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World History
1
Table of Contents
Introduction 3
1) Ottoman Empire 4
i) Origins 4
ii) Expansion 5
iii) Suleyman “the Lawgiver” 6
iv) Ottoman State 7
v) Ottoman Empire as a Muslim State 8
vi) Fall of the Ottoman Empire 9
2) Safavid Empire 11
3) Mughal Empire 15
i) Origins of the Empire and first emperors 15
ii) Akbar the Great’s reign 16
a. Akbar’s cultural affliction 16
b. Akbar’s military conquests 16
iii) Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb Alamgir 17
Conclusion 19
Bibliography 21
Annex 24
2
Introduction
Islam is one of the main religions of the world, with approximately 1.5 billion followers
worldwide. Muslim history involves several periods of time that go from its foundation by the
prophet Muhammad in the 7th century, to present-day conflicts with other religions. Like most of
the world’s religions, the development of Islam has had cultural, political and economic impact
on the areas imposed. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the three major Muslim empires
aroused: the Ottomans, who conquered the Middle East, northern Africa and the Balkans; the
Safavid Empire in Iran; and the Mughal in South Asia. These three imperial powers developed
under the control of magnificent rulers, but by the 19th century all three had declined.
3
The Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire is today known as the Turkish Empire, or simply Turkey. The
empire was formed in 1299 and officially ended in 1923, when Turkey was claimed a republic.
This empire was located at the center of interactions between the Western and Eastern worlds for
about six centuries. With Constantinople as its capital city and control of the lands of the east
Mediterranean, the Ottoman Empire became the Islamic second of the Byzantine Empire. The
growth period in Ottoman history is divided into two clear-cut eras: the era preceding 1566,
which was of territorial, economic and cultural growth and the following era, which was of
political and military deterioration1.
Origins
By the 1300s, the Byzantine Empire was in decline and the Mongols had destroyed the
Turkish kingdom of Rum, a small Turkish state that occupied land between the Byzantine
Empire and the Muslims. When Rum was destroyed, Turkish Anatolia was divided into
independent states called Ghazi Emirates, and Anatolian Turks saw themselves as Ghazis, which
meant “Warriors of Islam”.
One of these Ghazi Emirates was lead by Osman, who was one of the most successful
ghazi. Western people called him Othman and his followers were called Ottomans, which is
where the “Ottoman” name of the empire comes from. Osman was considered a very adequate
and important leader; during his period, a formal Ottoman government was created, and its
institutions would change over the span of the empire. After Osman’s death, Ottoman control
spread to parts of the East Mediterranean and the Balkan Peninsula. In 1387, the Venetians
captured the city of Thessaloniki in Greece, and two years later the Turkish success at the Battle
of Kosovo marked the end of Serbian power in the region. Both events opened doors for
Ottoman expansion in Europe. Having control of the Balkans, the conquest of Constantinople
was a crucial objective.
Expansion
1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire
4
The second Ottoman leader, Osman’s son Orhan I, was the first to declare himself
“sultan”, which meant “the overlord”. In 1361, the Ottomans captured the second most important
city of the Byzantine Empire, Adrianople. In 1402, the Ottomans moved their capital to the city
of Edirne in Europe, where they attempted the last great invasion of Constantinople, the
Byzantine Empire's capital. At the time, Constantinople was very strong, defeating all kinds of
invasions, but the Ottomans were decided to break this cycle. Finally in 1453, Mehmed II, also
called “the Conqueror” accomplished the most drastic conquest of Ottoman history capturing
Constantinople at the age of 21. He renamed the city Istanbul and from that point on this would
be the capital of the Empire, whose patronage made it one of the most cultured and wealthy cities
of the modern world. Mehmed II also claimed the tile of Kayser-i-Rum, which meant Roman
Emperor.
The conquest of Constantinople gave the empire the status of the chief power in
southeastern Europe and eastern Mediterranean and had a huge effect on Christian Europe. One
of the surprising effects was the migration of scholars from the new empire to Italy, where they
had a big influence in driving the Renaissance and which caused an increasing trade in the east.
Even though the Pope demanded a crusade to recapture the city from the Muslims, the Christian
nations didn’t form an army for him and no attempt of recapturing the city was made. The
Muslim control on Constantinople and its trading center pressured the Western nations to find
new ways to the East, which led to the Columbus’, Magellan’s and Drake’s expeditions.
It was during this time that the empire entered the period of conquest and expansion
mentioned above, expanding its borders into Europe and North Africa as well. Conquests on land
were driven by the disciplined and innovatory Ottoman military, whose success was based on the
use of gunpowder. On sea, expansion was significantly aided by the Ottoman navy, which also
protected sea going trading routes.
Part of the Empire's growth was also due to its military alliances with other nations. By
the mid 1500s, the Ottoman Empire entered into military alliance with France, the Dutch
Republic and the Kingdom of England against Italy, Habsburg Spain and Habsburg Austria.
Moreover, the empire was able to prosper due to its line of committed and effective sultans. One
of these was Selim I, also called Selim the Grim, Mehmed's grandson who came to power in
1512. He expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers and established Ottoman rule in
5
Egypt. Selim also took responsibility of Mecca and Medina before taking Cairo, which was the
intellectual center of the Muslim world. However, the most prominent figure of the Ottoman
history was Sultan Suleyman, who built from the conquests of his father a great city, military
machine, empire, and culture2.
During Suleyman’s reign, the empire reached its maximum size and augustness. He was known
by his people as Suleyman the Lawgiver, although people in the west call him Suleyman the
Magnificent.
6
Despite not being very humble (he also called himself “master of the lands of Caesar and
Alexander the great”), he believed that the entire world was a gift of God.
Ottoman State
The Ottoman Sultan also took the title of Caliph of Islam. The Ottomans claimed this title
for several reasons, including that the two major Muslim holy sites, Mecca and Medina, were
part of the Empire and that the government’s main goal was to secure Muslims around the world.
As Caliph, the Sultan was responsible for Muslim orthodoxy4. Also, almost all of the
annexations of other countries and military conquest were done with the purposes of
guaranteeing the safe passage of Muslims to Mecca (which they used as the justification for
invading non-Muslims territories) and removing heretical Islamic practices and beliefs
(justification for invading Muslim territories).
Absolute power was the core of Ottoman government, since they thought that only if
holding absolute power could the ruler guarantee justice for all, since he would not depend on
others or be subject to corruption. Historians can’t agree on how the Sultanate was passed from
generation to generation. Some believe that it was passed from father to eldest son and in other
cases to the brother of the sultan. The Ottomans’ hereditary system did not seem based on
primogeniture or seniority5. However, the Turkish and Mongols believed that the crown should
be of the most worthy inheritor; the Ottomans seemed to have a similar system. When a sultan
died, the crown was believed to fall to the most worthy successor, which was almost always the
first son.
The Ottomans thought that the act of succession was enough to prove that the Sultan was
worth his title, but if the Sultan became corrupt or grew old he would lose his value as a ruler.
The Ottomans also followed the Turkish tradition of having the entire Sultan’s land to be of his
family as well. Even though the Sultan was seen as the main responsible for all government
decisions, the government was actually run by a large bureaucracy which was controlled by a
strict set of rules which were applied even to the Sultan himself. The most powerful figure of the
government was the Grand Vizier, who oversaw all functions of the government.
4
http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/ORIGIN.HTM
5
Primogeniture: crown passes to eldest son; seniority: crown passes to the next oldest
brother.
7
The Ottoman Empire as a Muslim State
Ottomans were extremely tolerant of different religious beliefs. The Empire was Muslim, but
they did not force their religion on their subjects, because one of the Islamic principles was the
acceptance of other monotheistic religions. Christians and Jews in the empire prayed on their
own churches or synagogues, as well as teacher their religion on their own schools and
seminaries. However, in various places non-Muslims were restricted in particular ways. The
most important of these regulations is the special tax called the jizya, which only Jews and
Christians were required to pay, and which Muslims did not pay.
For the majority of Christians and Jews, accepting Muslim rule came as a benefit. The
Byzantine leaders who ruled the Middle East before the Arab conquest often persecuted
Christians for having non-Orthodox beliefs, but to the Muslims all Christians were simply
Christians, and not subjects of persecution.
In the Ottoman Empire, religious tolerance became the basis for government. In most
Christian states of the time, only one form of religion was accepted. But this did not happen in
Ottoman domains, where many forms of Christianity flourished. The members of each religious
group often associated with members of their same group. So, the Ottomans organized their
government life around divisions. Each millet6 had its own welfare system, schools and courts. If
the central government had to provide for these courts, schools and welfare establishments of
each of the millets, taxes would've had to been raised, and members of the millets would've been
restless about the costs and the loss of their communal control and over their own lives. So
overall, it was a good system for everyone.
Despite having systems and being extremely benevolent, Ottoman religious toleration was
not perfect. As the Ottoman Empire being a Muslim state, they gave preference to Muslims in
most parts of their government, and they felt more part of the state than Christians did. The
sultan, or head, of the Ottoman Empire had to be a Sunni Muslim, just like the king of England
has to be an Anglican Christian.
6
Millet: religious community
8
after Suleyman’s death. Suleyman is also to blame. He established the pattern with which later
sultans will gain and hold power.
By the end of his life, Suleyman, broken by the absence of his two elder favorite sons,
withdrew into his palace and handled the running of the government to his Grand Vizier. This
was the example set with his son. It also became a custom for the sultans to have their brothers
strangled and to keep their sons prisoners and deprived of education and contact with the world,
which raised incompetent sultans.
Suleyman abandoned the tradition that all his previous Ottoman Sultans had followed:
raising their sons to become Sultans. Although Selim II only ruled for eight years, he set the
paradigm for the next two centuries and the great empire.
Islamic historians blame growth in bureaucratic power and the incompetence and
disinterest of the Sultans as the cause of the decline of the empire. Western historian, point to
decline in the bureaucracy and the high military efficiency of European military power as the
main reason for the same.
Since the Sultanate institution was falling apart, power went to the Janissaries, which was
the military branch of government. The Janissaries took over the military and administrative
posts of the government and later passed their offices to their sons, which in some way
resembled the Sultanates. By this time, position in Ottoman government was determined by
hereditary, which caused the efficiency of the administration and bureaucracy to decline.
Ottoman decline was more pronounced during the 1700s. The two aspects of this decline were
the brutal population increase and their refusing to modernize.
The 17th and 18th centuries were periods of prosperity to the empire, which caused its
population to double. This produced unemployment and shortage of food, because the economic
resources could not sustain such a large population.
European expansion also affected the Ottoman Empire and contributed to its fall. The
empire's wealth was in most part due to their trade routes. The empire held these in most of the
continents: Africa, Asia, India, and Europe. When the expansion started, European nations
created new trade routes that bypassed Ottoman territories, causing large amounts of revenue to
disappear from the economy.
Moreover, the Ottomans were not industrializing the same way Europeans were during
that period. By industrialization we mean the complete modernization of labor practices. The
9
Ottomans maintained their old practices. The trade relation between the Europeans and Ottomans
also affected the economy. Europeans bought only raw materials from the Ottomans, and
shipped back finished products which were manufactured in Europe. These products were
produced with new, industrial methods, which made them much cheaper than the same products
produced in the Ottoman Empire. This praxis destroyed the Ottoman craft industries during the
late 18th and 19th centuries.
Although this paper covers the history of the empire until the 18th century, it is to mention that
the Ottoman Empire did not end officially until the November 1st 1922. That year, the
Ottoman sultanate was eliminated and Turkey was declared an official republic. The Ottoman
caliphate remained as an institution with reduced authority until its abolition on March 3rd
1924.
7
Sufi order founded by the Persian mystic Sheikh Safi al-Din of Ardabil. It held a prominent place in the
society and politics of northwestern Iran in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; it is best known for
having given rise to the Safavid dynasty.
11
Their final battle was the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Using heavy weapons, the
Ottomans defeated the Safavid. As a result, the borders between the two empires were
established, which are also the present-day borders separating Iran and Iraq.
When Ismail died in 1524, he was succeeded by his son Tahmasp I, of only 10 years old.
Tahmasp ruled for 52 years and during his period, the state changed from the theocratic8 rule
imposed by Ismail to a more secular administration, in which the shah was not only viewed in
religious ways but also as a political monarch. At Tahmasp’s death, he was his son Ismail II
came to power. Many historians see Ismail II’s brutality as a sign of dementia. His plans of
returning the Empire to Sunnism made him assassinate most of his relatives and followers. The
next ruler was Muhammad I, who was given a coup d'état by his son Abbas at the age of 16.
8
Form of government in which God or a deity is recognized as the supreme civil
ruler, the God's or deity's laws being interpreted by the ecclesiastical authorities.
12
strategic location and its displeasure towards the Ottomans created high European interest. Shah
Abbas received several European charges and with the help of the English, he subjugated
Hormoz, a Portuguese colony at the Persian Gulf.
13
ravaged it, which weakened the empire, leaving people with a wish of stability and a strong
central rule.
Mughal Empire
14
The Ottoman and Safavid Empires had emerged and succeeded in present-day Turkey
and Persia, but in India, the Mughal Empire was one of the greatest empires ever, and it ruled
over hundreds of millions of people. The Mughals established Islam in Southern Asia and spread
Muslim culture as well as their faith.
9
The Timurids were the final great dynasty to emerge from the Central Asian steppe.
10
"Tongue" or tract of land lying between two confluent rivers.[1]
11
is a modern term for a historical geographic region spanning north-eastern and east
of Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,Tajikistan, western and northern Afghanistan and the North Western
Areas of Pakistan
12
A Rajput is a member of one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups of India.
13
semi-desert coastal strip in the south of Balochistan, in Iran and Pakistan, along the coast of the
Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman.
15
Akbar was grandson of Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire. He was raised by his uncle
Askari after his parents (Humayun and his wife) left on a journey across the Makran. Growing
up in the town of Sindh, he became an excellent hunter, horseman and outdoorsman, learning the
arts of war.
Since the beginning of his ruling, Akbar decided to eliminate the Sher Shah’s dynasty,
which represented a threat by leading a strong army to the strongest of all, Sikandar Shah Suri,
who meant no preoccupation to Akbar since he removed himself from territory as Akbar came
nearby. However, the Hindu king Hemu, who commanded the Afghan forces, defeated the
Mughal army on October 6 1556, capturing Delhi. With the capturing of Delhi, Akbar was
advised to move to Kabul, which was safer. However, pushed by Brairam Khan, Akbar moved
on to proclaim Delhi. Akbar’s victory over Delhi left him with over 1500 war elephants which
used to siege other territories. With this, the Punjab14 was added to the Mughal Empire. Before
returning to Agra, Akbar sent part of his army to Raja Kapur Chand to capture the kingdom. By
1560, Akbar had annexed the kingdoms of Gwalior, Rajputana and Jaunpur.
14
Cultural region straddling the border between Punjab, Pakistan and Punjab, India.
16
Akbar later continued to expand the Mughal Empire by annexing neighbor kingdoms. His
next major conquest was Malwa in 1561, which an expedition led by Adham Khan. In the
decades following the seizing of Malwa, Akbar brought present-day Bengal, Gujarat and
Rajasthan under his domain.
Later in his life, Akbar came up with religion based on tolerance with views of both
Hinduism and Islam. This religion did not turn very popular after his death; it is still remembered
for its intentions of bringing people together.
The son of Akbar, Jahangir, ruled the empire from 1605 to 1627. At his death in 1627, his
son, Shah Jahan, inherited the throne and a rich and vast empire as well. By the middle of the
century, this was probably the greatest empire in the world. It was Shah Jahan who ordered the
construction of the famous Taj Mahal, who was built as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, who
died while giving birth to his fourteenth child. At the approach of his death in 1658, his four sons
broke into a war for the succession. The two main competitors were Dara Shikoh and
Aurangzeb, who was favored by powerful men. Aurangzeb succeeded, and even though the
empire continued to expand, during the late 17th century it began to disintegrate.
Under Aurangzeb Alamgir’s leadership, the empire reached its maximum peak. By the
time, it had most parts of present day India, Pakistan and Afghanistan under its control. He was
the last of the “Great Mughal kings”.
The empire began to fell in 1707, after Aurangzeb’s death. With Bahandur Shah I (his
son), the Mughal Emperors declined in power and became marionettes, controlled by the several
attendants and later by rising warlords. The Empire also suffered the attacks of invaders from
Persia and Afghanistan, who in several occasions sacked Delhi, the Mughal capital. The greatest
piece of the Empire’s territory in India went to the hands of the Marathas, who sacked Delhi and
turned the once powerful empire into a lone city.
17
Influence of the Mughal Empire on the Indian Subcontinent
One of the major contributions of the Mughal Empire to the Indian Subcontinent was its
architecture. Many of the monuments built by Muslim emperors including the mighty Taj Mahal
are examples of Mughal architecture. Other World Heritage Sites include the Red Fort and
Humayun’s Tomb. Many of the palaces and tombs built during the dynasty still stand today in
places such as Delhi, Kabul and Agra and in many other cities of Bangladesh, Afghanistan,
Pakistan and India. The Mughal period was the witness of the blending of Iranian, Indian and
Central Asian customs. The empire gave the present world contributions that went from the
imperialistic government that united small kingdoms to landscape gardening to new trade routes
in Arab and Turkic lands.
Even though the Mughal rule included a wide spread territory into what is now
Afghanistan, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, their influence is still seen today.
Conclusion
18
The first of the Muslim empires to be discussed was the Ottoman Empire, which was
established around 1299 and located in a strategic position between the Eastern and Western
territories. It emerged from the establishment of Turkish principalities and was founded by
Osman I. The Ottomans were able to capture the important city of Constantinople, and in some
ways represented a Muslim replacement for the Byzantine Empire.
The next empire was the Safavid Empire, which was established by Ismail I in the
Persian Region. The Safavid Empire was influential in keeping the Shi’a Islam as the empire’s
official religion and was one of the most important Iranian dynasties. Despite being inspired by a
religious faith, they were able to develop a centralized government. Its geographic position
benefited them, making them a trade route between Europe and Central India.
These two empires, although counting with prepared and efficient rulers, were the first to
start the practice of fratricide15 and murdering their most capable children, some in fear of being
dethroned by them. Doing this was in most part, the cause of the decline of both empires, since
now they didn’t have able rulers to manage the empire.
The third and last of the empires was the Mughal, which rose in India and present-day
nations such as Bangladesh, Afghanistan and Pakistan. It was one of the greatest empires to
exist, and at some point of the 18th century, it was the world’s greatest empire. The Mughals
established Islam as their faith.
Another cause of the empire-declining, which affected the Empires, including the
Mughal, was the death of their ablest rulers; which left the empires in hands of people who were
not able to manage the empire as their previous rulers had.
All three empires were influential in the Muslim world and had an impact on the modern
world. Although most of them had declined by the mid-19th century, they remained as important
historical empires, whose influence in cultural aspects is still seen today. As we saw on the paper, all
three empires had outstanding rulers who helped them flourish and establish themselves as the
outstanding empires they became. Suleyman “the Lawgiver” on the Ottoman, Abbas the Great on the
Safavid Empire and Akbar in the Mughal, helped the empire become what it was in the end, and are
considered the greatest rulers of their empires.
15
Murder of brothers.
19
Bibliography
20
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21
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22
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Annex
23
Map of the Ottoman Empire
24
Map of the Mughal Empire
25