An investigation into the impact of trampling on the length of ribwort

plantain at Broomhill Burrows, Pembrokeshire.

Hypotheses
H1 There will be a statistically significant correlation between the length of
Ribwort Plantain leaves and distance from a path at Broomhill Burrow.
H0 There will be no statistically significant correlation between the length
of ribwort plantain leaves and distance from a path at Broomhill Burrows.
Abstract
The effect of trampling on the flora of fixed sand dunes was investigated
through the use of continuous belt transects and 1m 2 squared open
quadrats on one particular site at Broomhill Burrows, Pembrokeshire. The
aim of the experiment was to quantify the effect that trampling had on the
growth of one of the hardiest ground flora in the area, Plantago lanceolota
(common name ribwort plantain,). Due to its adaptations to combat
trampling, Plantago lanceolota would act as an indicator species for the
effect of trampling on ground flora in general on a fixed dune. The
research found that trampling did have a significant effect on growth. It
was also discovered that whilst there was a strong negative correlation
between growth of ribwort plantain and distance from path due to
increased competition, the impact of trampling on growth was greater
than the impact of competition.
Rationale
Broomhill burrows is a sandy beach on the Pembrokeshire coast, and was
designate an SSI (site of specific interest) in 1954 due to its mobile dune,
dune grassland and dune slack vegetation, rare sand dune plants, chough
and its cliff structures. Broomhill burrows has also been a part of the set
for scenes of several major films, including Robin Hood and Harry Potter
and the deathly hallows part 2. The tourism generated by these cameo
appearances has naturally resulted in increased degree of trampling on
the fixed and semi fixed dunes towards the rear of the popular surfing
beach, as people cross them to get access to the beach from the many car
parks around the Burrows.
Sites such as Broomhill burrows and the sand dunes they house are
exceedingly important in the study of conservation and ecology, as they
have very clear topographic and ecological zones. This is particularly
valuable when studying primary succession, as this occurs over a number
of decades, as Psammoseres can show a complete record of the stages of
succession. 2 Psammoseres are an intermediary in ecological succession
in coastal areas, and are commonly sand dunes, as is the case here.

1
4

Edexcel As Biology, Essex, Pearson Education Limited pp.218

Trampling takes it toll by Katherine C. Wiesman

Palmer A; Yates N. (2005) Advanced Geography. Philip Allan Updates. pp. 380
http://www.field-studies-council.org/urbaneco/urbaneco/grassland/trampling.htm
8
Http://www.washington.edu/research/pathbreakers/1969g.html
7

Plantago lanceolota is a perennial plant whose palatable leaves and seeds

provide valuable nutritious food for grazing stock such as rabbits and
wildlife. The leaf of the ribwort plantain is extremely rich in minerals
including magnesium, and the plant itself contains a variety of biologically
active compounds in high quantities. Some of these biological compounds
(particularly verbascoside) give the plantain an anti-microbial effect, which
can inhibit rumen fermentation-easing bloating amongst grazing animals
and improving their health. This is especially important in Broomhill
Burrows, as all the main dune grassland area should be grazed, to keep
the growth of coarse grasses, scrubs and bracken in check 3-. As Plantago
Lanceolota is the only plant in the area with verbascoside in it, it is
essential to the sand dune community.
The role that Plantago Lanceolota plays in the community, its niche, forms
part of the reason for its selection for this investigation. As it is such an
influential plant, it makes sense to check whether increased human
activity is harming it and thus harming the sand dunes. Essentially, the
plant can be called a keystone species, in other words, a species that is
usually noticed when they are removed or they disappear from an
ecosystem, resulting in dramatic changes to the rest of the community. 8
Trampling directly disturbs plants when pieces of leaves break off or
stems split when a plant is kicked or squashed. Trampling also indirectly
affects plant populations 5
Trampling indirectly impacts plant growth and populations by causing
changes in the soil that in turn affect plant growth. These include changes
in porosity, microorganism activity, air content, accelerated erosion, less
earthworm activity (the ground is more compact, so the earthworms cant
burrow through) and eventually the loss of organic matter from soil. Such
changes can prove hugely debilitating for a plant population and its
growth, even in hardier plants such as ribwort plantain and could
eventually slow their propagation and dispersal in the whole sand dune
ecosystem. This is called a plagioclimax, where humans have, through
various arresting factors, prevented part of an ecosystem from reaching its
climatic climax. 6
In response to the trampling that it receives, over the years ribwort
plantain has developed several adaptations to try and minimize the
damage done by trampling. The ribwort plantain leaf is tough and thick,
making it less likely to be broken. The leaf also has a parallel vein pattern
in order to give the leaf added strength. The plantain itself is in a rosette
shape, which allows the plant to lie close to the ground, protecting it from
trampling. The stem is the only aspect of the plant, which looks vulnerable
to trampling, but it is surprisingly tough and is springy, allowing it to
bounce back up when it is trodden on, keeping the seeds in the correct
position for dispersal.

2
4

Edexcel As Biology, Essex, Pearson Education Limited pp.218

Trampling takes it toll by Katherine C. Wiesman

Palmer A; Yates N. (2005) Advanced Geography. Philip Allan Updates. pp. 380
http://www.field-studies-council.org/urbaneco/urbaneco/grassland/trampling.htm
8
Http://www.washington.edu/research/pathbreakers/1969g.html
7

Parallel vein pattern

Rosette
shape
Plantago Lanceolota. Figure 11.

The plants hardiness is the second reason for its selection for this
investigation, as almost all other plants in the ecosystem will be affected
to a greater extent than the ribwort plantain due to the many adaptations
it has developed. Ergo, the ribwort plantain can be used as an indicator
species, as if it is being affected by trampling, most of the other plants in
the ecosystem will be affected as well.
Therefore, gathering scientific data on the effect of trampling on ribwort
plantain can be used to form predictions on the long-term effects of
tourism on the Plantago Lanceolota population in the ecosystem, and thus
help to inform conservation and sand dune management efforts in the
future.
The aim of this investigation was primarily to assess and measure the
effect of trampling on the growth via length of leaf of ribwort plantain, but
additionally if the increased length of the other species of grasses and
herbaceous plants as distance from path increased affected the growth of
the ribwort plantain. The data collected would then be applied to the
hypothesis put forward by the field studies council in their article on
trampling, that it is the boundary between the two extremes of trampled
and non-trampled where the flora will thrive the most. 8This

3
4

Edexcel As Biology, Essex, Pearson Education Limited pp.218

Trampling takes it toll by Katherine C. Wiesman

Palmer A; Yates N. (2005) Advanced Geography. Philip Allan Updates. pp. 380
http://www.field-studies-council.org/urbaneco/urbaneco/grassland/trampling.htm
8
Http://www.washington.edu/research/pathbreakers/1969g.html
7

Taking this into consideration, the method I chose mirrored that of

experiment conducted on the Impact of trampling on sandy beach flora
headed by M.D Moffett, where four transects were placed perpendicular to
the study area, with each transect having 14 sampling stations placed at
2m intervals. For my initial method, I also used 4 transects but placed
parallel to the footpath. The interval at which they were placed was
initially shortened to get a better representation of the area around the
footpath and the length of the transects were also shortened to ensure
they were appropriate to my investigation. A spearmans rank correlation
coefficient test would be performed on the data collected, to determine
whether there is a correlation between distance from path (thus level of
trampling) and length of ribwort plantain leaves.

Method of 1st pilot study

Stratified sampling is used to determine a location on a fixed sand

dune (a dune that is no longer growing) affected by a visibly
significant level of trampling and where there is a clear footpath
present. This sampling is described as stratified as the fixed sand
dune was chosen due to prior knowledge of high levels of traffic
around this particular dune.
A ten metre stretch of path was then selected and two tape
measures were unravelled, one parallel to the path at the very edge
and the other perpendicular to the parallel tape measure at 10m.
Both of these tape measures were kept taught at all times to
increase accuracy. The area of path selected was of roughly the
same width, to avoid a scenario where a section of the transect was
more trampled than another.
The leaves of the plant closest to the perpendicular tape measure
were measured using a ruler, at 1m intervals.
These results were then recorded in a table.

Results of Pilot Study

A table showing the results of the pilot study can be seen below:

Distance from path

0m
1m
2m
3m
4m
5m
6m
7m
8m
9m
10m

Length of leaves of nearest

plant to vertical tape
measure (mm)
60,63,62,65,60,67,64,66,62
112,118,110,115,113
228,223,225,220,228,225
178,182,180,176,183,174
180,183,184,187,183,185
187,184,189,190,185,183
165,168,163,169,155
156,156,169,155,150,152
135,138,132,130
129,120,125,123,121,120
114,117,120,119,110

Amendments to Method
Following the pilot study, it was decided that, due to time constraints, the
length of ribwort plantain should be measured every 2 meters instead of
every meter. This had the added benefit of preventing the situation
whereby one ribwort plantain was in both transects. This amendment
would allow a more accurate investigation within the time period available.
Method of 2nd pilot study

Stratified sampling (sampling based on previous knowledge of

Broomhill burrows) is used to determine a location on a fixed sand
dune, a dune that is no longer growing, affected by a visibly
significant level of trampling and where there is a clear footpath
present. (The site chosen was the same as pilot 1)
A ten metre stretch of path was then selected and two tape
measures were unravelled, one parallel to the path at the very edge
and the other perpendicular to the parallel tape measure at 10m.
Both of these tape measures were kept taught at all times to
increase accuracy. The area of path selected was of roughly the
same width, to avoid a scenario where a section of the transect was
more trampled than another.
A 1m-squared open quadrat was used to perform continuous
sampling along the 10m stretch of path. An open 1m-squared
quadrat was used to identify which area to sample, as the size was
appropriate for the size of the ribwort plantain and a strung quadrat
would sit on top of the grass in taller areas, making it harder to
identify if flora was located inside it. Measurements of length of the
longest and shortest leaf of every ribwort plantain in the quadrat
were taken using a ruler across the 10m transects. This was

repeated every 2 metres up the perpendicular tape measure up

until 10m.
These results were then recorded in a table for each transect.

Distan Shortest leaf (mm)

Longest leaf
(mm)
10mm
ce
from
Key:
path
Quadrat belt:
(m)
8m
0
60, 60, 60, 60,61,60,60,60,60,60,60,60
66,67,68,63,69,68,68,67,69,68,67
Tape measure:
2
220,220,218,219,220,222,218,220,215, 228,228,226,227,230,235,227,23
219,223,218
229
4
180,180,182,180,182,182,181,183,182, 187,185,187,186,187,188,187,19
Figure 2- Diagram to show the arrangement of quadrats and tape measure respective to the path,
181,180,183,181
188,189,186,188
6m
6
155,160,163,160,160,163,162,161,160, 169,166,168,167,166,169,168,16
160,162,161,160
170,169,167
8
130,128,133,132,135,130,134,134,130, 138,139,139,138,137,140,138,13
130,130,133
136,142,137
10
110,113,111,115,109,110,90,110,110,1 120,121,120,118,117,119,118,11
4m
11,111,112,111
118,120,119,118

2m

0m
Results of Second Pilot Study
A table showing the results of the second pilot study can be seen below:
Amendments to Method
Following the second pilot study, it was decided that every leaf of each
ribwort plantain found within each quadrat would be measured, in order to
obtain a large enough sample size to yield results representative of the
population of ribwort plantain in Broomhill Burrows. This decision was
further reinforced by the large variation between the length of the shortest
leaves and the length of the largest leaves (from 60 mm to 72 mm at 0m),
thus solely measuring either of them would not accurately measure the
extent to which the plant had grown.
Planned Method

Stratified sampling (sampling based on previous knowledge of

Broomhill burrows) is used to determine a location on a fixed sand

dune, a dune that is no longer growing, affected by a visibly

significant level of trampling and where there is a clear footpath
present.
A ten metre stretch of path was then selected and two tape
measures were unravelled, one parallel to the path at the very edge
and the other perpendicular to the parallel tape measure at 10m.
Both of these tape measures were kept taught at all times to
increase accuracy. The area of path selected was of
roughly the same width, to avoid a scenario where
a section of the transect was more trampled than
another.
A 1m-squared open quadrat was used to perform
continuous sampling along the 10m stretch of path.
An open 1m-squared quadrat was used to identify
which area to sample, as the size was appropriate
for the size of the ribwort plantain and a strung
quadrat would sit on top of the grass in taller
areas, making it harder to identify if flora was
located inside it. Measurements of length of each
leaf of every ribwort plantain in the quadrat were
taken using a ruler across the 10m transects. This
was repeated every 2 metres up the perpendicular tape measure up
until 10m.
These results were then recorded in a table for each transect, and
the running mean was calculated. A running mean was used as it
gives an indication of when the sample size is large enough to be
considered as representative of a population.
A spearmans rank correlation co-efficient test would be performed
to determine if any statistically significant correlation is present
between distance from path and length of ribwort plantain.
Abiotic factors would also be taken (using a penetrometer to
measure how compact the soil was and thus the general level of
trampling and a lux meter, to measure light intensity,) at 3m
intervals along the vertical tape measure. This would allow
comparisons between abiotic factors across the area studied, and
therefore help determine whether or not trampling and competition
is the only causation for the differences in length of ribwort
plantain. The light intensity was taken at the level of the leaves of
the ribwort plantain, to ensure that it accurately reflected the light
the plant was getting.

Figure 1Diagram
of Ribwort
plantain,
black line
indicates
where
length of
leaf was
measured

Soil samples were taken at 2m intervals along the perpendicular

tape measure, in order to determine soil moisture and organic
content in the area studied.

Figure 3 shows the difference between the use of a strung and open quadrat. The strung quadrat sits on top of the grass, making i

Variables
Dependent: The dependent variable for this investigation will be the
average length of leaf of ribwort plantain. This information will be gathered
using an open 1m-squared quadrat, where only ribwort plantain inside the
quadrat will be recorded. In the event of a plant being half in the quadrat
and half out, only the leaves inside the quadrat will be measured. The data
will be recorded in the form of a table.
Independent: The independent variable for this investigation will be the
distance from the edge of the path at which the measurements are taken.
This will be measured with a tape measure, where the zero mark is
touching the bottom left hand corner of the quadrat at the location at the

edge of the path where the first tally for each transect is taken. A stone
will be placed at this zero mark for subsequent measurements to ensure
that the tape measure stays stationary and doesnt compromise the
experiment.

Controlled: As with any scientific investigation, the controlled variables

must be kept constant in order to preserve the integrity and validity of the
results that have been obtained, and any conclusions drawn from them.
The time of year will be kept constant, as all of the data was
collected on the same day in August 2013. Secondly, as all of the data
collected comes from the same 10m by 10 m area, the geology, age of
dune, organic content, pH and animal grazing should remain the same, as
will exposure. Thirdly, in order to ensure the ratio of number of people
walking to area of path is kept the same, all of the data measured will be
next to a footpath of near constant width (1.8m-2.2m).
Confounding: The confounding variables for this investigation will be
light intensity, soil density and temperature. As with all confounding
variables, there is no way one can control them, but they may impact the
results of this investigation and thus must be considered when making
conclusions.
Ethical Considerations
It must be remembered that the area investigated is part of a Site of
Special Scientific Interest, and therefore must be treated with the utmost
care during the investigation. All plants should be treated gently, and no
leaves should be damaged or pulled off when they are being measured.
Grazing animals, insects and bird life should not be disturbed or removed
from their natural habitat. All disposal items brought to the site must be
taken away and disposed of. Care should be taken to avoid further
trampling.

Ri
sk
As
se
ss
m
N.B Data on risk without controls obtained from official Orielton risk
assessment en
(9)

Risk
Rating
9

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

9
12
5
6
6
5
5
8

Controls
Wear appropriate footwear and be aware when
walking
Be aware when walking
Dont eat any of the wildlife
Be aware when walking
Wear sunglasses
Look out for and stay away from snakes
Wear warm and windproof clothing
Look both ways before crossing
Wear appropriate footwear

12

http://www.field-studies-council.org/centres/orielton/outdoorclassroom/riskassessments.aspx
8

Numb
er
1

11

Results of Full Study

Distance from path (m)

Average length of ribwort

plantain leaves (mm)
63.31
223.94
183.94
163.98
134.61
116.12

0
2
4
6
8
10

These results show that as distance from path increases initially (from 0 to
2m, there is a large increase in size), but then as distance from path
increases further then average length of ribwort plantain decreases.
Results from the abiotic factor measurements are shown below.

Abiotic
factors
Light
Intensity
(Lux)
Soil
Resistance
(kgcm-3)
Soil
moisture
(% Of dry
weight)
Soil organic
content
(% Of dry
weight)

Distance from path (m)

0
2
4

10

862

863

681

546

528

503

4.5

2.75

2.75

2.75

2.75

17

15

12

10

The differences in light intensity (863 Lux at 2m compared to 546 at 6m)

are due to the increasing height of grass as the transect moves away from
the trampled area, as without the inhibitions placed on growing conditions
by trampling, more plants can thrive and thus there is more shading as
grass grows taller to compete for light. The initial increase in lux is not
large enough to be significant. The differences in soil resistance are due to
compression of soil by footfall. This was anticipated in the rationale
section, as the area between the two extremes (high trampling shown by
high soil resistance, and high competition shown by low light intensity
levels) is where the plantain had the longest leaves and thus thrived the
most. The soil moisture and organic content paint a similar picture, with
the highest percentages for both being found at the border between high
trampling and lots of competition.

Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural12
Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255
10

Graphs
Figure 4:

Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural13
Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255
10

Graph to show how average length of ribwort plantain leaves changes with distance fr

Average length of ribwort plantain leaves (mm)

Average Length of ribwort plantain leaves (mm)

Scatter graph to show how average length of ribwort plantain leaves changes with distance from path

Average length of ribwort

plantain (mm)

Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural14
Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255
10

Figure 5:
Statistical Tests
For this investigation, a Spearmans Rank Correlation Coefficient Test was
used to test the hypotheses:

Number
of Pairs

Distanc
e from
path
(m)

1
2
3
4
5

2
4
6
8
10

Rank

1
2
3
4
5

Average
length
of
ribwort
plantain
(mm)
233.94
183.94
163.98
134.61
116.12

Rank

Differe
nce

Differe
nce2

5
4
3
2
1

4
2
0
-2
-4

16
4
0
4
16

Difference2 = 40
Using the formula for Spearmans Rank shown
on the right, where N = Number of Pairs:
Rs =(1-(6*40))/120= -1
For biological ecology work, the significance level is 95%. From the

Error bars shown represent the 2.5% error margin of

the running mean of my data, shown in full in the
numberappendix.
of pairs of values available (5) we can find the critical value from
the table as 0.9. The value of Rs is
greater than the critical value;
therefore reject Ho at the 95 percent
significance level. The Rs value of -1
shows a perfect negative correlation;
therefore we can say that there is a
strong negative correlation between
growth of ribwort plantain and
distance from path. In other words,
as distance from path increases,
length of ribwort plantain decreases.
Analysis of results
There was an evident decrease in
length of ribwort plantain leaves with
increasing distance from the pathshown by the downward trend line
from 2-10m on figure 3. It is also
worth noting that all ribwort plantain

Figure 6-Holes in the leaf on the 90mm plant.

Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural15
Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255
10

plants that werent on the path were significantly taller than the ribwort
plantain on the path. This is shown by both figures 3 and 4, where the
average length at 0m from the path is 63.31, compared to 116.12, which
is the lowest of all of the lengths excluding at 0m. This is a difference of
almost double.
Furthermore, there is a noteworthy anomaly at 10m (highlighted in the
table entitled Table to show Running mean at 10m). The length of 90mm
is significantly lower than any other value measured, and could be
attributed to insects such as aphids eating away at the leaf and thus
stunting its growth, as there is less of the leaf surface area that can carry
out photosynthesis. This is shown by figure 5.
Conclusions
The results of this investigation hold true to the hypotheses by FSC
Orielton7 that it is the boundary between the two extremes of trampled
and non-trampled where the flora will thrive the most. In this case, the
boundary was located at 2m from the path. This is because the ribwort
plantain at 2m didnt have to withstand the constant trampling
symptomatic of the plantain at 0m, but due to the presence of a slight
degree of trampling, possibly due to people and animals straying from the
path, it also didnt have much competition from other species as the soil
was still very compact (4.5 kgcm-3). Thus other taller plants such as
Marram grass cant put down their roots and cant survive, as their roots
need to penetrate quite deep into the soil. This is not the case with
Plantago Lanceolota as it has fibrous roots, which grow horizontally fairly
close to the surface of the ground and therefore do not require much
penetration. This lack of competition is very important in the growth of
ribwort plantain, especially in terms of competition for light. Light is
required for the light-dependent stages of photosynthesis, which have two
main functions. One is to produce ATP, which supplies the energy needed
for the synthesis of carbohydrates. The other is to split water molecules in
a photochemical reaction, providing hydrogen ions to reduce carbon
dioxide and produce carbohydrates. Both of these functions are essential
for photosynthesis to occur, as the light independent stages of
photosynthesis use the reduced NADP and ATP produced by the light
dependent stage to convert glycerate 3 phosphate into glyceraldehyde 3
phosphate, which is then converted into glucose. Therefore with less
interspecific competition, there is more light for the ribwort plantain and
more energy for photosynthesis; resulting in more glucose produced for
growth.
Also, the ribwort plantain at 2m had the most moisture and nutrients in its
soil because the soil hadnt been negatively affected by trampling and
hadnt had its moisture and nutrients drained by other more abundant
plants. Similarly to light, moisture plays an important role in
photosynthesis as it provides vital H+ ions for the synthesis of glucose.
Soil nutrients are also very important in photosynthesis; for example,
magnesium is an important plant of chlorophyll that plays a fundamental
role in the light dependent stage of photosynthesis by absorbing light. This
absorbed light excites electrons within the chlorphyll, beginning the
electron transport chain, which provides energy to phosphorylate ADP to
form ATP.
Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural16
Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255
10

The results of this experiment also show that trampling has a significant
effect on the length of ribwort plantain leaves, as the plantain leaves
Trampling

Abrasion of vegetation

Abrasion of organic matter

Soil
Compaction

Reduced plant vigor

Reduced plant production

Reduction in litter cover

Reduction in air and water quality

Changes in soil Biota

Increased run off and erosion
Change in species composition
Reduced Vegetation cover

Figure 7-the effects of trampling

measured at 0m were the shortest leaves by far. This is because trampling
encourages hostile conditions in which plants cant grow to their full
potential, shown by figure 7.
The reduced length of the ribwort plantain 0m from the path can also be
attributed to the mechanical damage caused by trampling, as plants have
to expend energy on cell repair instead of growth, as Liddle explains
direct mechanical damage to plants is shown most clearly by the
persistent reduction in height that occurs in trampled areas. 10
To conclude, trampling has a significant affect on the growth of ribwort
plantain, and thus on the majority of plant species in Broomhill Burrows (if
ribwort plantain is accepted as an indicator species). It can also be
concluded that the effect of trampling is much greater than the effect of
competition, as the length of ribwort plantain under extreme trampling
was significantly shorter than the length of ribwort plantain under extreme
competition.

Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural17
Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255
10

Limitations and Improvements

Despite two pilot studies, and subsequent amendments to the method, a
number of systematic errors remain. Ideally, a continuous belt transect
using 0.25m2 quadrats would have been the method used to measure
length of ribwort plantain leaves moving away from the path, at 1m
intervals. This would have provided a better representation of how ribwort
plantain is affected by trampling and competition. However, time
limitations meant that if this method had been chosen, insufficient data
would have been collected for reliable conclusions to be drawn.
Also, despite the fact that the flattest area of the path was chosen, there
was still a gradient difference between the start and the end of the
transect. This could have caused run off from rain to effect the distribution
of minerals at various points on the transect. This could have a significant
affect on the length grown by the leaves of the ribwort plantain, and
represents a variable that was not adequately controlled in this
investigation. To improve this investigation, inorganic as well as organic
content of the soil should have been measured at different points on the
transect, to determine the extent to which runoff impacts soil composition,
ergo whether or not the differences in mineral availability are as or more
significant than the extent of trampling in their effect on growth of ribwort
plantain.
Finally, the investigation (again due to time constraints) was carried out on
only one dune at one time of year, and thus may not be fully
representative of the effect of trampling on the length of ribwort plantain
across Broomhill Burrows at all times of year. To rectify this, I would repeat
this experiment seasonally on additional fixed dunes at Broomhill Burrows.

Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural18
Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255
10

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1 - http://www.ccgc.gov.uk/landscape--wildlife/protecting-ourlandscape/special-landscapes--sites/protected-landscapes-andsites/sssis/sssi-sites/broomhill-burrows.aspx
This is a government owned website, meaning that before any of the
content was published it would almost certainly have been reviewed
and double-checked by ecological experts. Therefore, it is unlikely to
contain any bias and is fairly credible.
2 - Fullick A. (2009) Edexcel A2 Biology, Essex, Pearson Education
Limited pp.21
This textbook has been created for the purpose of informing students,
not persuading them. Therefore it is safe to say that this sources is
highly unlikely to be biased, and is reliable. The exam board also
checks the textbook, to ensure all its facts are correct.
3 - Countryside council for wales SSSI document
This document was written and published by the countryside council
for Wales (CCW), a government sponsored body. The CCW is a
recognized authority on conservation, and therefore it is safe to say
that any documents it produces will have been peer-reviewed within
the council extensively and probably discussed at one of their monthly
meetings. Therefore this source is unlikely to contain any factual
inaccuracies or bias, and is credible.
4 - Fullick A. (2009) Edexcel A2 Biology, Essex, Pearson Education
Limited pp.218
This textbook has been created for the purpose of informing students,
not persuading them. Therefore it is safe to say that this sources is
highly unlikely to be biased, and is reliable. The exam board also
checks the textbook, to ensure all its facts are correct.
5 - Trampling takes it toll by Katherine C. Wiesman
This article doesnt have any acknowledgements or references, which
compromises its reliability as it is impossible to tell where the
information is from. Also, Mrs. Wiesman is the only cited author, thus
factual inaccuracies could potentially be a problem. However, the
author has written books on similar topics and is a department head at
her respective school, so the source should be attributed with a degree
of credibility. Also, the conclusion made on the impact of trampling on
plant populations is mirrored by Liddles book on the ecological effects
of human trampling on Natural ecosystems, as they both agree that
trampling will have a negative impact on affected flora. This adds to
the credibility of this source.
6 - Palmer A; Yates N. (2005) Advanced Geography. Philip Allan
Updates. pp. 380
Reputable publishers have published this book, so the information in it is
Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural19
Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255
10

likely to have been reviewed multiple times before it was published.

Additionally, as it is the product of two geographers working as a team, it
is more likely to be factually correct and reliable.
7-http://www.field-studiescouncil.org/urbaneco/urbaneco/grassland/trampling.htm
Members of the field studies council compiled this document and because
the field studies council is an independent, non-profit organization whose
primary aim is to inform, I doubt there would be significant bias. The FSC
have been awarded the Quality Badge by The Council for Learning Outside
the Classroom, meaning that they consistently deliver high quality
teaching and learning experiences and manage risk effectively. As this
source is specifically about managing risk, it is credible.
8 - Http://www.washington.edu/research/pathbreakers/1969g.html
This webpage is one of the many that make up the university of
Washingtons research site. As the university is a very well respected
institute of higher education, the source will have been checked and
reviewed, and will contain little to no bias as it is there purely to
educate. This would suggest the source is extremely credible.
9 - http://www.field-studiescouncil.org/centres/orielton/outdoorclassroom/risk-assessments.aspx
Members of the field studies council compiled this document and because
the field studies council is an independent, non-profit organization whose
primary aim is to inform, I doubt there would be significant bias. The FSC
have been awarded the Quality Badge by The Council for Learning Outside
the Classroom, meaning that they consistently deliver high quality
teaching and learning experiences and manage risk effectively. As this
source is specifically about managing risk, it is credible.
10 - Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human
Trampling on Natural Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255
This article was published in the Biological conservation journal, one of
the most well respect journals on conservation in Britain. Therefore it
would have been thoroughly checked before it was published, and is
likely to be factually sound. The article also has 294 citations,
indicating its widespread use in the scientific community. When taking
all of this into consideration, this source can confidently be called
credible.

Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural20
Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255
10

Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural21
Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255
10