Scientific Research and Essays

Vol. 8(41), pp. 1998-2007, 4 November, 2013

DOI 10.5897/SRE2013.5656
ISSN 1992-2248 2013 Academic Journals
http://www.academicjournals.org/SRE

Full Length Research Paper

Variograms and regression methods of their creation

Margita Vajsblov
Department of Mathematics and Descriptive Geometry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Slovak University of Technology,
Bratislava, Slovak Republic.
Accepted 14 October, 2013

The role of interpolation methods in creation of the Digital elevation models (DEM) is an actual problem
from theoretical and application aspect. Geo-statistical interpolation methods respect autocorrelation of
input data, which is expressed by variogram function. The aim of this paper is to describe creation of
variogram model functions and estimation of their parameters and also implementation of variogram to
software Surfer for using Kriging interpolation method. The main contribution is creation of variogram
function by parametric and nonparametric regression methods and their comparison. Kriging geostatistical interpolation method, some types of variogram models and their properties are presented.
The Least square method is used in estimation of regression functions by parametric regression
method. The statistically analyzed results of four noted model functions were presented and used for
implementation variogram model to software Surfer. Comparison of variograms created by parametric
and nonparametric method demonstrated that nonparametric method respects input data more than
model created by parametric regression, however in prediction of data the parametric regression
methods are preferable.
Key words: Interpolation, Kriging, variogram, geostatistics, parametric and nonparametric regression methods.

INTRODUCTION
The Digital terrain models (DTM) and The Digital
elevation models (DEM) describe the continuum of a
surface as a finite amount of three dimensional points
(x,y,z-values) in a space (xyz-triple). The measured xyztriples (using different measurement techniques) are
mostly irregular spaced. These irregular spaced points
are normally converted in a regular spaced grid (called
grid cell e.g. square grid) by using different interpolation
techniques (e.g. Kriging), (Kthe and Bock, 2009).
The models DTM/DEM are created from the points with
different frequency and distribution. A choice of the
interpolation method and her parameters depends on
many factors, for examples a type of interpolate
phenomenon,
character of surface (horizontal and
elevation segmentation, break lines etc.) or a purpose of
a digital model. The most used interpolation methods are
the method of inverse distance weighting, the method of

natural neighbours, trend, Kriging and the spline method

(Burrough and McDonell, 1998). Application of different
interpolating methods and their comparison are the
research subject of a lot of authors, e. g. Yilmaz (2009),
Yao et al. (2013), Erdogan (2009), Pineda and Stefanoni
(2007) and others.
Kriging method belongs among geostatistic methods
where there is supposed autocorrelation among input
data (Webster, Oliver, 2001). Types of Kriging method
are Point Kriging and Block Kriging- with both capable of
generating an interpolated grid. Point Kriging estimates
the values of the points at the grid nodes. Block Kriging
estimates the average value of the rectangular blocks
centered on the grid nodes. The blocks are determined
by the size and shape of a grid cell. Since Block Kriging
is estimating the average value of a block, it generates
smoother contours (block averaging smoothes). Ordinary

E-mail: margita.vajsablova@stuba.sk. Tel: +421 2 59274406.

Vajsablova

1999
*

and Universal Kriging algorithms can be applied to both

Kriging types (Govaerts and Vervoort, 2010). Kriging
method is based on autocorrelation of input data, which is
expressed by structural function named variogram. This
paper focuses on Kriging and we pay attention to creation
of variogram function by parametric and nonparametric
regression methods and to analyze their effect on
accuracy of DEM. The Least square method and its
application
in estimation of regression functions by
parametric
regression
method
are
subsequently
described. For the evaluation nonparametric regression
variogram function we used nonparametric monotonic
regression method by Kalick (2005).
An experimental territory for the creation of the DEM
was a part of the cadastral district Modra with dimensions
1000 1000 m. It is situated approximately 20 km on the
north from Bratislava. A relief of the experimental territory
is irregular and broken. The larger part of the
experimental territory is under forest cover. As input data
for creation of DEM we used data processed with the
digital photogrammetry.
A photograph scale of aerial
photographs was 1:7 500 to 1:8 000. A file of input data
contains 4 792 points. We used SURFER 8 for creation
of the DEM Kriging method (Golden software, 1999). We
created the raster DEM with a grid 1 m. We considered
the breaklines within the creation of the DEM.
INTERPOLATION METHOD KRIGING
Kriging is a geostatistical gridding method that
has
proven useful and popular in many fields. Kriging method
is called by D. G. Krige African pioneer in applications
of statistic methods in geographic sciences (Krige, 1951).
We describe the principle of this method by Point
estimation of Ordinary Kriging. This method is realized
from input data z(si) on the known localities si. Estimation
*

value of random variable Z is a linear combination of

values
z(szi) (Stehlkov,
2002):
of value
on the locality
s0, where we do not have any

z * (s0 )

i1

z(si )

where n is number of points. In order to have unbiased

n

estimation of weights wi, we have to hold:

Kriging.
Kriging method is possibly used not only to estimate z of
value
z for territory segment block, we say about block
VARIOGRAM
An important component of the Kriging method is a
variogram (Hork,
2002). The
variogram provides
quantification of the correlation between two random
variables. That can be graphically represented by
function which characterizes the spatial continuity (that is,
roughness) of a data set. Spatial variable is a function of
position, for example of coordinates x, y, z. A correlation
between values of observation parameters is possibly
expected from their functionality that is expressed
particularly at small distance between observed positions,
and
this effect is
named
autocorrelation. Spatial
autocorrelation indicate the behavior of observed
phenomenon, where value of correlation between value z
localized on the point with position s and value z on the
point with position s+h; autocorrelation decreases with
increasing
of vector h. Process
of
vanishing
of
autocorrelation between point set localized on z(s) and
on z(s+h) with increasing distance h characterize the
level of continuity and structure of analyzed system. An
autocorrelation is modeled and visualized by structural
functions. One of them is a variogram function 2(s, h),
which is defined (Isaaks and Srivastava, 1989):
2 (s, h) E[(Z(s) Z(s h))2 ] .

Value of random variable z(si) and z(si+h) determined on

the points si and si+h are autocorrelated and this
autocorrelation depends on vector h and also on specific
conditions on selected localities. Formulation of this
function requires several realizations (zk(s), zk(s+h)),
(zk(s), zk(s+h)), ..., (zk(s), zk(s+h)) of pair of random
variable (Z(s), Z(s+h)). Because we have only one
realization (Z(s), Z(s+h)) on the points s and s+h in

1. We

expression (3) and the result is the theoretical variogram:

(h) 1 E[(Z (s) Z (s h))2 ].

calculate their values by variogram function :

s23 s1 1
s s
0
n

s s

s s
3

s s

1 w1 s1 s0

Also we expect, that with decreasing of vector h the

1 w2 s2 s0

1 w3 s3 s0

10 wn sn s0

(4)

i1

1
s1 s2 s1 s3 s1 sn
s2 sn
3 s22 s3
s s
0
s3 sn

(3)

almost every applications, therefore we

formulate
standard hypothesis
with
condition, that variogram
function 2(s, h) depends on vector h and that is
independent of locality s.
Then we
reformulate

(1)

locality s0 with point character, but also to estimate the

(2)

(h)

i 1

zsi zsi h

(5)

ation
Matherons estimation variogram:
spatial variabili s and their
ty of values autocorrelation increases. is so called experimental variogram and
also decrease Then it is possible to e one of them is
2n

2000

Sci. Res. Essays

Figure 1. Experimental and model variogram and its components.

Models with sill:

where n is number of pair spatial values.
A very important step during the geostatistic analysis is
adjustment of the experimental model by appropriate type
of the variogram model. Each model has its own basic
structure, which is the function of the distance between
data. We express this structure by the parameters sill
(upper limit of the variogram model) and range (boundary
distance between selection locality at which the model
reaches the maximum value or sill) on the Figure 1;
Range = Length (A). Nugget effect is a property, when
variogram has a non-zero intercept on the vertical axis,
so if h 0, then it does not hold: (h) 0. Nugget effect
is partitioned into two sub-components: the error variance
and the micro variance. The example of a variogram with
typical components is in Figure 1.
If Z(x) is a standard random function with the variogram
(h), then during selection of the correspondent model for
his adjustment we have to consider:
- variation and tendency of average incremental values
Z(x) - Z(x+h) within vector h (average increments we
mark as drift),
- properties of the variogram in a proximity origin
(parabolic, linear, nugget-effect discontinuity of the
variogram with the origin),
- presence or absence of sill value during increasing (h);
((h) is constant if h > a, where a is range value); thus we

- with linear behaviour in the proximity origin (e.g.

spherical model, exponential model),
- with parabolic behaviour in the neighbourhood origin
(e.g. Gauss model),
Models without sill:
model, power model.

e.g.

linear

model,

logarithmic

Variogram models with sill

Models with a finite sill c, like the spherical, exponential,
Gaussian and quadratic, are referred to as transition
models and have corresponding covariance functions
given by cov(h) = c - (h) (Deutsch, 2002). Graphic
interpretation of sill value is attributed to variogram
plateau, hence there is upper limit of variogram model
and it is equal to variance random function Z(s). Some
examples of the variogram models with sill are:
a) Spherical model is ranked among the most used
3 h 1 h3
c0b( with equation:
variogram models
2 a 2 a3

h
a
v
e

two

ypes of variogram models:

(h)

for 0ha,

(6)
for ha.

c0b

Vajsablova

Parameter a reflects a range of spatial correlation; c0 + b

is a sill value and c0 is a nugget-effect.

(7)

c) Gaussian model is frequently applied in modeling of

extremal continuous phenomenon; its equation is:

(8)

Gaussian model has a parabolic trend in the origin.

d) Quadratic model is frequently applied in modeling
and its equation is:

(h) c0 c1h c2h2.

(9)

Variogram models without sill

Some of the variogram models do not reach a finite sill
and do not have a corresponding covariance function.
The examples of the variograms without sill are:
a) Linear model has equation:

(h) c0 c1 h,

(10)

where c1 is a slope into an origin and c0 is a nugget

effect. If the distances are very small, linear model could
be equal to models with linear trend near the origin.
b) Logarithmic model has equation:

(h) c ln h.

(11)

If h 0, then logarithmic model can be used on

regionalization only with the strictly point principle (Isaaks
and Srivastava, 1989).
c)

Variogram model power with equation:

0(h) c0 c1 hn .

0 then value is zero; in the opposite case model value is

1:

0 if h 0,

Exponential model has a linear trend in the origin.

(h) c1 exp h2

origin. So if distance value h approximate to zero, the

variogram values are significantly different to zero. The
variogram non-incidence with origin is possibly modeled
by non-continuous transitive model, where if distance h =

0(h)

b) Exponential model has equation (Clark, 1979):

(h) c0 1 exp h

2001

(12)

Where power exponent n has values 0< n<2, if n =1 we

have linear model.

(13)

1 if h 0.
Spatial variable of values is related to vector distance h,
also to its direction, which is characterized by anisotropy
(Isaaks and Srivastava, 1989). This relation between
model and direction of vector h can be graphically
represented by variogram isolines in two-dimensional
space. We know several isoline types by their shape:
- if isolines have circular shape, variogram is related only
to vector distance h; so modeled data have isotropy
character,
- if isolines have ellipsoidal shape, this is called geometric
anisotropy, which is a result of linear transformation of
spatial co-ordinates of corresponding isotropy model,
- extremal case of geometric anisotropy is zonal
anisotropy.
PARAMETRIC REGRESSION METHOD OF CREATION
VARIOGRAM MODEL
Character of input data, for example points such as
location of mine bore, soil probe, weather-bureau, data
obtained by GPS technology and the like, are the main
criteria for autocorrelation data on analyzed territory
(Vajsblov, 2007). We consider isotropic data field in
this article; however other methods that can be used for
anisotropic data are also described.
Software products, that are applicable for creation of
DEM, partly comprise tools for modeling by interpolating
methods. Regression analysis of input data is necessary
for determination of variogram type and parameters,
because the software products do not predict variogram
model function and parameters values. In proposed
procedure we solve estimation of variogram model type
by parametric and nonparametric regression methods.
Before the using of regression method, it is necessary
to evaluate experimental variogram (Figure 5) and values
hi, i are observations and they are consequently used in
parametric regression method for specifying variogram
model function. In classic admission we created several
Nugget effect and anisotropy of variogram

different variogram functions by regression method,

amongst which spherical type had the best statistic
validation in comparison with experimental variogram.
Correlation methods emphasize estimating the degree
of dependence of H (equal the Lag distance h) and the
experimental variogram values . Regression methods
are used to inspect the relationship between H and

Many of the experimental variograms does not start from

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c0 c1the
h regression
c3h3
more closely. Formally,
of on H is merely
the mean of for given value of H, say h.
We describe regression method by the example, where
regression of on H is spherical regression; then
regression equation is in the form:

E( / h)

, c

3b
b
, (14)
, c3
2a
2a3

S a isc0a range
c1hi and
cb3his
i a sill.
i
where
The constant c0, c1, c3
are unknown and must be estimated from the data hi, i.
We used the Least square method, which is a commonly
accepted method for estimation. The Least square
method for finding estimates c0, c1, c3 of c0, c1, c3
minimizes:
Sc0 , c1, c3
n
c
j

(15)
(16)

for observations (h1, 1), (h2, 2), ...

that S is minimizes is executed:

c c h

1 i

c3hi

(hn, n). The condition,

0, j 0,1,3.

c
1
h
i

c3hi i hi 0
c

With respect to previous condition we formulate a system

c c1hi c3hi i h3 0
of equations:

i1

cn0 n 0 c1
i

i1

cn0
h

ii1 i

c0

h
0

66.3367,
c1 = 2.92405,
c3 =function
- 4.22953*10
- The Linear
regression
(Figure. 2) with equation
in the shape (10) has the parameters: c0 = 13.9939 and
c1 = 2.11798.
- The Quadratic regression function (Figure 3) with
equation in the shape (9) has the parameters: c0 = 82.0701, c1 = 3.40887 and c2 = - 0.00281701.
- The Spherical regression function (Figure 4) with
equation in the shape (6) has the parameters: c0 = -6

- The regression function Power (Figure 5) with equation

in the shape (12) has the parameters: c0 = -89.5472,
c1 = 10.4397, n = 0.75.
There are statistically analyzed results of four noted
model functions in the Table 1. Determination ratio is

i1

We calculated several types of variogram regress

function in software environment Wolfram Mathematica
7.01 (2008) by parametric regression methods, when the
most applicable model for our input data are:

c
3
3

i3

c1

3 i2

c 3

c1

c3

i3

i4

i4

i6

(17)

i1

From the model function coefficients we evaluate values

a, b by (19):

a 480.049 , b 935.79 .

i1

for our input data has the best statistic values and it has
equation:

66.3367 2.92405 h 4.22953 106 h3.

hi3 where after elementary modification we have:

from
n

ratio of theoretical sum of the squares and total sum of

the squares and it is characterized as the measure of
applicability of regress function. The Determination ratio
of model is more closely to 1; the choices regress
function is more adequate. The Adjusted Determination
Ratio we get, if theoretical and total sum of the squares
are divided by degree of freedom. Mean value of the
residual sum squares we obtained by Estimated Residual
Variance. As we can see in the Table 1, the Spherical
regression model function has the best statistic values
the least Estimated Residual Variance and Determination
Ratio is the closest to value 1.
As mentioned, the Spherical variogram model created

i1

i1

i1

i1

i1

i1

i1

i1

i1

(18)

Parameters of variogram model are:

- Range = Length = a = 480.049.
- Nugget effect = - c0 = 66.3367.
- Sill = b = 935.79.
- Scale = sill - nugget effect = b + c0 = 869.45.
Spherical variogram model was applied in creation DEM

by Kriging method by software product Surfer 8.01,

where we used evaluated parameters Length and Scale.
Dialogue window of Variogram properties is on the Figure
6 and used spherical variogram model is on the Figure 7.
Digital elevation model of territory Modra created by
Kriging method with spherical variogram model in Surfer

Estimations a, b of a, b we get from c1, c3 by (14); thus it

holds:

3
3

23
9

c3

(19)

c3

Vajsablova

800

600

400

200

100

200

300

400

Figure 2. Linear variogram model function.

800

600

400

200

100

200

300

400

Figure 3. Quadratic variogram model function.

800

600

,b

c 400
200

2003

100

200

300

400

Figure 4. Spherical variogram model function.

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800

600

400

200

h
100

200

300

400

Figure 5. Variogram model function Power.

Model

Determination Ratio

Adjusted Determination Ratio

Estimated Residual Variance [m ]

Table 1. Statistic values of the Linear, Quadratic, Spherical and Power regression function models.

Linear
Quadratic
Spherical
Power

0.968201
0.993361
0.995800
0.981918

0.967364
0.993002
0.995573
0.981442

Figure 6. Dialogue window in Surfer 8.01 for defining type and parameters of variogram.

2853.050
611.727
386.969
1622.31

Vajsablova

2005

Column C
Direction: 0.0 Tolerance: 90.0
800

700

600

Variogram

500

400

300

200

100

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Lag Distance

Figure 7. Experimental variogram and Spherical variogram model in Surfer 8.01.

th

8.01 is on the Figure 8.

NONPARAMETRIC
REGRESSION
CREATION VARIOGRAM MODEL

R hi falls
4
: Estimations
hi , R i are convert
between
the ranksofRthe
and RhR
hi ranks
k , then:
by original values, also if estimation value

METHOD

OF

In situations, where parametric regression deficiently

responds to data change, conditional dispersion of data is
not constant or data have very abnormal behavior, it
would be better to use some nonparametric monotonic
regression methods. For our experimental data we
applied the next algorithm of evaluation:

ed

h i h j
Rhi Rh j

of
hk values
h j , i hi j, iR i and
R j k thej
Rhk Rh j
R k R j
variogram created by nonparametric regression method
is illustrated on the Figure 9.

i , i
Mean value of the residual sum squares
of h
variogram
For

each

pairs

st

data set of ranks Rhi , R i of the both components.

1 nd: From values of experimental variogram we create
regression line:
2 : For the first value we evaluate parameters a1, b1

R 1

a1 b1Rh1 .

3 : We compute estimations
of the ranks:
R 1 a , R 1 b1Rh1 a1 .

Conclusion
The criterion of variogram model accuracy is the most

rd

R h1

This fact presents that nonparametric regression method

more closely characterized behavior of input data.
model created by nonparametric method is 29.5887 m .

b1

important factor in choice of regression method type.

Analyses of regression models demonstrates that
nonparametric method respects input data more than
model created by parametric regression, however in the

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Figure 8. Digital elevation model of territory Modra created by Kriging method with spherical variogram model in Surfer 8.01.

800

600

400

200

100

200

300

400

Figure 9. Variogram model created by nonparametric method.

Vajsablova
2007
of prediction data the parametric
regression
methods are preferable.
aspect

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