.
291
9. RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Additional research is needed to focus on the comfort of nonwoven materials also

used to provide a protective barrier function: surgical gown materials which provide
bacteria or laser beam barriers; chemical protective materials; and firefighter's clothing.
The analytical modes for thermal conductivity and moisture diffusivity through
fibrous materials can also be applied to woven or knit fabrics. Further study on the effect of
fiber directionality on thermal conductivity and water vapor diffusivity model is needed.
This research will require an ability to measure fiber thermal conductivity along and
transverse to the fiber axis.
Further refinement of a dynamic models is needed to better describe transient heat
conduction in cyclic skin-to-fabric contact. Additional study of the relationship between
dynamic warm/cool sensation and thermal comfort is needed.
Finally, ultimate confirmation of the models will require the interpretation of
physiological and subjective assessment of comfort produced in the full-scale wear study.
This research has demonstrated the merits of meitblown webs as barrier materials:
high insulating effect; ultra fine micro.porous matrix; soft hand. The methods developed by
this research could be used to optimize the production of meitblown webs, from the
standpoint of comfort, in a program that uses systematic control of production variables to
affect changes in meitblown monofil and web structure.
292
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303
186. Hollies, N. R. S., private communication.

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304
11. APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1.
IR-TRANSMITTANCE, REFLECTANCE, AND EMTTTANCE OF

BARRIER NONWOVEN MATERIALS.
A stream of radiation incident on the surface of a substance can suffer one of three
fates; reflection (r), transmission (t), and absorption (a). A relationship among three
coefficients can be written as a = 1 - r -1. The emittance (e) of a substance is identical to
the fraction absorbed. A Perkin Elmer Infrared spectrophotometer Model 283B was used to
measure the directional spectral reflection and transmission [139]. The ceramic heat source
is heated to about 1200C and produces a continuous spectrum of electromagnetic energy
covering the region from 400 to 200 cm"1. The energy radiated by the source is split into
sample and reference beams. Transmittance is directly measured by the ratio of sample
beam radiation transmitted through the specimen to reference beam radiation. For
measurement of reflectance, the specular reflectance accessory is attached to sample cell
holder.
Planck's radiation law [170] and Wien's displacement law [170] show that the
energy radiated from a human body (at 33C) is distributed in the range 2 ~ 20 nm and has
a peak intensity at 9 nm. Therefore, specimens were scanned at wavelength in the range,
2.5 ~ 16.0 nm and data were taken at four wavelength; 2.5, 5.0, 9.0, and 16.0 nm as
shown in table A.l.
305
Table A.l. IR-Transmittance, Reflectance, and Emittance of Barrier Nonwoven Materials.
SAMPLE
t2.5
t5.0
t9.0
tl6.0
r2.5
r5.0
r9.0 rl6.0
e2.5
e5.0
e9.0
el6.0
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
2.5
2.2
1.9
2.2
1.4
4.3
0.5
9.3
0.4
57.7
21.9
2.9
5.9
1.4
27.6
23.0
0.4
0.2
1.8
1.9
1.4
4.0
3.0
4.9
0.4
6.4
0.2
53.4
19.3
2.2
5.6
1.7
25.5
21.8
0.9
0.2
1.4
1.6
1.5
9.2
4.8
4.7
0.5
3.0
0.5
43.3
10.2
1.6
3.1
1.6
17.2
16.1
1.3
0.7
4.4
5.1
4.8
30.0
10.0
7.2
2.0
4.5
1.4
38.2
11.8
4.1
5.9
5.1
15.0
15.9
5.0
2.0
1.0
0 .8
0 .8
1. 1
1.1
1.1
1.3
0.6
0.7
0.5
0.8
1. 3
0.6
1. 0
0. 6
0. 9
1 ., 0
0 ., 6
1.1
0.7
0.8
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.0
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.8
1.2
0.6
0.9
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.5
1.1
0.7
0.9
1. 3
1. 4
1. 2
1 ., 0
0 ., 6
0.8
0 .. 5
0 .. 7
1 ., 1
0 .. 6
0 .. 8
0 .. 5
0 .. 7
1 ,. 0
0 ,. 6
1. 7
1.5
1.6
1.3
1.7
1.4
1. 2
0.8
0.9
0 ., 5
1 ., 1
1 ., 7
1 ., 3
1 ., 5
0 ., 5
1 ., 2
1 ., 8
2 .. 0
96.5
97.0
97.3
96.7
97.5
94.6
98.2
90.1
98.9
41.8
77.3
95.8
93.5
97.6
71.8
76.1
98.6
99.2
97.1
97.4
97.8
94;7
95.8
93.9
98.6
93.1
99.1
46.1
79.7
96.6
93.7
97.4
73.9
77.4
98.1
99.3
97.5
97.7
97.6
89.5
93.8
94.1
98.5
96.4
98.7
56.2
89.3
97.3
96.3
97.6
82.3
83.2
97.7
98.7
93.9
93.4
93.6
68.7
88.3
91.4
96.8
94.7
'97.7
61.3
87.1
94.2
92.8
93.4
84.5
82.9
93.2
96.0
Ml
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
H8
M9
M10
Mil
Ml 2
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
1.4
1.7
1.9
0.7
1.2
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.5
16.1
17.0
27.0
4.2
4.5
3.1
1.4
1.5
1.3
1.4
2.2
2.00.9
1.3
0.8
0.4
0.5
0.6
11.5
12.0
23.2
3.1
3.5
2.5
1.4
1.3
1.4
2.8
2.6
2.5
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.8
0.9
7.5
8.0
16.0
2.6
2.5
2.1
1.5
1.5
1.4
8.6
9.9
8.2
2.0
3.1
1.7
1.3
1.8
2.1
11.0
12.5
22.7
3.9
3.9
2.9
2.2
1.9
2.1
1 ., 4
0 ., 9
1 ., 1
0 ., 8
1 .. 2
1 .. 2
1 .. 1
1 ,. 3
1 .. 2
0 ,. 9
0 ,. 8
0 ,. 8
0 .9
1 .1
0.9
0.7
1 .0
0.9
1.2
1.1
1.3
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.0
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.1
0.9
0.8
1.1
0.8
1 ,. 4
1 .. 4
1 ,. 2
1 ,. 2
1 ,. 3
1 ,. 2
1 ,. 1
1 .. 1
1 .2
1 ,. 1
1 .2
1 ,. 1
1 .1
1 ,. 1
1 .3
1 .. 5
1 .3
1 .4
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.9 1 .0
1 .3
1 .3
1 .0
1 .2
0.7
0.8
1 .1
1 .1
1 .2
1 .2
97.2
97.4
97.0
98.5
97.6
89.2
98.4
98.2
98.3
83.0
82.2
72.2
94.9
94.4
96.0
97.9
97.5
97.8
97.4
96.7
96.7
98.0
97.5
98.0
98.5
98.2
98.1
87.5
87.2
76.0
95.9
95.4
96.6
97.8
97.6
97.8
95.8
96.2
96.2
97.8
97.8
97.8
98.2
97.9
97.8
91.7
91.2
83.2
96.5
96.2
96.9
97.8
97.4
97.4
90.0
88.9
90.6
96.9
95.8
97.2
97.6
96.7
96.5
88.2
86.7
76.5
95.1
94.8
95.9
97.0
97.0
96.7
t = IR-Transmittance, %. r = IR-Reflectance, %. e = IR-Emittance, %. e = 1 - t - r

S u s c r i p t s , 2 . 5 , 5 . 0 , 9 . 0 , and 1 6 . 0 = Wavelength o f Infrared, nm.
306
APPENDIX 2.
CALCULATION OF SHAPE COEFFICIENTS
The shape coefficient used to predict water vapor diffusivity is different from the
typical shape factor. The shape coefficient is applied to define the air route through which
water vapor penetrates from one side of a fabric to the other. If there is no substance on the
way, vapor will move straight-forward from high vapor pressure to low vapor pressure.
However, if there is a part of impermeable substance at the front of air movement, vapor
may turn along any void space. It is assumed that vapor mass takes the shortest route
along the surface of the substance. If the substance is assumed to be well separated and
uniformly distributed, the route turned due to the substance may depend on the shape of the
substance. Shape coefficient is defined as relative over-pathway turned due to any
substance. If the length of a straight route is L and that of turned way is L', the relative
over pathway or the shape coefficient (s) is
s = AL/L = (L1 - L)/L = L'/L - 1.
(A.l)
CALCULATIONS OF SHAPE COEFFICIENT (s)

Round Fiber: As shown in figure Al, if the diameter of a fiber with round cross
section is d, the straight route across a fiber will be d and the turned route, a half of circle,
7td/2. Then, the shape coefficient can be calculated according to formula A.l as follows:
s = (itd/2)/d -1 = ti/2 -1 ~ 0.57.
(A.2)
Rectangular Cross Section: Similarly, the shape coefficient of rectangular fiber is

s = (a + b)/b -1
(A.3)
where a = width and b = thickness. For a square cross section fiber, a = b, then s = 1. For
a cotton fiber assumed a = 30 and b = 4, s is 7.5. For a film with a = infinite and b = 0.1,
s is infinite.
Trilobal Cross Section:
s = [(b+a/2)/(b-a/2)]1/2 -1
If a = b, then s = 0.71.
(A.4)
307
IlllllilS
llllilll
Figure A.l. Calculation of Shape Coefficients.
308
APPENDIX 3.
MELTBLOWN PROCESS.
As shown in figure A.2, melt blown nonwoven process is similar to a film extruder
with the exception that the fiber forming polymer is extruded through a slit containing a
horizontal row of small (approximately 0.4 mm) orifice [169]. The fibers are rapidly
attenuated to extremely small (1~5 micron) diameters by convergent streams of hot air
exiting from both sides of the die tip at velocities ranging from 1/3 to near sonic velocity.
The ultrafine fibers are blown onto a collector screen forming a white, opaque web. Since
no binder is utilized, the fibers are held together by a combination of fiber interlacing and
thermal bonding resulting from the residual heat of extrusion and hot attenuating air. The
webs may be calendered for some applications to give thin, microporous sheets. They may
also be embossed or laminated to other materials. The microfibers have greatly enhanced
filtration efficiency due to extremely large surface area and barrier properties. Further, the
microdenier fibers theoretically produce micropores which should allow for gas
penetration, e.g. for sterilization, and moisture vapor transmission for thermal comfort.
Most melt blown applications have been in products requiring filtration, barrier, and
insulation performance in combination with minimal bulk and weight. By 1990, melt
blown nonwoven is expected to increase from 5% at the present to 8% of the total value of
nonwoven industrial shipments [170].
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FOR PRODUCTION OF MELT BLOWN WEBS
As described above, melt blown process has many variables affecting web
structure. Die collector distance changes web compactness (bulk density, fiber volume
fraction, and web thickness). Air rate is related to the fiber diameter, e.g. higher the rate
the smaller the fiber diameter [169] and web winding speed affects fabric weight and
thickness. As illustrated in figure A.3, we had designed an experiment for the production
of melt blown webs, varying three major processing conditions: die collector distance
(three levels = 9,12,15 inches); compressed air flow rate (expressed by air valve opening
% , two levels = 65, 85%)); web winding speed (expressed by melt blown fabric weight,
three levels = 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 oz/yd2). Other variables were constantly maintained: Polymer
resin = homopolypropylene with a melt flow rate (MFR) of 300 being widely accepted by
industry; Screw speed(2-inch diameter) = 22 RPM; Die temperature = 500 F; and Air
temperature = 540 F. This run was made on the 20 inch melt blown pilot line leased to the
University of Tennessee by Exxon Chemical Company.
309
A. Polymer (pellets) B. Screw Driving Motor

C. Screw
D. Heater
F. Die
G. Compressed Hot Air
H. Orifice I. Suction Drum
E. Metering Pump
I. Winder.
Figure A.2. Diagram of Melt-Blown Nonwoven Process.
300 MFR
POLYPROPYLENE
DIE COLLECTOR DISTANCE (INCH)
12.0
9.0
15.0
AIR VALVE OPENING (%)
MELT BLOWN FABRIC WEIGHT (OZ/YD )0.5 1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0 1.5
Figure A.3. Experimental Design for Production of Melt-blown Webs
310
APPENDIX 4. CALCULATION OF WATER VAPOR RESISTANCE FROM WATER
VAPOR TRANSMISSION RATE.
By Fick's Law, the moisture transfer rate per unit area (m, g/cm2sec) is defined by
m = DAC/L
(A.4)
where D is the overall water vapor diffusivity (cm2/sec), AC is the difference of water
vapor concentration (g/cm3), and L is the thickness (cm). Equation A.4 can also be written
in term of moisture resistance as
m = AC/Re
(A.5)
where Re is the overall moisture resistance (=L/D, sec/cm). If we use a unit, g/m2-24hr,
for water vapor transmission rate (WVT), equation A.5 will be
m = WVT = 864 x 106 AC/Re
(A.6)
From ideal gas law, water vapor concentration is defined as

C = Mw P/[R(273+T)
(A.7)
where Mw is the water molecular weight (18 g/mole), P is the water vapor pressure (kPa),
R is the Bolzmann constant (=8316.73 kPa cm3oK"1 mole-1), and T is the temperature
(C). Water vapor pressure (P) can be expressed in term of relative humidity as follows
P = (RH/100)Ps(T)
(A.8)
where RH is the relative humidity (%) and Ps(T) is the saturated water vapor pressure at
temperature T which can be calculated by using the following empirical equation
Ps(T) = exp[16.6536 - 4030.183/(T+235)]
where T is the temperature (C).
From equation A.6 ~ A.9, the following equation is derived:
(A.9)
311
Re = 864x 106(Cs-Ca)/W VT = 1.87xl06[Ps/(273+Ts)-Pa/(273+Ta)]/WVT,
(A. 10)
where Ps and Pa are the water vapor pressure (kPa) on water surface (skin surface) and in
ambient, respectively. Ts and Ta are the temperature (C) on water surface and in ambient.
If we know the temperature and relative humidity, we can calculate the water vapor
resistance from WVT.
Assume that Ts = Ta = 22C, RH on water surface = 100%, and RH in ambient =
65%, then
Re(22) = 5872AWT
(A. 11)
If Ts = 32C, Ta = 22C, RH on skin surface = 100%, and RH in ambient = 65%,

Re(32)= 18723/WVT
(A. 11a)
312
APPENDIX 5.
TEST MOTHODS OF STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
FABRIC WEIGHT (w)

The weight of the fabric was determined using ASTM D-1910, Method applicable
to small samples. 5 pieces of specimen having an area of 25 square inches (5x5 inches)
are prepared. The specimens are weighed in grams. The weight is calculated in gr/m2.
FABRIC THICKNESS TP
The thickness of the fabric was measured using KES-FB-3 Compression tester.
From pressure-thickness curves, two kinds of thickness will be obtained: at 6.0 gf/cm2for
calculation of the thermal conductivity; and at 0.5 gf/cm2 for analyzing the thermal
resistance and moisture resistance.The instrument settings are as follows: rate of
compression = 0.02 mm/sec: maximum force = 10.0 gf/cm2: and area compressed = 2.0
cm2 circle. Unit = mm.
BULK DENSITY CBd^
The bulk density was calculated from the fabric weight and thickness: B = w/L.
Unit = kg/m3.
FIBER VOLUME FRACTION fXfi
The fiber volume fraction is defined as the percent ratio of the actual fiber volume
(Vf) within the fabric to the volume of the fabric (Vb). The actual volume of fibers in the
fabric was measured, using air comparison Pycnometer, Beckman Model 930. The
volume of fabric can be obtained from the production of the fabric thickness and the sample
area (size) Then, the fiber volume fraction was calculated from Xf (%) = 100 Vf/Vb = 100
Vf/(L A). Unit = %.
OPTICAL POROSITY fPol
Optical porosity can be expressed as transmittance (%) of visible light through the
fabric. It was measured at 500 nm wavelength using Perkin Elmer UV-Visible
Spectrophotometer Model 559. Samples are black-colored to remove the unwanted
transmittance through the fibers. Unit = %.
AIR PERMEABILITY (Ant
Air permeability was measured according to ASTM D-737, using a Frazier tester.
The rate of air flow through a known area of fabric is adjusted to secure a prescribed
pressure differential between the two fabric surfaces in the test area and from this rate of
313
flow the air permeability of the fabric is determined. The air Permeability testing machine
includes a suction fan drawing air through a known area of fabric defined by a circular
orifice having a diameter of 70 mm, a vertical manometer for measuring the rate of air flow
through the test area of the fabric, means for adjusting the pressure differential between the
fabric surfaces to 12.7 mm, and a series of nozzles of varying diameters. Unit =
m3/min/m2.
FIBER FINENESS Cdl
Fiber diameter was measured, using a light microscope and an electron microscope.
ANISOTROPY FACTOR frcl
Anisotropy factor was determined using an electron microscope according to edge
count technique. Sample were embedded by epoxy resin and cut by microtome. The
magnification of electron microscope was fixed at 200. The number of filaments viewed on
screen monitor were counted both in the machine direction and across the machine
direction. Anisotropy factor was calculated as the ratio of the number of filaments in the
machine direction to those across the machine direction.
POLAR ORIENTATION PARAMETER fcos^ )
Polar orientation angle of meltblown webs were estimated as the following formula
<t> = tan-KVL)
(A. 12)
where L is the fabric thickness and 1 is the overlap length. Fabric thickness was measured
at 0.5 gf/cm2 pressure load using KES-FB-3 compression tester. Overlapping length was
measured by separating meltblown web along overlapping line as shown in figure A.4.
tan $ = l/L
Figure A.4. Polar Oriented Structure of Meltblown Web.
314
APPENDIX 6.
EXPERIMENT ON HEAT FLOW UP-AND DOWN (Table A.2)

w
Xf
25.30
25.30
25.29
25.30
25.30
25.29
0.28
0.29
0.32
0.37
0.51
1.01
10.30
8.80
5.95
4.45
3.00
' 1.50
0.39
0.49
0.73
0.97
1.44
2.88
8.46
8.77
9.70
11.10
15.63
31.50
0.087
0.077
0.058
0.049
0.047
0.047
25.28
25.30
25.29
25.29
25.29
25.30
0.28
0.29
0.32
0.37
0.51
1.02
10.30
8.80
5.95
4.45
3.00
1.50
0.39
0.49
0.73
0.97
1.44
2.88
8.47
8.77
9.64
11.10
15.61
31.60
0.087
0.077
0.057
0.049
0.047
0.047
Sample
HOT-T
COLD-T
I2D1
I2D2
I2D3
I2D4
I2D5
I2D6
38.54
38.52
38.49
38.45
38.36
38.14
I2U1
I2U2
I2U3
I2U4
I2U5
I2U6
38.55
38.53
38.49
38.44
38.36
38.15
* Sample: 12 (low density cold weather insulator), I2D = heat flow down, I2U = heat flow up.
APPENDIX 7. CALCULATION OF FARNWORTH'S COMBINED CONDUCTION AND RADIATION MODEL (Table A.3).
SAMPLE
L6.0
Xf6.0
Tm
SI
S2
53
CI
C2
C3
11
15
13
R1
Ra
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
0.341
0.239
0.518
0.133
0.190
0.539
3.oao
4.300
4.500
0 . 182
0.259
0.
,445
0.134
0.230
0.398
0.480
0.851
a.,01*0
10.70
18.20
8.80
28.00
48.90
10.60
5.40
1 .01
1 .35
9.50
10.30
19.80
17.40
17.00
8.40
7.10
10.50
1 1.00
16.7
16.8
11.8
1 .7
1 .7
1.7
2.5
85 . 1
11.5
22.2
20.3
20.7
17.8
17.8
25.0
18.7
20.0
20.0
304.69
304.71
304.79
304.47
30466
304.94
304.90
304.91
304.87
304.48
304.75
304.80
304.51
304.77
304.87
304.94
305.07
304.91
13174
30583
14169
312941
546529
118471
41040
765
2830
8131
9640
18174
18685
18146
63B4
10688
9975
10450
Ml
M2
M3
M4
MS
M6
M7
M8
M9
MIO
Mil
Mia
M13
M14
MIS
M16
M17
M18
0.210
0.825
0.243
0.392
0.t*t*5
0.516
0.669
0.772
0.902
0.310
0.307
0.300
0.301
0.318
0.368
0.309
0.406
0.48 1*
8.9
8
7.10
9.00
7.70
7.00
9.00
7.80
6.30
5.70
5.90
6.00
11 .80
11 .40
9,.90
18.00
13,.20
11.
.60
2.5
a.5
a.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
a.3
a.5
a.5
10.3
10,.3
10.3
.3
10.
10.3
.3
10.
10.3
10,.3
10..3
304.70
304.83
304.57
304.68
304.89
305.06
304.71
305.07
305.11
304.89
304,
.83
304.92
304,.85
304,
.93
304,
.93
304,
.83
304.
.91
304,.96
67640
60800
53960
68400
5B520
53200
68400
59880
47880
10515
10883
1 1068
81767
21029
18862
33204
84350
21398
exp(-BL)
F/P
K(P+B)
K(P-B)E FCL+l/P) T1-Tm
12329
20737
14351
313135
546674
118656
41251
945
2432
8284
9815
18357
18817
18326
6552
10814
10157
10609
0.0149
0.0070
0.0006
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0142
0.0000
0.2814
0.0787
0.0003
0.0803
0.0148
0.0737
0.0056
0.0002
0.0000
12.83
ia.83
la.84
12.80
12.83
12.86
12.86
12.86
12.85
12.80
12.84
12.84
18 . B1
ia.84
12.85
ia.86
12.BB
12.86
0.0011
0.0006
0.0009
0.0000
0.0000
0.0001
0.0003
0.0168
0.0058
0.0016
0.0013
0.0007
0.0007
0.0007
0.0020
0.ooia
0.0013
0.ooia
1005
1718
1001
ao7ai
48647
8335
2302
54
142
678
709
1373
1246
1295
489
713
706
846
-0.0952
-0.0450
-0.0038
-0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0818
-0.0001
-1.2360
-0.6043
-0.001B
-0.5119
-0.0944
-0.4675
-0.0355
-0.0011
-0.0000
0.0054
0.0037
0.0076
0.0017
0.0025
0.0070
0.0391
0.0747
0.0636
0.0039
0.0047
0.0064
0.0024
0.0037
0.0071
0.0074
0.0123
0.0375
-5.79
-5.51
-5.94
-5.37
-5.35
-5.
,94
-6.64
-6.61
-6.66
-5.73
-5.74
-5.
,90
-5.50
-5.51
-5.82
-6.04
-5.97
-6.40
67857
61013
54176
68609
58734
53417
68609
59494
48100
10715
110B4
1 1268
21964
21288
1B466
33384
34544
21598
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0361
0.0333
0.0340
0.0013
0.0012
0.0011
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
12.83
12.85
12.81
12.83
12.86
12.88
ia.83
12.88
12.BB
12.86
.85
13.
ia.86
ia.
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12,.86
.86
13.
ia,.85
.86
12.
ia.
.86
0.0002
0.oooa
0.oooa
0.oooa
0.0003
0.oooa
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0012
0,.0012
0,.0013
0.
.0006
0,.0006
0,.0007
0,.0004
0.
,0005
o,.0006
4000
3670
3307
4300
3514
3156
4200
3566
2806
675
697
71 1
1418
1360
1153
2373
1611
1379
-0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0000
-o.0000
-0.2298
-0,.2119
-0,.2168
-0.
.0086
-0,.0075
-0,
.0073
-0,.0002
-0.
.0003
-0,.0002
0.0039
0.0031
0.0033
0.0052
0.0059
0.0069
0.0088
0.0103
0.0119
0.0052
0,.0051
0.0050
0,.0045
0,.0047
0,.0034
0.0044
0.
.0057
0.
.0068
-5.59
-5.58
-5.81
-5.98
-5.89
-5.85
-6.26
-5.97
-6.01
-5.69
-5.74
-5.66
-5.65
-5.67
-5.73
-5.63
-5.75
-5.86
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o Ul ru
ru
Ul GD
ru CO
GO
Ch
ui o o cn o c d cn Ch Ul t-+
c* ru Ul ^0
o
ru ru CD ru CO si *0 ru (0
i i i
i i i i ~ ~ > -
01
^ ^ ^
oo
oo
oo
oo
ru -c*
o
o
o
o
oo
oo
oo
oo
CjJ CO Ul
o Ul si
oo
oo
oo
oo
Ul Ch
CD o
ooooooooo
oo
oo
oo
ru >ru no
oo
oo
oo
oo
to co
**
ru si CO
cn GO CD
0) i-* CO
o oo o
o oo o
o oo o
o oo o
10
s j
CD si
CO Ch
Ul
ooO
Oooo
o o o o
o o
-0 COO 10 o Ch
CO CO
oooo
oooo
oooo
o (0 GO o
Ch Ch
ru m o (h
oo
oo
oo
oo
oo
CD CO
*-*
fr*
o
o
o
o
o
CO
o
o
o
o
Ul
o
o
o
o
o
co
o
o
o
o
cn
CO
APPENDIX 8: CALCULATION OF CONDUCTIVE CONDUCTIVITY FROM

MEASURED STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES (TABLE A.4).
Sample
KI
K11
16.0
Xf6.0
<J
alpa
0c
Po
ii
P(c)
K< air)
K(sol)
K(int)
Kcd
Krd(F)
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
2.879
2.392
1 .576
I..242
1..242
1,.242
1,.242
1,.257
1..257
1 .257
1 .257
1 .257
2.392
2.878
1 .257
1 .448
4.334
4.334*.
0.243
0.217
0.197
0.111
0.111
0.111
0.111
0.157
0.157
0.157
0.157
0.157
0.217
0.243
0.157
0,181
0.104
0.104
0.341
0.239
0.518
0.133
0.190
0.539
3.020
4.500
4.500
0..182
0..259
0..445
0..134
0..230
0..398
0,
.480
0,.851
2..040
10..70
18..20
8..80
28..00
48..90
10..60
5..40
1..01
1..35
9..50
10..30
19..80
17..40
17..00
8.40
7.10
10.50
11 .00
4..3
4.,3
11..8
1..7
1..7
2..3
2..5
25..1
11..5
22.2
20.3
20.7
4.3
4.3
25..0
11 .1
20.0
20.0
2..08
1..20
4..41
1..37
1..02
1..05
1,.84
1,.01
1..31
1..67
1..57
1..35
1,.49
2..21
3..21
2.08
2.35
1 .76
0..062
0.,039
0..119
0..013
0..024
0..169
0..156
0.,973
0..815
0..032
0..054
0..034
0..001
0.,027
0..050
0..050
0..046
0,.053
0.746
0.590
0.789
0.414
0.143
0.748
0.867
0.974
0.966
0.773
0.755
0.559
0.606
0.614
0.798
0.827
0.751
0.740
39..7
27.8
21..9
39.,1
55,.9
117..2
604..0
89..6
195..7
4..1
6..4
10.7
15..6
26,,7
8..0
21 .6
21 .3
51 .0
0.0000
0.0000
0.0048
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0027
0.0002
0.3366
0.1574
0.0019
0.0004
0.0000
0.1569
0.0158
0.0021
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0001
0.0000
0.0000
0.,0000
0.0000
0.,0001
0.,0000
0.0088
0,.0041
0..0000
0..0000
0,
.0000
0..0041
0.0004
0.0001
0.0000
0.0129
0.0093
0.0134
0.0026
0.0074
0.0113
0.0068
0.0062
0.0078
0.0024
0.0043
0.0048
0.0003
0.0089
0.0041
0.0035
0.0146
0.0161
0.0285
0.0307
0.0276
0.0330
0.0412
0.0279
0.0269
0.0259
0.0260
0.0195
0.0242
0.0309
0.0307
0.0305
0.0237
0.0272
0.0280
0.0282
0.0414
0.0401
0.0411
0.0356
0.0486
0.0392
0.0336
0.0322
0.0338
0.0306
0.0326
0.0357
0.0310
0.0394
0.0319
0.0310
0.0427
0.0443
0.0005
0.0003
0.0005
0.0000
0.0000
0.0001
0.0005
0.0168
0.0058
0..0006
0..0006
0..0004
0..0003
0..0004
0..0010
0.0007
0.0007
0.0008
0.0419
0.0404
0.0417
0.0356
0.0486
0.0393
0.0341
0.0490
0.0396
0.0312
0.0332
0.0362
0.0313
0.0398
0.0328
0.0317
0.0434
0.0451
HI
M2
H3
M4
H5
H6
M7
M8
H9
M10
Mil
H12
M13
HI4
H15
H16
H17
HI8
1 242
1 242
1.242
1.242
1 242
1 242
1 242
1 242
1.242
1.242
1 242
1 242
1 242
1 242
1 242
1 242
1 242
1 242
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.210
0.225
0.242
0.392
0.445
0.516
0.669
0.772
0.902
0.310
0.307
0.300
0.301
0.318
0.368
0.309
0.406
0.484
8.90
8.00
7.10
9.00
7.70
7.00
9.00
7.80
6.30
5.70
5.90
6.00
11.80
11.40
9.90
18.00
13.20
11.60
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
1 91
1 71
1.57
2.33
1 65
1 50
2 11
1 67
1 45
1 54
I 00
1 04
I 07
1 05
1 04
1 47
1 48
1 53
0 048
0 056
0 061
0 067
0 066
0 064
0 067
0 071
0 090
0 058
0 064
0 060
0 057
0 055
0 058
0 040
0 059
0 055
0.786
0.807
0.827
0.784
0.814
0.830
0.784
0.811
0.846
0.860
0.855
0.853
0.722
0.731
0.764
0.594
0.692
0.726
42.0
45.0
48.4
78.4
89.0
103.2
133.8
154.4
180.4
15.0
14.9
14.6
14.6
15.4
17.9
15.0
19.7
23.5
0.0000
0.0001
0.0001
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0976
0.0913
0.0930
0.0081
0.0075
0.0077
0.0004
0.0007
0.0005
0 0000
0 0000
0 0000
0 0000
0 0000
0 0000
0 0000
0 0000
0 0000
0 0025
0 0024
0 0024
0 0002
0 0002
0 0002
0 0000
0 0000
0 0000
0.0035
0.0035
0.0033
0.0052
0.0039
0.0033
0.0051
0.0043
0.0042
0.0025
0.0024
0.0023
0.0043
0.0040
0.0037
0.0053
0.0058
0.0048
0 0278
0 0276
0 0274
0 0277
0 0275
0 0273
0 0277
0 0275
0 0272
0 0246
0 0248
0 0248
0 0282
0 0281
0 0278
0 0299
0 0287
0 0283
0.0313
0.0311
0.0306
0.0330
0.0314
0.0307
0.0328
0.0318
0.0313
0.0296
0.0295
0.0294
0.0327
0.0323
0.0316
0.0352
0.0345
0.0331
0 0001
0 0001
0 0001
0 0001
0 0002
0 0002
0 0002
0 0002
0 0002
0 0006
0 0006
0.0006
0 0003
0 0004
0 0004
0 0002
0 0003
0 0004
0.0314
0.0312
0.0308
0.0331
0.0315
0.0309
0.0330
0.0320
0.0315
0.0302
0.0301
0.0300
0.0331
0.0327
0.0321
0.0355
0.0348
0.0335
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
111
Kcd - KaPisin20KIIcos20Xf-/(l+-)+cos20(ItXf)"2/{(!+)[Xf/KI +(1-Xf)(l+-)/Ka)}+sin20(I-Pi)Pi (Po)Ai=(l-2.546Xf+1.621XfA2)A(L/2d)

Kll - fiber thermal conductivity along the fiber axis, K1 - fiber thermal conductivity transverse to fiber axis (w/m C),
L6.0 and Xf6.0 - fabric thickness (mm) and fiber volume fraction {%) at 6.0 gf/sqcm pressure, d fiber diameter (micron = 10E-6 m),
0c - cos20 - polar orientation parameter, I'l optical porosity of unit structure, 1 - no. of layers of unit structure = L/(2d),
P(c) - calculated optical porosity, Ka - thermal conductivity of air 0.026 w/m[C, K(air) = thermal conductivity due to air,
K(sol) - effective conductivity due to solid fiber, K(int) - effective thermal conductivity due to interaction of air and fiber,
Krd(F) - Farnworth's radiative conductivity, K = overall thermal conductivity.
APPENDIX 9. CALCULATION OF WATER VAPOR DIFFUSIVITY.(TABLE A.5).

SAMPLE
WVT22
WVT32
L0.5
P(exp)
Re(22)
Re(32) Rcl(22)
Rcl(32) D1(22)
D2(22) Dexp(22) D1(32) 02(32) Dexp(32)
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
925
875
914
646
11
913
733
713
702
941
936
911
921
897
925
917
687
828
3664
3432
3629
2597
30
3587
2897
2832
2746
3726
3705
3603
3659
3531
3649
3627
2771
3271
0.423
0.284
.643
0,
0.
.179
0
0.,654
4..520
5..400
5..600
.208
0.
0.295
0.
.608
0.,178
0.
.268
0.
.485
0.656
0.992
2.210
0,
.004
0.002
.003
0,
0..000
0..000
0.
.003
0..000
0,
.079
0..000
0..529
0..231
0,
.009
0,
.012
0,
.002
0,
.177
0.114
0.000
0.001
6,
.35
6.71
6,
.43
9..09
532.75
6.
.43
8,
.01
8..23
8.36
6..24
6.
.28
6,
.45
.38
6,
.55
6,
6..35
6.40
8.54
7.09
5,.11
5.46
5..16
7,.21
624,
.10
5..22
6..46
6,
.61
6,
.82
5..02
5..05
5..20
5,
.12
5..30
5..13
5,
.16
6,
.76
5,
.72
0..19
0,
.56
0,
.27
2..93
526..60
0.
.28
.85
1,
2..07
2..20
0.,08
0.,12
0..29
0..22
0..39
0..19
0.
.25
.39
2,
0..94
0,
.15
0,
.50
0..20
.25
2,
619.
.14
0..26
.50
1,
1,.65
1.86
0..06
0..09
0..24
0..16
0..34
0..17
0,
.20
1..80
0,
.76
0,
.001
0,
.001
0,
.001
0.
.000
0.
.000
0..001
0,
.000
0..021
0.
.000
0..143
0..062
0,
.002
0,
.003
0..001
0.
.048
0,
.031
0.
.000
0,
.000
0.,221
0..051
0..239
0..006
0..000
0.,237
0..245
0..239
0..254
0..108
0..184
0..207
0.
.078
0.
.068
0..205
0..234
0..042
0..235
0..222
0..051
0.
.240
0..006
0.
.000
0..237
0.
.245
0.
.260
0..254
0..251
0.,247
0.
.210
0..081
0..069
0.
.253
0,
.265
0,
.042
0.
.236
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.027
0.000
0.178
0.078
0.003
0.004
0.001
0.059
0.038
0.000
0.000
0.280
0.057
0.321
0.008
0.000
0.251
0.301
0.300
0.301
0.143
0.239
0.253
0.110
0.078
0.224
0.286
0.055
0.289
0.281
0.057
0.322
0.008
0.000
0.253
0.301
0.327
0.301
0.321
0.316
0.256
0.114
0.078
0.284
0.325
0.055
0.289
Ml
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
MS
M9
M10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
937
936
933
924
920
914
906
897
886
932
931
931
930
929
926
927
922
918
3712
3708
3697
3657
3642
3617
3590
3552
3514
3691
3688
3690
3683
3678
3665
3675
3649
3632
0.263
0.280
0.332
0.473
0.550
0..670
0.766
0.930
1..156
.370
0.
.384
0,
.378
0.
0.,349
0.,379
0.436
0.,357
0.481
0.571
0,
.001
0,
.002
0,
.004
0..001
0..001
0..001
0..000
0..000
0..000
0.,111
0.
.115
0.,101
0.,012
0.010
0.012
0.,002
0.003
0.001
6..27
6.27
6,
.29
6..35
6..38
6.
.42
6,
.48
.55
6,
6..63
6.,30
6..31
6..31
6.,31
6.,32
6.
.34
6.,33
6.
.37
6.
.40
5,.04
5,
.05
5,
.06
5,
.12
5..14
5..18
5,
.22
5..27
5..33
5..07
5..08
5..07
5.,08
5.,09
5. 11
5.,10
5.,13
5. 16
0..11
0..12
0..14
0..20
0.,23
0..27
0..32
0..39
0.
.47
0.14
0.
.15
0.,15
0. 16
0. 16
0.18
0.18
0.21
0.24
0..08
0.09
0..10
0,
.16
0..18
0..22
0,
.26
0..31
0..37
0..11
0..12
0..11
0.,12
0..13
0.15
0.,14
0..17
0.20
0,
.000
0.001
0,
.001
.000
0,
0,
.000
0..000
0,
.000
0,
.000
0..000
0.,030
0,
.031
0..027
0.,003
0.,003
0.,003
0.,001
0.,001
0.,000
0..241
0..241
0..243
0,
.239
0..244
0,
.250
0..236
0..239
0..247
0..229
0..226
0..226
0.,220
0.,229
0.234
0.,201
0.,227
0.,238
0..241
0,
.242
0.
.244
0.
.239
0.
.244
0..251
0..236
0.
.239
0.
.247
0..259
0..257
0..253
0.,223
0.,232
0.237
0.,202
0.,227
0.,239
0.000
0.311
0.001
0.311
0.001
0.316
0.000
0.295
0.000
0.303
0.000
0.310
0.000
0.299
0.000
0.298
0.000
0.314
0.037
0.289
0.039
0.291
0.034
0.297
0.004
0.277
0.003
0.287
0.004
0.290
0.001
0.264
0.001 0.280
0.000
0.291
0.311
0.312
0.317
0.295
0.304
0.310
0.299
0.298
0.314
0.327
0.330
0.331
0.281
0.290
0.294
0.264
0.281
0.292
HVT - Water Vapor Transmission Rate, g/sqm 24hr (Subscripts 22 & 32 = Water Temp.), P(exp) = Measured optical Porosity,
L0.5 => Fabric Thickness (mm) at 0.5g/sqcm pressure. Re=0verall Water vapor Resistance =Re(air)+Re(cloth)+Re(boundary air),
Re(air)+Re(boundary air) 6.157 at 22[C, 4.960 at 32[C, Reel = Intrinsic Water Vapor Resistance of a Fabric, cm2sec/g.
D1 - Water Vapor Diffusivity due to Optical Porosity, D2 = Water Vapor Diffusivity due to Curved Air Tunnels,
Dexp - Measured Overall Water Vapor Diffusivity of a Fabric, m/sec.
APPENDIX 10. CALCULATION OF WATER VAPOR DIFFUSIVITY FROM

MEASURED STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES (TABLE A.6).
SAMPLE
L0.5"
Xf0.5
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
0.423
0.284
0.643
0.179
0.295
0.654
4.520
5.400
5.600
0.208
0.295
0.608
0.178
0.268
0.485
0.656
0.992
2.210
8..7
15..3
7..1
20.8
31.,2
8..7
3..0
0..8
1..1
8..3
9.,0
14.,5
13.,1
14..6
6.,9
5..2
9..0
8..9
4.3
4.3
11.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
2.5
25.1
14.0
22.2
20.3
20.7
4.3
4.3
25.0
12.7
9.2
9.2
49.2
33.0
27.2
52..6
86..8
192.4
904..0
107,.6
200.0
4..7
7..3
14..7
20..7
31,.2
9..7
25.8
53.9
120.1
HI
H2
M3
H4
H5
M6
H7
H8
H9
H10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
0.263
7..1
0.280
6..4
5..1
0.332
0.473
7,.4
0.550
6..3
0.670
5..3
0.766 ' 7,.9
0.930
6..4
1.156
4..9
0.370
4,.8
0.384
4..8
0.378
4..8
0.349
10.2
0.379
9..6
0.436
8..4
0.357
15..6
0.481
11..1
0.571
9..8
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
52.6
56.0
66.4
94.6
110..0
134..0
153.
186..0
231 .2
18,.0
18,.6
18,.3
16..9
18..4
21.,2
17..3
23..3
27.,7
.2
5.44
16.80
0,.57
88..24
-
0,.57
0,.57
0..57
0..57
0..73
0..73
0..73
16..80
16..80
.57
0.57
.89
.89
0.
0.
0.
0..57
0.57
0.57
.57
.57
.57
.57
.57
.57
.57
0..57
.57
,57
,57
.57
57
0..57
0.,57
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
PI
Pi
Pt
0,.791
0,.648
0,
.827
0..541
0..363
0..791
0..925
0..980
0..972
0..800
0..784
0..665
0..694
0..663
0..832
0..872
0..784
0,.786
.000
0,.000
0..006
.000
.000
0,.000
.000
0..111
0..004
.350
.171
.002
0..001
.000
.168
0,.029
0,.000
.000
0.620
0.237
.887
0,
.041
.688
.870
0..954
.877
0,
.979
0..518
0.685
0.771
.271
.247
.729
0.892
.842
0.844
0,.827
0,.844
0,.874
0,.820
0..846
0.,870
0,.809
0..844
0..879
0,
.882
0.,882
0..882
0..757
0..771
0. 798
0. 642
0. 737
0. 766
0,.000
0..000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.104
.095
.099
.009
008
008
000
001
001
.893
0.903
0..922
.889
.905
.919
.881
.903
.925
.823
.832
.828
0..840
,849
866
775
.835
,854
0.
0.
0.
0,
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0..000
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0.
0.
0.
0
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
Dl(22) 02(22) Dclc(22) Dapp(22) D1(32) 02(32) Dclc(32) Dapp(32)
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.030
0.001
0.095
0.046
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.045
0.008
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.028
0.026
0.027
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
0..167
0..064
0.,240
0.,011
0. 000
0.,235
0.,257
0.,237
0.,264
0..140
0..185
0..208
0..073
0..067
0..197
0..241
0..227
0. 228
0.,241
0.,244
0.,249
0. 240
0.,244
0. 248
0..238
0..244
0.,250
0. 222
0. 225
0. 224
0. 227
0. 229
0. 234
0. 209
0. 226
0. 230
0,,167
.064
0.,241
011
,000
.235
,257
.267
.265
,235
.231
.209
.073
.067
.242
.249
.227
.228
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0. 241
0..244
0..249
0..240
0. 244
0. 248
0. 238
0. 244
0. 250
0. 250
0. 250
0. 250
0. 229
0. 231
0. 236
0. 209
0. 226
0. 231
0,
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
.167
0..064
,241
,011
,186
0..235
.257
.267
.265
.233
.231
.209
.073
.067
.242
0.249
0.227
0..228
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.037
0.001
0.118
0.057
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.056
0.010
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0. 241
0..244
0..249
0..240
0..244
0. 248
0.,238
0.,244
0.,250
0. 250 0.035
0. 250 0.032
0.,250 0.033
0. 229 0.003
0. 231 0.003
0. 236 0.003
0. 209 0.000
0. 226 0.000
0. 231 0.000
0.208
0..080
0,.300
0..014
0.000 0..000
0.292
0.292
0.320
0.320
0.295
0..332
0.329
0..330
0.208
0.080
0.298
0.014
0.174
0.230
0.259
0.091
0.083
0.245
0.300
0.283
0.284
0.292
0.287
0.260
0.091
0.083
.301
0.309
0.283
0..284
0.300
0.303
0.310
0.299
0.304
0.309
0.296
0.303
0.311
0.277
0.279
0.278
0.282
0.285
0.291
0.260
0.281
0.287
.300
0..303
.310
.299
,304
.309
.296
0..303
0.,311
,311
,311
,311
.285
288
294
260
281
287
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
L0.5 and Xf0.5 Fabric Thickness (mm) and Fiber Volume Fraction (%) at 0.5 gf/sqcm pressure,
d - Fiber Diameter (micron), P(exp) - Measured Optical Porosity, i - No. of Layer of Unit Structure = l/(2d),
s - Shape Coefficient, PI - Optical Porosity of Unit Structure (calculated), P(calc) - Calculated Optical Porosity,
P2 - Space of Curved Air Channels, D1 Water Vapor Diffusivity due to Optical Porosity, 22 & 32 = Water temperature, [C,
02 - Water Vapor Diffusivity due to Curved Air Channels, Dele - Calculated Overall Water Vapor Diffusivity.
Dapp - Approximated Equation, Da Water Vapor Diffusivity of Air, 0.270 at 22[C and 0.336 m/sec at 32[C.
0.208
0.080
0.300
0.014
0.231
0.292
0.320
0.332
0.330
0.290
0.287
0.260
0.091
0.083
0.301
0.309
0.283
0.284
0.300
0.303
0.310
0.299
0.304
0.309
0.296
0.303
0.311
0.311
0.311
0.311
0.285
0.288
0.294
0.260
0.281
0.287
vO
APPENDIX 11. EFFECT OF ORIENTATION PARAMETER ON THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (TABLE A.7).

0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.06
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.7
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
0..0287
0..0310
0..0282
0..0331
0..0416
0..0283
0..0271
0.0262
0..0263
0..0283
0..0285
0..0311
0.,0307
0..0307
0..0280
0..0277
0..0282
0..0283
0.0308
0.0333
0.0292
0.0350
0.0445
0.0289
0.0275
0.0263
0.0264
0.0291
0.0293
0.0325
0.0331
0.0340
0.0288
0.0284
0.0314
0.0313
0.,0328
0.,0356
0.,0303
0. 0369
0. 0474
0.,0296
0. 0280
0. 0263
0. 0265
0. 0298
0. 0300
0. 0339
0. 0356
0. 0373
0. 0295
0.,0290
0. 0345
0. 0344
0 .0349
0 .037S
0 .0314
0,.0389
0,.0503
0,.0302
0,.0284
0.0264
0..0266
0..0305
0,.0308
0,.0352
0,.0380
0,.0406
0,.0303
0 .0297
0,.0377
0..0374
0 .0390
0,.0426
0 .0336
0,.0427
0..0561
0,.0315
0..0292
0,.0265
0..0268
0..0319
0,.0323
0..0380
0..0429
0..0472
0..0319
0,.0310
0..0440
0..0434
0..0410
0..0449
0..0347
0..0447
0.,0590
0..0322
0.,0296
0..0266
0.,0269
0.,0327
0.,0330
0.,0393
0.,0453
0.,0505
0.,0326
0..0317
0.,0472
0.,0464
0,.0492
0,.0541
0,.0391
0..0524
0..0707
0,.0348
0,.0313
0,.0268
0,.0272
0..0355
0,.0361
0..0448
0..0551
0,.0637
0..0357
0,.0344
0..0598
0..0584
0 .0594
0 .0657
0 .0446
0 .0620
0 .0852
0 .0380
0 .0334
0 .0271
0 .0277
0,.0391
0 .0399
0 .0516
0 .0672
0,.0802
0,.0396
0 .0377
0,.0756
0..0734
0 .0696
0,.0773
0 .0500
0 .0716
0,.0997
0 .0412
0,.0355
0 .0274
0 .0281
0,.0427
0 .0437
0,.0585
0 .0794
0 .0968
0,.0434
0 .0411
0,.0914
0,.0885
0 .0900
0,.1005
0 .0610
0 .0909
0 .1288
0 .0477
0 .0397
0 .0281
0 .0291
0 .0499
0 . 0513
0 . 0721
0 . 1038
0 . 1298
0 . 0512
0.0478
0. 1229
0 . 1185
0 .1308
0 .1469
0 .0829
0 .1294
0 .1870
0 .0606
0 .0480
0.0293
0 .0309
0 .0642
0. 0664
0 . 0995
0 . 1525
0. 1960
0 . 0666
0. 0612
0. 1861
0., 1787
0.1716
0.1932
0.1047
0.1679
0.2452
0.0736
0.0564
0.0305
0.0328
0.0786
0.0816
0.1268
0.2012
0.2621
0.0821
0.0746
0.2492
0.2388
0.2329
0.2628
0.1376
0.2257
0.3325
0.0930
0.0690
0.0323
0.0356
0.1000
0.1044
0.1678
0.2742
0.3613
0.1053
0.0947
0.3439
0.3290
Ml
M2
M3
H4
H5
M6
M7
M8
M9
H10
Mil
M12
M13
M14
M15
M16
M17
M18
0.,0279
0..0277
0.,0275
0.,0279
0.,0276
0. 0275
0. 0279
0. 0277
0. 0273
0. 0272
0. 0272
0. 0273
0. 0286
0. 0285
0..0281
0.,0302
0. 0289
0..0285
0.0286
0.0283
0.0280
0.0287
0.0282
0.0280
0.0287
0.0282
0.0278
0.0276
0.0276
0.0276
0.0293
0.0292
0.0287
0.0314
0.0299
0.0294
0. 0293
0. 0289
0. 0285
0 . 0294
0. 0288
0 . 0285
0 . 0294
0 . 0288
0 . 0282
0 . 0280
0 . 0279
0.0280
0 . 0300
0 . 0299
0 . 0293
0 . 0327
0 . 0308
0 . 0302
0,.0300
0,.0295
0,.0290
0..0302
0..0293
0.,0290
0. 0301
0.,0294
0.,0287
0.,0284
0. 0283
0. 0284
0.,0308
0.,0306
0.,0299
0.,0340
0.,0317
0..0310
0..0314
0..0307
0..0301
0.,0317
0.,0305
0.,0300
0. 0316
0.,0306
0. 0295
0.,0293
0.,0290
0. 0291
0. 0322
0.,0320
0..0311
0.,0365
0.,0336
0.,0327
0.,0321
0.,0313
0.,0306
0. 0324
0. 0311
0. 0305
0 . 0323
0. 0311
0 . 0300
0 . 0297
0. 0294
0 . 0295
0. 0329
0. 0327
0. 0317
0. 0378
0. 0346
0. 0336
0..0349
0..0337
0..0327
0.,0354
0..0334
0.,0325
0. 0352
0. 0335
0. 0318
0.,0313
0.,0308
0. 0309
0.,0359
0. 0355
0. 0342
0. 0429
0. 0383
0. 0369
0..0384
0.0367
0..0353
0.,0392
0..0362
0.,0350
0. 0389
0.,0364
0. 0340
0.0334
0. 0325
0. 0327
0..0395
0..0389
0..0372
0..0493
0..0430
0..0411
0..0419
0,.0398
0..0378
0..0430
0..0391
0.,0375
0.,0425
0.,0393
0.,0362
0.,0354
0. 0343
0..0346
0..0431
0..0424
0..0402
0..0557
0.,0477
0..0453
0.,0488
0.,0458
0.,0430
0.,0505
0.,0448
0.,0425
0..0498
0.,0451
0.,0407
0.0396
0.,0378
0.,0382
0..0504
0..0494
0..0462
0..0684
0..0571
0..0536
0. 0628
0.0578
0.,0534
0. 0655
0. 0563
0. 0525
0..0644
0. 0568
0. 0496
0.,0478
0. 0449
0. 0455
0. 0650
0. 0633
0.,0583
0..0940
0.,0759
0.0704
0.0768
0.0699
0.0637
0.0805
0.0678
0.0626
0.0790
0.0684
0.0585
0.0561
0.0519
0.0529
0.0795
0.0773
0.0703
0.1195
0.0946
0.0871
0.0977
0.0880
0.0793
0.1031
0.0850
0.0776
0.1008
0.0859
0.0719
0.0684
0.0625
0.0638
0.1013
0.0982
0.0884
0.1578
0.1228
0.1122
sample\0
APPENDIX 12.
EFFECT OF AIR VELOCITY AND AIR SPACE ON THERMAL AND

EVAPORATIVE HEAT TRANSFER (TABLE A.8)
hc<w/*qmCC)
8apl
Air-v
h(w/sqmkPa)
Rh(clo)
Re(clo)
im
0.0
1.3
4 .5
0.0
1.3
A.3
0.0
1.3
<*.5
0.0
1.5
<*.5
0.0
1.3
4.5
as
35
43
33
63
16.1
ie.i
19.6
20.3
81.9
11 . 2
11 . 9
12 . 3
IS . 3
12 . 3
7.7
e.o
8.1
6.2
S.3
171 . 9
190.1
201 . 7
210 . 6
213 . 1
1 19.. 3
133.. 3
143..4
130,. 7
136.. 0
8 2. 1
8 7. 1
92 . 1
9 3. 3
99 . 0
0 .401
0.337
0 .329
0 .314
0 .294
0 ..376
0..341
0 ..323
0,.313
0 ..313
0 .837
0. 8 0 8
0 .797
0. 7 8 7
0 .779
0 ..619
0 ..560
0 .,528
0 ..505
0 ..495
0 ..892
0..797
0 ..742
0 ..707
0 ..683
1 .297
1 .222
1 .156
1 . 117
1 .075
0 ..647
0..637
0 ..623
0..621
0 ..594
0 . 645
0 . 679
0 . 707
0 . 729
0 . 754
0 .645
0.661
0 .690
0. 7 0 5
0 .725
23
33
43
35
65
16 . 0
18 . 3
19 . 9
21 . 4
22 . 6
11 . 3
12 . 2
12 . 3
12 . 8
12 . 9
7. 7
8.1
8. 1
8.4
8. 4
162.. 9
173..0
181.. 2
187..4
190.. 2
1 1 0 .. 3
119. 3
126. 7
132. 7
136..6
73. 0
7 7 .3
82. 1
83.0
88. 4
0 . <0*
0 . 332
0 . 324
0 . 301
0 . 283
0 .370
0.330
0. 3 1 3
0.303
0.300
0 . 837
0 . 797
0 . 792
0 . 772
0 . 764
0..653
0 ..615
0..587
0 ..568
0 ..560
0.963
0.892
0 B40
0.802
0 .780
1 .<*58
1 ., 3 7 3
1 .297
1..253
1 .205
0.618
0 .572
0.551
0 .530
0.509
0 . 591
0 . 394
0 . 613
0 . 630
0 . 642
0.57*
0.581
0.611
0.616
0 .634
25
33
43
33
63
14 . 1
13. 3
16 . 7
17. 8
18 . 3
10 . 0
10 . 7
11 . 0
11 . 3
11 . 3
7 .5
7 .9
8 .0
8.2
8.2
167., 3
186.. 2
198., 3
207..*
213.. 3
111. 6
120. 4
126. 7
132. 0
137. 9
80. 4
83.3
89.9
93.0
9 6 .6
0 . 439
0 . 416
0 . 386
0 . 363
0 . 349
0 .644
0.603
0.388
0 .373
0 .362
0 . 857
0 . 821
0 . 803
0 . 788
0 . 783
0 ..636
0,.572
0 ..536
0..513
0 .,499
0 .95*
0 .884
0 .840
0 .807
0 .772
1 ,.324
1 .248
1.. 185
1 . 145
1 .. 102
0.722
0.728
0 .720
0.707
0 .700
0 . 675
0 . 682
0 . 700
0 . 710
0 . 728
0.647
0 .658
0. 6 7 8
0.688
0.711
23
33
43
33
63
16., 3
18. 6
19..7
20. 4
2 0 .,7
11 . 4
11 . 9
12. 1
12 . 4
12 . 3
8 ., 3
8.7
8.8
8.9
9. 0
39. 3
6 0 .8
6 3 ..0
6 8 .7
7 1 .,3
3 9 ..5
41 . 9
45. 1
47. 4
49.8
31 . 6
33. 1
3 5. 5
37 . 9
39 . 9
0 .390
0.347
0.328
0.316
0.311
0.567
0.343
0. 3 3 3
0. 3 2 0
0.326
0 . 755
0 . 7I9
0 . 731
0 . 723
0 . 719
1 .795
1 ..751
1 .639
1..550
1 . 48B
2..698
2 ..541
2..361
2 ..248
2.. 140
3.372
3..220
2 .998
2..812
2.. 6 6 8
0 ..217
0 ..198
0 ..200
0 ..204
0 ..209
0 ..210
0 ..214
0 ..226
0 ..231
0 ..246
0..224
0 ..229
O,.244
0 ..257
0,.270
23
33
43
35
63
16. 0
17.5
1 8 .6
1 9 .3
1 9 .9
10 . 8
11 . 4
11 . 8
12 . 0
12 . 0
8.1
8.3
8 .3
8.6
B. 7
9.3
10.7
11.9
14. 1
13.7
4 .3
4. 6
5.7
7 ..2
8.6
2.8
3. 9
5.. 2
3. 7
6 .3
0.402
0.369
0.347
0.335
0.325
0.596
0. 5 6 3
0.548
0.539
0 .536
0 . 79B
0 . 781
0 . 760
0 . 746
0 . 738
1 1 .*75
.
9 .906
8 ..910
7..564
6 ..762
24..600
22,.899
18..722
14..834
12.,330
38.. 152
27 .537
20..563
18..781
,16.. 825
0 .,035
0 ..037
0 .,039
0 ..044
0 . 043
0 .,02*
0 ..025
0 . 029
0 ..036
0 . 043
0 ..021
0,.028
0 ..037
0 ..040
0 ..044
25
33
43
33
63
1 4 .3
1 3 .6
1 6 .8
17.6
18.2
9. 8
10 . 4
10 . 8
10 . 9
11 . 0
7.3
7 .8
7 .9
7 .8
7.9
139. 9
181. 1
197. 1
208. 0
216. 9
1 12. 0
1 2 0 .8
129. 4
136. 3
142. 1
76 . 2
82 . 0
86 . 3
90,. 0
93.. 3
0 .<.50
0.413
0. 3 8 3
0.366
0 .354
0. 6 5 5
0 .620
0.600
0 .590
0 .5B4
0 . 887
0 . 827
0 . 820
0 . 828
0 . 817
0 .666
.
0 .,508
0 ..540
0 .,512
0 ..*91
0 ..950
0 ..882
0 ..823
0 . 781
0 ..7*9
1 ..397
1 ..299
1 ..233
1 .. 183
1 .. 139
0 .,676
0 . 703
0 .,709
0 . 715
0 . 721
0 . 6B9
0 . 703
0 . 729
0 . 755
0 . 779
0 ..635
0 . 637
0 ,.665
0 .,700
0 ..718
23
33
43
53
65
3.3
3.6
3.6
3.7
3.7
4.6
4.7
4.7
4.8
4.9
4 .5
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.6
59.7
62. 2
64. 4
63. 4
6 6 .3
52 . 6
54 . 2
55 . 1
5 5. 7
36 . 0
*9 . 3
51 . 4
32 . 8
3 3. 5
3 3. 8
1 .166
1 .148
1 . 148
1 . 124
1 .123
1 .389
1 .367
1 .360
1 .334
1 .324
1 .421
1 .*20
1 .438
1 .423
1 .406
1 .704
1 .710
1 .65*
2 .627
1 .601
2..025
1 .962
1 ..932
1 ,.912
1 ..902
2 . 160
2 . 071
2 . 015
1 . 991
1 . 979
0 .. 654
0..671
0 ..694
0,.691
0 ..702
0.686
0.697
0 .704
0.698
0.696
0. 6 5 8
0.686
0 .714
0. 7 1 5
0.711
23
33
43
33
63
3.7
6.0
6.4
7.1
7.8
3.5
6.2
6.8
7.7
8.1
3. 6
6. 3
7. 6
8. 6
9.7
54. 4
6 3 .5
73.7
81. 1
89. 1
* 5. 9
31 . 1
7 3. 6
56 . 2
71 . 6
91 .B
8* . 6 112 . 3
102 . 7 131 . 5
1 . 135
1 .081
1 .013
0.913
0.828
1 . 182
1 .042
0.932
0 .834
0 .794
1 .1*8
0.997
0. 8 5 3
0 .7*8
0. 6 6 7
1 . 950
1 .675
1 .**5
1 ..312
1 . 195
2..321
1 ..893
1..*86
1 ..259
1 ..037
2 . 083
1 .**7
1 . 160
0 . 9*8
0 . 809
0,.580
0 ..645
0 ..701
0 ..696
0 ..693
0.509
0 .551
0 .640
0 .662
0.766
0 .551
O .689
0. 7 3 6
0 .789
0 .824
25
35
43
55
63
4.3
4.3
4.4
4.4
4.3
*. 0
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.9
3.9
**.7
1 .507
1 .496
1 .467
1 .439
1 .435
1 .396
1 .393
1 .333
1 .325
1 .498
1 .726
1 .683
1 .665
1 .644
1 .643
2 ..379
2..204
2 ..061
1 . 9 7 5
1 .923
.
2 ..567
2 ..347
2 ..216
2 ..093
2 ..001
2 ..809
2,.591
2 ..376
2 .. 164
1 ..949
0 ..633
0..679
0 ..712
0 ..739
0 ..746
0.622
0.680
0.701
0.729
0.749
0 ..614
0,.650
0 ..701
0 ..760
0 ..843
4 .0
4 .2
*.2
4.3
*8. 3
31.7
33. 9
35. 4
41 .. 5
45.. 4
48.. 0
50.. 9
53., 2
37 . 9
41 . 1
44 . 8
49 . 2
34 . 6
he(w/sqmkPa >
he: (w/sqmCC)
iampla
Aiiv
Re (c J o)
Rh < c1o)
0.0
1 .5
4.5
0.0
1 .5
4.5
0 . 72B
0 .664
0.399
0 .554
0 .324
0 .930
0.811
0 .697
0 .601
0 .309
0 .680
0.678
0.700
0.706
0 .700
0.715
0 .671
0 .664
0.672
0.676
0.658
0. 6 2 3
0.653
0 .694
0 .741
1 . 149
0. 6 6 5
0.640
0 .630
0.621
0.611
0.666
0. 6 7 0
0.663
0.668
0 .657
0. 0
1.5
4.3
0.0
1.3
*..5
0.0
1 .3
12.4
14.5
16.2
17.3
18.2
10 . 3
12 . 8
14 . 2
IS . 5
17 1
19B . 4
227 . 8
249 . 9
267 . 6
279 . 1
146 . 1
160 . 3
177 . 6
192 . 3
203 . 2
114 . 4
131 . 3
152 B
177 . 2
209 . 2
0.363
0.317
0.29B
0.281
0.267
0.321
0.446
0. 3 9 8
0.372
0 .334
0.615
0. 5 0 5
0. 4 5 5
0.417
O .377
0.537
0.467
0.426
0 .398
0 .381
0.576
0.439
0.428
0.402
0.763
0.686
0.641
0.579
0. 5 2 6
0
0.496
0.459
0 .431
0.430
0 .866
0 .786
0.728
0.689
0.658
0.966
0 .867
0 .800
0.657
0.677
0 .679
0.682
0.647
0 .888
0 .830
0 .779
0 .742
0 .712
1 .334
1 .276
.216
.179
1 . 140
1
1
0 .681
0.653
0.662
0.639
0 .641
0.659
0.648
0.656
0.666
0 .680
0 .619
0. 6 3 0
0.643
0.637
0 .646
1 .265
1 .204
1 . 157
. 123
1 . 106
0 .698
0 .672
0.663
o .630
0.608
0 .647
0.686
0. 7 1 3
0.713
0.715
0.637
0 .644
0. 6 5 8
0 .669
0. 6 7 6
. 115 1..402
1 .320
0..446
1 .248
0 .429
1 .201
0 ..420
1 .. 155
0,.646
0,.867
1 . 129
0,.737
0 .708
0..711
0 .693
.680
o.. 5 9 6
0.593
0 .615
0.653
0,.621
o.
0 .600
0.635
0 .652
0..678
0,
0 .672 0 .674 0 .661
0 .,557
0 ..505
0 ..464
0.
0 ,.783
0 ..708
0 ..638
0 ..571
0 ..71 1
0..725
0 ..746
0 ..772
0 ..665
0,.668
0 ..690
0,.742
0 .. 6 7 5
0,.677
0 ..720
0,.722
0.
0 ..491
0.
0.
0 . 386
0.
0 ..819
0 . 725
0.
0 . 600
R1
SS
35
43
55
6S
17 . 7
s o. 4
SI . 6
S3. 0
24 . 2
RS
SS
35
45
55
65
17 1
19 . 2
SO
.9
2 3. 2
1 1 .2
12.8
14.1
IS. 1
16.0
8. 4
9.4
10
11
12 . 3
.1
.1
18S . 6
214 . 6
.8
246 . 8
247 . 8
231
153 . 0
95 . 6
135. 5 103 . 9
146 . 2 110 . 2
154 . 4 122 . 8
161 . 8
133 .0
0.377
0.336
0.312
0.294
0.278
16 . 0
11 . 0
12.0
12.6
13.1
13.3
7. 7
8
8
8. 6
8.. 8
179 . 8
.2
211 . 0
220 . 2
230.. 5
1 19 . 8
128 . 2
136 . 7
143. 3
149 . 6
78.6
8 3. 5
B7 . 6
90 . 3
93.4
0.403
0.356
0.334
0.309
0.296
0. 3 8 3
0. 5 3 8
.511
0 .494
0 .484
0.839
0. 8 0 3
.781
0.751
0 .737
0 .592
0 .543
0 .503
0.483
0..462
10.6
11.0
11.3
11.6
11.7
.0
8. 3
8. 5
8.. 6
8. 6
194 . 4
210 . 4
223 . 4
228 . 7
229 . 5
1 13
124 . 8
132 . 8
136 . 5
137 . 7
0.382
0.340
0.316
0.293
0.282
0.608
0.585
.571
0.556
0
0.806
0 .776
0.762
0 .751
0.748
0
0 .506
0 .477
0 .465
0 .464
9.7
10.8
7.8
B
8.
8.2
8 .. 2
.7
219 . 7
238,. 9
248 . 4
533.
R3
R4
RS
R6
R7
R8
R9
SS
35
45
55
65
SS
35
45
55
ei
.
.7
ie . 1
19 .3
20 . 9
21 . 8
16 .9
19 .0
65
SO . 4
22 . 0
22 . 9
SS
35
45
55
65
16.
18 . 8
20 . 4
21 . 7
22,. 6
SS
35
45
55
65
14
16.. 3
17.. 6
18.. 6
19.. 3
SS
35
im
<.5
.4
.9
11.1
11
11.4
.6
1 1 .0
12.4
13.6
14.7
IS.2
14.,0 1 0 . 8
IS..4 12.1
16. 3 1 3 . 2
45
55
65
17..4
18.0
SS
35
45
55
65
14.
1 5 .s
16.
16. 4
1 6 .5
9.2
9.6
9.9
10.0
10.0
S3
35
43
ass
65
9.6
1 0 .5
9
2
11.
7.4
7.7
7.9
8.1
8.2
1
1
10.
11.
14.0
15.2
.0
.3
.1
.1
8,. 6
10.. 0
.2
.8
IS.. 9
11.
11.
9
.1
0
8.
10.
11.6
13.
1 3 .8
7. 1
7 .3
7.4
7.6
7.7
6. 2
6. 4
6. 4
6.6
6 .7
195
199,
.3 84 . 2
95
.7
105 . 2
113 . 0
1 17 . 0
18,. 4
88 . 4
92 . 0
94 . 8
96 . 3
75,. 9
80 . 6
85.. 3
88 . 6
92.
.3 1
.1
164..9
12S..7 94,.3
191 ..2
136.. 0 110.. 8
SI 1 ., 0
150.. 3 155.. 3
SS9. 6
166.. 8 140.,0
245.. 2
186.. 3 153.>2
192. 6 1 17..5 92. 0
S16.,6
130.,0 103.. 8
238. 8
146. 8 119. 1
538..2
S75. 7
160. 8 139..2
177. 4 158. 4
125. 7
140. 9
151. 5
80. 1 61 . 8
159. 2
164. 3
89. 4
93. 2
9 8 .7
100. e
10S. 4
84.9
90. 0
93. 0
96.6
64.6
67.0
69.0
7 0 .7
S 60. 7
64. 1
6 6 .8
5 68.6
71 .
7 3 .7
80. 3
82.
B5. 7
70.3
0 .303
.533
0.393 0 . 6 6 3
0.343
0.317
0.297
0.286
0.600
0.379
0.367
0,.338
0.434 0.S8S
0,.827
0 .792
0..792
0 .783
0..783
.746
0 ..321
0,. 4 7 3
0 ..440
0,.424
0,
0 ..648
0 ..575
0 .,547
0..302
0.418
0.396
0.371
0.339
0 ..597
0 ..331
0 ..489
0 ..460
0 ..424
0.
0 ..640
0 .,334
0 ..498
0 . 467
0.458
0.424
0.401
0.394
0.390
0.
0 . 670
0 ..653
0 . 644
0 . 642
0.
0 . 887
0 ..867
0 . 831
0 . 840
0 . 873
0 . 838
0 . 813
0 . 799
0 . 790
. 033
1. 01S
1. 001
0 . 978
0 . 966
0.396
0.366
0.346
0.335
0.460
0.669
0.612
0.393
0.374
0.534
,699
.723
915
.573
.548
0..533
0 .484
.434
553
446
.412
.939
0
0 .853
0 .801
0 .780
0 .773
j,
1 .012
0..942
0 .910
0 ..899
906
.662
847 1 . 359
1 . 254
703 1. 183
669 1. 144
1. 102
, . 496
1 . 191
1 . 142
1 . 407
1 . 326
1 . 078
1 . 056
1 . 290
1. 0*0 1 . 243
0.
0 . 755
0.
0.
0 . 648
1 .025
0 ..961
0 ..849
0 ..760
0.. 6 9 5
., 157
1
1 ..025
0 ..894
0 ..763
0.
672
1. 722
1 . 649
1. 590
1. 543
1 . 505
1 . 733
1 . 662
1. 594
1 . 552
1. 51 1
.835
0.
0 ..850
0 .,888
0 ..900
0 . 930
541
.659
0.
0 ..649
0 .,675
0 ..693
0 . 707
526
0.
0 . 561
0 . 571
0 . 589
0 . 602
0.
0 . 534
0 ..552
0 . 563
0 . 583
0 . 562
0 . 536
0 . 550
0 . 543
0.
0.
0 . 396
0 . 614
0 . 619
0 . 636
533
5B4
.590
.625
0.
0 ..624
0 ..620
0 ..651
0 .,695
0 ..531
0 . 538
0 ..545
0 . 552
0 ..558
589
1
0.
0 . 61
0 . 628
0 . 630
0 . 639
OJ
ro
to
323
APPENDIX 13. REGRESSION EQUATIONS OF DRY HEAT TRANSFER RATE AND

EVAPORATIVE HEAT TRANSFER RATE WITH AIR VELOCITY (TABLE A.9).
Dry Heat
Contacting Skin
Sample
SI
ca
iI
12
R1
R7
R9
y=13.066x. 3 1 4
y=lE.133xa l t
y = 5 . 3 1 9 x . 0 3 B
R=1 .00
R =1. 0 0
R=0 .96
y = 5 . 6 5 0 - 0 . 1 7 7 x + 0 . 0 7 9 x ia
y=13.392x.319
y = 1 1 . 0 0 3 x . S 6 S
y = 8 . 1 5 0 x . J. 9 0
R=1 .00
R=0 .99
R=1 . 0 0
R=0 .99
R1
y = 1 3 9. 8 2 8 x SSZ3"P
y= 48.245x-so=
y=
5 . 470 x z"+<*
y= 53.927x1^
y= 33. 561x E''so
y = 14 3 . 8 9 0 x S1<S*1
R=0.99
R=0.98
R=0.99
R=1.00
R=1.00
R=1.00
R7
y =1 3 5 . B 2 2 x ' 3 ' 7 " 7
II
rt
R8
R9
y= 98. 056x E3Se

y= 77.942x-J'"*
R=1.00
R=0.99
IS
S p a c e 4 . 5 mm
y = 7 . 2 2 4 x .0 7 3
y = 7 . 5 5 8 x . 076
y=i* 4 1 4 x . O 1<*>
R=0.99
R=1.00
R=0.63
y=3. 356+0 .837x+0 021x:R=1.00

y=6.7It0x
R=1.00
y = 5 . 6 8 5 x . '<76
R=1.00
y = 5 . 7 7 3 x . O 7 0
R=0.97
Evaporative Heat
Contacting Skin
Sample
SI
CI
C2
11
Transfer
Transfer
S p a c e 4 . 5 mm
y=68.447x. X
transfer rate
velocity (cm/sec)
o
o
* y = heat
O
o
H
II
E(
R=1.00
R=0.99
y = 2 4 . 7 1 8 x ' ; ' . &'+?
R=0.99
y = 1 . 3 1 4 x ' - ' . 1363
y = 4 5 . 5 3 3 x . os>a
R=0.98
y=21.047x
R=1.00
y=94. 153+2 .271x+2 .364xs
iw/mC0C or
y = 7 2 . 3 6 0 + 4 . 2 2 0 x + 1. 4 0 0 x ' R=1.00
y=54.216x . I ' > I
R=1.00
y = 5 2 . 6 9 0 x . L 26
R=1.00
w/mskPa),
= air
324
APPENDIX 14.
EFFECT OF AMBffiNT TEMPERATURE ON ENERGY

DISSIPATION (TABLE A. 10).
T
Z\T
R1
24
14
4
18.31
18.15
17.66
R2
0. 416
0..423
0.,434
15.50
15.27
14.86
1.,61
3.,44
5,,19
0.,347
0.,354
0..360
8. 68
19..37
29. 69
1..52
3..27
4..81
24
14
4
8.97
18.,74
28.,79
24
14
4
-6
-16
-26
AT
Rh
he
SI
24
14
4
a . 69
18. 89
29.20
1. 57
3.37
5.,04
0.,357
0. 362
0.,374
18.07
17.84
17.25
S2
24
14
4
8 . 74
19. 83
30. 34
1. 60
3. 60
5.,36
0. 352
0. 355
0.,365
S3
24
14
4
8 . 77
19. 57
29. 89
1. 36
2.99
4.,44
CI
24
14
4
8 . 67
18. 88
28. 94
C2
24
14
4
C3
11
SAMPLE
12
13
SAMPLE
Rh
he
8.66
18. 67
29. 14
1. 76
3. 70
5. 47
0 . 317
0 . 326
0 . 344
20.33
19.82
18.78
24
14
4
8.76
18. 89
29. 48
1.68
3. 53
5. 22
0 . 336
0. 345
0. 364
19.18
18.70
17.72
R3
24
14
4
8. 76
19. 08
29.46
1. 59
3.,41
5. 10
0 . 356
0 . 361
0. 373
18.14
17.88
17.32
18.57
18.20
17.94
R4
24
14
4
8. 65
18.,66
29. 12
1.64
3.,45
5.,10
0. 340
0. 349
0. 369
18.95
18.48
17.51
0.,369
0..383
0..398
17.50
16.86
16.19
R5
24
14
4
8. 67
18.,79
29..17
1.,63
3.,38
5.,06
0.,343
0.,359
0.,372
18.81
17.97
17.36
1..40
2..91
4..53
0..413
0..416
0..410
15.61
15.50
15.73
R6
24
14
4
8..79
19..34
29..43
1..43
3..08
4..86
0..396
0..406
0..391
16.27
15.90
16.51
8..89
17..89
27..25
34..49
43..31
51..81
0..50
1,.01
1..52
1,.91
2..34
2,.74
1,.147
1,.143
1..157
1,.165
1,.194
1,.220
5.62
5.65
5.58
5.54
5.40
5.29
R7
24
14
4
8..69
19..19
29..75
1,.34
2..87
4..29
0..418
0.,431
0..447
15.42
14.97
14.44
R8
24
14
4
8..83
18.19
27..97
1,.34
2,.78
4,.31
0..424
0,.422
0..419
15.20
15.27
15.41
24
14
4
-6
-16
-26
8..88
18 .17
28 .15
36 .27
45 .18
54 .29
0 .53
1 .04
1 .55
1 .95
2 .37
2 .78
1 .081
1.130
1 .170
1 .200
1 .230
1 .260
5.97
5.71
5.51
5.38
5.25
5.12
R9
24
14
4
8 .72
17.80
27 .58
0 .92
1 .86
2 .83
0 .612
0 .619
0 .629
10.55
10.42
10.26
24
14
4
-6
-16
-26
8 .99
17.87
27 .70
35 .74
44 .79
53 .89
0 .39
0 .75
1 .12
1 .42
1 .73
2 .03
1 .496
1 .537
1 .594
1 .621
1 .666
1 .711
4.31
4.20
4.05
3.98
3.87
3.77
24
14
4
-6
-16
-26
8.73
17 .24
27 .06
36 .98
46 .04
54 .97
1 .82
3 .56
5 .25
7 .14
8.84
10 .54
0 .309
0 .312
0 .333
0 .334
0 .336
0 .336
20.85
20.65
19.40
19.31
19.20
19.17
BARE
T = ambient temperature ( C), ZYT = temperature difference between ambient and hot p l a t e ,
W = energy dissipation i n 100w/sqmZ\T> he = energy d i s s i p a t i o n i n w/sqm C,
Rh = thermal resistance ( c l o ) , Bare = nude body (no sample).
APPENDIX 15.
PREDICTED COMFORT RANGE UNDER VARIED

ENVIRONMENTS: AIR VELOCITY; HUMIDITY; TEMPERATURE;
AND AIR LAYER THICKNESS (TABLE A.l 1).
A i r Space
1.5
4.5
RH
Min
Comf
Max
Min
Comf
Max
40
40
40
40
40
24
24
24
24
24
25
35
45
55
65
159
178
193
202
216
287
332
355
370
386
801
892
943
981
1005
109
128
143
153
161
208
238
260
275
285
65
65
65
65
65
24
24
24
24
24
25
35
45
55
65
161
181
196
205
219
267
298
321
336
353
692
769
820
857
885
111
130
146
156
164
90
90
90
90
90
24
24
24
24
24
25
35
45
55
65
163
183
199
209
223
237
264
287
302
321
575
635
686
727
771
40
40
40
40
40
24
24
24
24
24
25
35
45
55
65
157
181
196
211
223
290
320
341
361
375
65
65
65
65
65
24
24
24
24
24
25
35
45
55
65
160
183
199
214
226
90
90
90
90
90
24
24
24
24
24
25
35
45
55
65
40
40
40
40
40
24
24
24
24
24
65
65
65
65
65
90
90
90
90
90
Min
Coraf
Max
556
628
674
707
728
76 v 156
78
162
79
169
80
175
81
180
399
413
439
459
477
193
222
244
259
271
484
547
593
626
650
77
80
81
82
83
141
147
152
156
159
331
349
366
377
389
114
133
149
159
167
177
203
226
242
256
400
453
500
535
570
79
81
83
84
84
132
136
141
145
149
292
298
317
329
341
774
828
869
907
927
110
126
138
148
157
204
226
243
258
270
539
582
617
648
668
76
79
80
82
83
145
151
157
164
168
354
368
390
408
425
260
290
311
330
344
664
718
760
794
815
112
128
141
151
160
188
210
228
242
254
457
501
536
565
587
77'
81
81
84
84
134
141
145
149
153
303
321
335
346
358
162
186
202
218
230
232
262
283
301
315
552
609
650
682
702
114
131
143
154
164
175
198
216
230
243
390
437
474
502
525
79
83
83
85
86
128
133
137
142
146
276
283
301
313
325
25
35
45
55
65
139
153
161
175
182
273
303
319
339
348
761
848
894
935
955
99
106
109
111
114
197
213
222
231
238
544
594
626
657
678
75
78
80
81
82
150
156
163
169
174
376
390
414
433
450
24
24
24
24
24
25
35
45
55
65
141
155
167
178
185
244
270
290
306
317
658
731
781
819
845
100
107
110
113
115
176
189
196
202
209
445
479
502
521
541
75
79
80
82
82
137
145
150
154
157
324
342
358
369
381
24
24
24
24
24
25
35
45
55
65
142
157
165
180
187
215
238
252
273
286
548
605
651
696
735
101
108
111
114
116
164
174
179
185
190
389
410
422
439
455
75
78
80
81
82
127
131
137
141
144
284
291
309
320
332
Air Space
1.5
4.5
Sample
RH
85
* 85
85
85
85
Min
Comf Max
Min
Comf Max
Min
Comf Max
25 25
25 ,; 35
25 45
25 55
25 65
149
167
177
184
187
175
194
205
214
218
279
303
319
333
342
102
107
109
112
110
120
126
129
133
133
185
194
202
210
214
77
79
79
80
81
94
97
98
101
102
144
150
155
161
165
85
85
85
85
85
30
30
30
30
30
25
35
45
55
65
66
74
79
82
83
83
92
97
101
103
151
161
171
180
185
46
48
48
50
49
58
61
63
64
65
102
107
113
117
120
34
35
35
36
. 36
45
47
48
49
50
79
82
86
90
93
85
85
85
85
85
35
35
35
35
35
25
35
45
55
65
-17
-19
-20
-20
-21
-13
-15
-16
-16
-16
1
0
-0
0
1
-11
-12
-12
-12
-12
-9
-9
-9
-9
-9
0
1
2
2
4
-9
-9
-9
-9
-9
-6
-6
-6
-6
-6
0
0
1
2
3
85
85
85
85
85
25
25
25
25
25
25
35
45
55
65
144
157
167
173
179
148
161
172
178
185
161
177
188
199
209
97
103
106
108
108
99
105
108
110
111
104
111
115
120
123
73
74
76
78
79
74
76
79
80
81
78
81
85
88
90
85
85
85
85
85
30
30
30
30
30
25
35
45
55
65
64
70
74
77
79
67
73
78
81
84
77
85
91
97
102
43
46
47
48
48
45
47
49
50
51
49
52
55
58
60
32
33
34
35
35
33
34
36
37
37
36
39
41
43
44
85
85
85
85
85
35
35
35
35
35
25
35
45
55
65
-16
-17
-19
-19
-20
-15
-17
-18
-18
-19
-12
-13
-14
-14
-14
-11
-11
-12
-12
-12
-10
-11
-11
-11
-11
-9
-10
-10
-9
-9
-8
-8
-8
-9
-9
-8
-8
-8
-8
-8
-7
-7
-6
-7
-6
85
85
85
85
85
25
25
25
25
25
25
35
45
55
65
129
141
152
159
164
205
224
241
252
260
508
557
599
625
642
89
94
97
98
99
147
157
164
169
173
355
380
403
420
435
65
70
71
70
71
111
118
122
125
128
246
263
277
288
300
85
85
85
85
85
30
30
30
30
30
25
35
45
55
65
57
62
67
71
73
103
114
124
130
135
285
321
348
367
382
39
42
43
44
44
75
79
84
86
89
199
214
227
238
247
29
31
31
31
32
56
60
62
63
65
138
148
154
159
165
85
85
85
85
85
35
35
35
35
35
25
35
45
55
65
-14
-16
-17
-18
-18
-6
-6
-6
-6
-6
30
34
37
40
42
-10
-10
-11
-11
-11
-4
-4
-4
-3
-3
18
20
22
24
25
-7
-8
-8
-8
-8
-2
-3
-2
-2
-2
12
12
14
15
16
327
A i r Space
1.5
4.5
Sample
11
12
13
RH
Min
Comf Max
65
65
65
65
65
24
24
24
24
24
25
35
45
55
65
55
56
56
57
57
93
95
95
97
98
206
213
215
219
221
46
47
47
48
49
81
83
84
85
86
205
211
214
216
217
45
45
45
45
46
82
84
84
85
86
194
199
201
203
205
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
35
45
55
65
188
191
191
195
195
248
254
256
261
262
453
472
482
491
496
158
160
161
164
166
212
216
218
221
223
402
412
417
423
425
154
154
153
154
156
211
214
214
216
218
383
393
397
402
405
0
0
0
0
0
-20
-20
-20
-20
-20
25
35
45
55
65
299
303
303
310
310
358
368
372
380
381
588
622
637
651
657
251
255
256
261
263
310
317
319
325
327
521
536
541
550
554
245
245
242
245
248
310
312
312
316
319
504
513
521
528
533
65
65
65
65
65
24
24
24
24
24
25
35
45
55
65
57
60
64
71
78
89
97
107
118
130
186
210
237
262
287
55
62
68
77
81
85
100
113
132
146
193
235
274
325
378
56
65
76
86
97
94
117
142
169
195
207
273
343
415
491
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
35
45
55
65
193
203
217
240
265
248
267
291
322
355
439
490
549
607
667
186
211
230
263
276
232 398
268 471
303 562
349 655
381 752
191
220
257
293
329
250
305
364
423
481
428
561
683
814
939
Q
0
0
0
0
-20
-20
-20
-20
-20
25
35
45
55
65
307
322
344
382
421
362
388
420
466
514
579
643
719
795
875
295
334
366
418
439
346
397
453
518
562
529
620
763
871
999
303
349
408
466
522
376 593
445 730
532 903
615 1063
690 1195
65
65
65
65
65
24
24
24
24
24
25
35
45
55
65
43
43
44
44
45
70
73
75
77
78
153
162
171
175
178
40
40
42
42
43
68
71
74
75
77
168
178
187
193
198
37
38
39
39
39
65
70
73
77
80
147
164
176
188
201
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
35
45
55
65
146
147
150
150
153
191
195
202
205
209
348
365
383
394
403
137
138
141
144
146
180 330
184 348
190 364
196 380
201 393
127
130
132
133
134
171
178
184
190
197
303
321
339
361
387
0
0
0
0
0
-20
-20
-20
-20
-20
25
35
45
55
65
231
233
237
239
243
277
284
292
296
301
456
481
504
517
528
218
218
224
228
233
263
269
278
285
292
202
207
209
212
212
249
258
266
275
281
392
413
438
465
488
Min
Comf Max
423
447
468
487
502
Min
Comf Max
RH = ambient r e l a t i v e humidity (%), T = ambient temperature ( C)

V = a i r velocity (cm/sec), Comfort Range: min = minimum control l i m i t (w/sqm),
comf = comfort control l i m i t , max = thermally max control l i m i t .
APPENDIX 16. INDIVIDUAL SUBJECTIVE WARM/COOL RATINGS (TABLE A.12).
Sample
SI
S2
S3
CI
C2
C3
11
12
13
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
17
15
15
13
18
8
3
2
1
9
12
12
10
14
6
7
5
4
10
AVG
STD
CV %
15 , 15
16
15
14
12
13
12
18
18
10
9
3
2
2
2
1
2
9
5
9
4
6
9
12
12
16
15
9
5
9
11
8
5
5
7
16
16
14
10
18
5
5
2
5
8
8
11
il
16
2
13
5
2
14
16
15
13
18
9
7
1
3
5
1
8
11
15
3
12
10
6
14
15
13
16
18
11
1
3
2
5
7
6
12
17
4
10
9
8
15
15
15
15
18
9
2
2
2
5
5
9
11
15
5
11
9
7
14
15
17
13
18
3
2
1
4
5
7
6
11
16
9
10
12
8
15
18
14
11
17
4
3
1
2
5
5
8
11
16
10
8
13
8
14
17
16
11
18
7
3
1
2
9
8
10
15
13
4
12
6
5
15
16
15
13
18
8
3
2
2
7
7
9
12
15
6
10
8
6
0.94
0.94
1.33
1.73
0.31
2.67
1.73
0.63
1.26
1.75
2.99
2.05
0.63
0.83
2.69
1.79
2.83
1.97
6.33
5.97
9.20
13.61
1.76
35.62
55.76
36.97
52.38
26.92
45.24
24.17
5.42
5.43
47.11
17.39
34.55
32.81
Sample Conditioning: 23[C, 65% RH,
Samples: Barrier Nonwovens, Face
APPENDIX 17. SUBJECTIVE COMFORT RATING CHART (FIGURE A.5)
COMFORT RATING CHART

DATE
SEX
TIME
F
SAMPLE
TIME
DESCRIPTION
WARM/COOL
5
WET/DRY
WARM/COOL
10
WET/DRY
WARM/COOL
15
WET/DRY
20
WARM/COOL
WET/DRY
WARM/COOL
25
WET/DRY
WARM/COOL
30
WET/DRY
COMMENTS
AGE
CHAMBER SETTING
LEFT
SCR
RIGHT
Ts
PS
SCR
Ts
Ps
330
APPENDIX 18. CONFIDENCE OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA

1. Variation of Experimental Data
Property
CV%
Property
cv%
WT
LO5
L6.0
Xf
P
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
2.63
3.65
3.72
4.62
4.25
3.92
5.76
4.68
5
5
5
5
5
5
2.02
5.68
6.32
3.19
3.40
2.92
cool
9.92
warm 40.82
avg. 25.37
Ap
WVT 22
WVT 32
QD
Qw
qmax (Dynamic)
qmax (Selfheat)
qmax (Preheated)
Subjective
Warm/Cool
(Ranking)
10
n=number of measurement, CV%coefficient of variance, WT=weight,

LO.5 &L6.o=thickness at 0.5 and 6.0 gf/cm2 compression load, Xf=fiber volume fraction,
P=opticai porosity, Ap=air permeability, WVT 22 & WVT 32=water vapor transmittance at
22 and 32C, k=thermal conductance, Qo=dry heat transfer rate, Qw=heat & moisture
transfer rate, q ax=max. transient heat conduction.
m
331
2. Confidence of Regression
4. 1 8 a
4.20a
4 .22a
4 .22b
4.24
4 .25
4 .26
4 .27
4.28a
4 .28b
4.29a
4 ,29b
4.3 0 a
4 .33
5. 1 6
5 .26
5.27
5.28
5.30
O
0*
4. 17
Regress ion
line
O
n
II
O
Figur.
0c~0
Exper iment
Calculated
K(total)
K ( s o 1 + air +in t )
K(so1 )
2.5 micron
10.3 micron
Re(22)
Re(32)
Re(22)
Re(32)
Dexp(22)
Dexp(32)
Dexp(22)
Dexp < 32)
Dexp(22)
Dele(22)
Dexp(32)
Dele(32)
Dexp(22)
Dexp(32)
11
12
13
Rh (0)
Rh(1.5)
Rh(4.5)
Re(space
Re(space
Re(space
Rh(space
Rh(space
Rh(space
Re(space
Re(space
Re(space
0)
1.5)
4.5)
0)
1.5)
4.5)
0)
1.5)
4.5)
t-test
^
",U1
0.95
0.87
0.98
0.93
0.91
0.92
0.72
1. 0 0
0.99
1.00
0.72
1 .00
1.00
1.00
0.10
0.10
0.94
0.92
0.99
0.97
0.90
0.97
1. 0 0
0.92
0.95
1. 0 0
0.22
0.23
0.99
1.00
0.93
0.93
0.98
0.99
0.97
0.99
0.95
0.91
0.97
0.98
0.93
0.98
1.00
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
9
9
4
4
18
3
3
18
18
18
18
72
72
18
18
18
18
18
18
6
6
6
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
12. 17
7.06
19.70
10.12
8.78
9.39
4.15
39.85
28.07
26.36
2.75
22.33
31.60
39.85
70.71
70.71
11.02
9.39
28.07
15.96
17.27
33.38
34.85
9.39
12.17
39.85
0.90
0.95
19.90
19.90
5. 17
10. 12
19.70
28.07
15.96
28.07
12.17
8.78
15.96
19.70
10. 12
19.70
39.85
**
**
**
**
**
**
#*
**
*-*
**
*
**
**
**
**
#*
**
**
#*
**
**
**
**
**
**
w*
**
**
#*
**
**
**
**
**
#*
**
**
**
**
**
**
2. 12
2.12
2. 12
2.12
2. 12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2. 12
2.37
2.37
6.97
6.97
2. 12
12.71
12.71
2.12
2.12
2. 12
2.12
2.39
2.39
2.12
2.12
2. 12
2.12
2.12
2. 12
2.78
2.78
2.78
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2. 12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
3.50
3.50
9.93
9.93
2.92
63.66
63.66
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.66
2.66
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
4.60
4.60
4.60
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
332
t - 't e s t
'igure
5.33
6.7a
6.7b
6. 8a
6.8b
6.9
6.11a
6 . 1l b
6. 12a
6 . 12b
6.14a
6.14b
6 . 14c
7.3
7.4
7.5
Regression
1in e
Re(0)/L
Re<1.5)/L
Re(4.5)/L
s e 1 f - h e a t in g
preheated
meta1
foam
Hmax 1
Hmax2
single
doub1e
sin g 1e
doub1e
0.95
0.96
0.96
1. 0 0
0.96
0.96
1 .00
0.55
0.98
0.95
0.95
0.91
0.96
0.99
0.99
0.91
0.92
0.92
0.96
0.95
0.89
0.89
0,76
18
18
18
36
36
36
3
3
18
36
18
18
18
18
36
18
18
18
52
36
24
36
24
*0.05
teal
12.17
13.71
13.71
65.00
19.99
19.99
22.34
0.66
19.70
17.74
12. 17
8.78
13.71
28.07
40.92
8.78
9.39
9.39
23.98
18.54
9.38
11.31
5.51
**
**
**
**
*#
**
*
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
2. 12
2. 12
2.12
2.04
2.04
2.04
12.71
12.71
2 * 12
2.04
2. 12
2.12
2.12
2.12
2.04
2.12
2. 12
2. 12
2.07
2.04
2.07
2.04
2.07
to.oi
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.75
2.75
2.75
63.66
63.66
2.92
2.75
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.75
2.92
2.92
2.92
2.70
2.75
2.82
2.75
2.82
=test statistics (=R^(n-2)/(l-R2)), R=regression coefficient, n=number of samples,

t0.05=t-value at 95% confidence, to.oi=t-value at 99% confidence.
tcai
**(tcal>l0.0l) means that there is a linear relationship between two variables with 99%
confidence.
*(*0.01 >tcal>k).05) means that there is a linear relationship between two variables with 95%
confidence.

Comfort Properties of Nonwoven Fabrics in Extremely Hot and Cold Environments

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Comfort Properties of Nonwoven Fabrics in Extremely Hot and Cold Environments

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INFORMATION TO USERS

The most advanced technology has been used to photo

University Microfilms International

Order Number 8918157

Comfort properties of nonwoven fabrics in extremely hot and

Woo, Sang Sun, Ph.D.

Copyright 1989 by Woo, Sang Sun. All rights reserved.

300 N. Zeeb Rd.

A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of

Chairmaw of Advisory Committee

LIST OF SYMBOLS OR ABBREVIATIONS

2. OBJECTIVES AND APPROACHES OF THIS RESEARCH

4.3. Experimental Procedures

8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

9. RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

10. LIST OF REFERENCES

Thermal Conductivity Models for Fibrous Materials

Test Samples: a) Barrier Nonwovens and

Chamber Temperature and Humidity Program Patterns

Subjective Comfort Evaluation

IR-Transmittance, Reflectance, and Emittance of Barrier Nonwoven Materials 305

The Fields of Clothing Comfort

Diagram of Procedures of Experiment and Analysis

Diagrammatic Representation of Relationships between Heat Production,

4.20. Contribution of Various Structural Modes

Temperature and Water Vapor Pressure Distribution within the Clothing

Simplified Diagram of Human Warm/Cool Sensory

a) Effects of the Number of Cycle on Hmax and b) Effects of the Number of

Relationship between Warm/Cool SCR and Skin Temperature

Calculation of Shape Coefficients

LIST OF SYMBOLS OR ABBREVIATIONS

Absorption coefficient or Subscript symbol represent ing air or ambient,

Heat loss by water vapor diffusion through the skin.

ability to support a comfortable environment around the wearer. It is especially difficult to

| HEAT AND MOISTURE EXCHANGE

Figure 1.1. The Fields of Clothing Comfort.

Figure 1.2. Heat and Moisture Exchange [1],

THERMAL ANALYZING SYSTEM

INSTRUMENTS, TEST METHODS

COMFORT CONTROL LIMIT

NONWOVEN BARRIER FABRICS

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY &

HEAT & MOISTURE

SIMPLE SUBJECTIVE TEST

COMFORT LIMIT &

SCR & SKIN TEMPERATURE

AND HUMIDITY, WARM/COOL

VERIFY PREDICTIVE VALIDITY

Figure 2.1. Diagram of Procedures of Experiment and Analysis.

3.2.2. SKIN MODELS OF THERMOREGULATION AND ENERGY BALANCE

for Lj < x < Lj + L2,

is the average body temperature, C; i.e.

Mn = E L2 + fi0L3 ( metabolic rate, w/m2). Sometimes, Mn is defined as the net flux

3.3. COMFORT THEORY

Then, energy balance equation 3.6 becomes

Figure 3.1. Diagrammatic Representation of Relationships between Heat Production,

where I is the total thermal resistance in clo.

where hv is the evaporative heat transfer coefficient, w/m2kPa, Rv is the resistance to

The permeability index is defined as;

Permeability index ranges from 0, for a completely impermeable material, to 1. for a

0.155 I Mn - (Ts - Ta)

3.3.3. FANGER'S APPROACH

thermal comfort as follows;