Stepping Motors

Stepping Motors
Unit: 4/EE/A0 Mechatronics

Lecturer: James Grimbleby
URL: http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~stsgrimb/
email: j.b.grimbleby reading.ac.uk
Number of Lectures: 10
Recommended text book:
P P.
P.
P Acarnley:
A
l
Stepping Motors: A Guide to Modern Theory and Practice
Peter Peregrinus (for IEE)
ISBN 0-86341-027-8
James Grimbleby
School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering
Syllabus
Types of stepping motor: variable-reluctance, permanentmagnet, hybrid, single-phase.
Stepping motor drivers,
drivers H
H-bridge,
bridge resistor ballasting
ballasting,
chopper drives, drive sequences
Microprocessor control of stepping motors
Static
St
ti torque
t
characteristic,
h
t i ti dynamic
d
i response, resonance,
pull-in and pull-out characteristics, micro stepping
Stepping motor model, high-speed operation, simulation,
velocity-error
velocity
error plane diagrams
Closed-loop control of stepping motors
James Grimbleby
Stepping Motors
Stepping motors convert switched excitation changes to
precise increments of rotation
This property allows stepping motors to be used in
positioning systems without the need for feedback
Rotor positioning
R
i i i iis achieved
hi
db
by magnetic
i alignment
li
off rotor
and stator poles
There are 3 classes of stepping motor: variable-reluctance
motors permanent
motors,
permanent-magnet
magnet motors and hybrid motors
motors.
James Grimbleby
Variable Reluctance Stepping

Variable-Reluctance
Motor
A
Soft iron
stator
t t
S
Soft iron
rotor
t
N
A
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Induced
magnetisation

Variable-Reluctance
Motor
Soft iron
stator
Soft
S
ft iron
i
rotor
Stator
stack A
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Stator
stack B
Stator
stack C

Variable-Reluctance
Motor
A
A:
B:
B
B
A
A
C:
A:
C
C
A
James Grimbleby

Variable-Reluctance
Motor
Anti-clockwise rotation can be produced by exciting the
stator windings in the sequence:
A B C A B C A ..
and clockwise rotation can be produced by the sequence:
A C B A C B A ..
If the
h windings
i di
A B C A are excited
i d iin turn, the
h rotor
moves by one rotor tooth pitch. Thus if p is the number of
rotor
t teeth
t th then
th the
th step
t angle
l s is
i given
i
b
by:
s = 360/3p
p = 120/p
p
A typical variable-reluctance stepping motor has 8 rotor
teeth giving a stepping angle of 15
James Grimbleby

Variable-Reluctance
Motor
James Grimbleby
Permanent Magnet Stepping

Permanent-Magnet
Motor
B
Soft
S
ft iron
i
stator
S
N
S
N
A
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B
B
Permanent
magnet rotor
S

Permanent-Magnet
Motor
N
A+:
N
S
S
N
N
S
B+:
S N
S N
S N
S N
S
S
A:
A-:
S
N
N
S
S
N
B:
B-:
N S
N S
N S
N S
N
James Grimbleby

Permanent-Magnet
Motor
Clockwise
Cl
k i rotation
t ti can be
b produced
d
d by
b exciting
iti th
the stator
t t
windings in the sequence:
A+ B+ AA BB A+ B+ AA ..
and anti-clockwise rotation can be produced by the
sequence:
A+ B- A- B+ A+ B- A- ..
If the windings A+ B+ A- B- A+ are excited in turn, the rotor
moves byy one rotor N p
pole p
pitch. Thus if p is the number of
rotor N poles then the step angle s is given by:
s = 360/4p = 90/p
A typical permanent magnet stepping motor has 4 N poles
giving a stepping angle of 22
22.5
5
James Grimbleby

Permanent-Magnet
Motor
0 mm
0.5
Implantable pressure release valve

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Hybrid Stepping Motor

B
Soft iron
stator
N
S
A
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S
N
S
Rotor: soft
iron +
permanent
magnet
Permanentt
P
magnet
N
Soft iron
stator
Soft iron
rotor
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A
N
S
B
S N
S N
N S
N S
N
S
A
S
N
S
N
James Grimbleby

Anti-clockwise rotation can be produced by exciting the
stator windings in the sequence:
A+ B+ AA BB A+ B+ AA ..
and clockwise rotation can be produced by the sequence:
A+ B- A- B+ A+ B- A- ..
If the windings A+ B+ A- B- A+ are excited in turn
turn, the rotor
moves by one rotor tooth pitch. Thus if p is the number of
rotor teeth then the step angle s is given by:
s = 360/4p = 90/p
A typical hybrid stepping motor has 50 rotor teeth giving a
stepping angle of 1.8
James Grimbleby

Soft iron
rotor
Permanent
magnet
Soft iron
stator
James Grimbleby
James Grimbleby
Single-Phase
Single
Phase Stepping Motor
Permanent
magnet rotor
Soft iron
stator
A
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A
A
Single-Phase
Single
Phase Stepping Motor
S
A+:
A-:
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Comparison of Motor Types

Permanent-magnet
P
t
t stepping
t
i motors
t
are inferior
i f i in
i
performance to hybrid motors, and are only used in
specialised applications
Hybrid motors have a smaller step size and a higher torque
than a similar VR motor
Hybrid motors also have a detent torque
Hybrid motors have 2, rather than 3, windings
VR motors have a lower rotor inertia than hybrid motors
James Grimbleby
H-Bridge:
H
Bridge: Voltage Drive
+V
Vs
Q2
Q1
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D2
D1
D4
D3
Q4
Q3
H Bridge: Voltage Drive, Positive

H-Bridge:
Excitation
+V
Vs
Q2
D2
IL
Q1
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D1
D4
Q4
ZL
D3
Q3
H-Bridge:
H
Stator winding excitation:
I
L
R
V0
dI
R.I + L. = V0
dt
-t
I = I0 .1 exp
T0
James Grimbleby
V0
where : I0 =
R
L
T0 =
R
H-Bridge:
H
Motor parameters: (type ID31 motor)
Number of rotor p
poles:
Rotor inertia:
Coupling
p g coeff:
Viscous damping:
Coulomb friction:
Stator winding resistance:
Stator winding inductance:
Nominal stator current:
Thus:
and:
James Grimbleby
Nr = 50
Jr = 1.1610-5 kg m2
Kc = 0.121 V rad-1s
Dr = 0.0006 Nmrad-1s
Fr = 0.000 Nm
Rw = 0.66
Lw = 1.52 10-3 H
Iw = 2.0 A
V0 = Rw Iw = 1.32 V
T0 = Lw / Rw = 2.3 ms
H Bridge: Voltage Drive,

H-Bridge:
De-excitation
+V
Vs
Q2
D2
IL
Q1
James Grimbleby
D1
D4
Q4
ZL
D3
Q3
H-Bridge:
H
Stator winding de
de-excitation:
excitation:
I
L
R
V0
dI
R.I + L. = V0
dt
-t
I = I0 .2 exp
1
T0
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V0
where : I0 =
R
L
T0 =
R
H-Bridge:
H
Low stepping rate:
High stepping rate:
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H-Bridge:
H
Bridge: Resistor Ballast Drive
For the ID31 motor:
L 1.52 10 3
T0 = =
= 2.3 ms
R
0.66
Stepping
pp g rate should be less than 400 step/s
p
To increase the stepping rate it is necessary to reduce T0
Since it is not possible to reduce L the only alternative is to
increase R: an external ballast resistance is placed in series
with the winding
This reduces T0 at the expense of efficiency
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H-Bridge:
H
+Vs
Q2
Q1
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D2
D1
D4
D3
Q4
Q3
H-Bridge:
H
Use a series ballast resistance of 11.34 :
L 1.52 10 3
T0 = =
= 0.13 ms
R 11.34 + 0.66
Stepping
pp g rate is increased to 8000 step/s
p
To maintain a stator current of 2 A requires
q
a supply
pp y voltage
g
of 24 V
Static power dissipation has increased from 2.64 W to 48 W
The poor efficiency of resistor ballast drive limits application
to low power motors
James Grimbleby
H-Bridge:
H
Bridge: Chopper Drive
+V
Vs
Q2
Q1
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D2
D1
D4
D3
Q4
Q3
H Bridge: Chopper Drive, Initial

H-Bridge:
Excitation
+V
Vs
Q2
D2
IL
Q1
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D1
ZL
D4
D3
Q4
Q3
H-Bridge:
H
Stator winding initial excitation:
dI
R.I + L. = V0 where : V0 >> R.I
dt
V0
I0 .L
I .t or : T0
V0
L
T0 is the time for the current to reach the nominal stator

current I0
I0 .L 2 1.52 10 3
T0
=
= 0.13 ms
V0
24
When stator current reaches nominal current the chopper

goes into freewheel mode
drives g
James Grimbleby
Winding Cu
urrent (A)
H-Bridge:
H
76
76
e
Final current = 50/0

50/0.66
66 = 76 A
2
0.13 ms 2.3 ms
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Time
H Bridge: Chopper Drive,

H-Bridge:
Freewheeling
+V
Vs
Q2
D2
IL
Q1
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D1
ZL
D4
D3
Q4
Q3
H-Bridge:
H
St t winding
Stator
i di freewheeling:
f
h li
dI
R.I + L. = V0 = 0
dt
L
-t
I = I0 .exp
where : T0 =
T0
R
Stator
S
a o cu
current
e decays with time
e constant
co s a T0 towards
o a ds zero
eo
By
y alternately
y applying
pp y g the full supply
pp y voltage,
g , and the
freewheeling, the stator current is maintained close to the
nominal current.
James Grimbleby
H Bridge: Chopper Drive,

H-Bridge:
De-excitation
+V
Vs
Q2
D2
IL
Q1
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D1
ZL
D4
D3
Q4
Q3
H-Bridge:
H
Stator winding de
de-excitation:
excitation:
dI
R.I + L. = V0
dt
V0
I = I0 .t
L
where
h
: V0 >> R.I
I0 .L
or : T0 =
V0
T0 is the time for the current to fall to zero, and is the same
as the excitation time
The current in the stator winding is normally sensed by
placing
l i a smallll resistor
i t iin series
i with
ith th
the source tterminals
i l off
Q1 and Q3
James Grimbleby
H-Bridge:
H
Initial
excitation
it ti
Chopping
De-excitation
Because
ecause o
of magnetostriction
ag e os c o the
e motor
o o will ge
generate
e a e noise
o se
at the chopping frequency
To prevent this causing annoyance the chopping
frequencyy is normallyy chosen to be greater
g
than 25 kHz
James Grimbleby
H-Bridge:
H
D l 2 A chopper
Dual
h
d
drive
i
James Grimbleby
H-Bridge:
H
Commercial 4A chopper drive (Mclennan Servo Supplies Ltd)

James Grimbleby
Stepping Motor Drive Sequences

The simplest drive sequence is the one
one-winding-on
winding on
sequence:
A+
1
0
0
0
B+
0
1
0
0
A
0
0
1
0
B
0
0
0
1
This sequence repeats after 4 steps

It is rarely used because a better performance can be
obtained from the two-windings-on or wave sequence
James Grimbleby

The two
two-windings-on
windings on or wave sequence:
A+
1
0
0
1
B+
1
1
0
0
A
0
1
1
0
B
0
0
1
1
This sequence also repeats after 4 steps

It provides 2=1.4 times the torque of the one-winding-on
sequence, a the expense of twice the static power
consumption
James Grimbleby

The half-step sequence:
A+
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
B+
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
A
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
B
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
This sequence repeats after 8 steps and provides twice the

precision of other sequences
James Grimbleby
Microprocessor Control
Microprocessor
system
step
dir
step
dir
step
dir
Sequencer
and drivers
step
dir
A
B
Motor
A
B
Other
axes
The most common interface between a microprocessor

p
system and a sequencer/driver is by step and dir signals
James Grimbleby
Sequencer State Machine

A,B
di 0
dir=0
B
s7
di 0
dir=0
s0
di 1
dir=1
A
s1
di 1
dir=1
dir=0
dir=0
dir=1
s6
A1,B
,
dir=1
Half-step
sequence
A,B1
,
dir=1
dir=0
dir=1
s5
A1
dir=1
dir=0
dir=1
s4
dir=0
dir=0
dir
0
s3
B1
A1 B1
A1,B1
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s2

PIN 1
PIN 2
= clock;
= dir;
/* inputs */
/
/
PIN
PIN
PIN
PIN
=
=
=
=
/* outputs */
16
17
18
19
A;
A1;
B;
B1;
PIN [12..14] = [y2..0]; /* state vars */

FIELD stepper = [y2..0];
[y2 0];
$DEFINE s0 'b'000
/* states */
$DEFINE s1 'b'001
$DEFINE s2
2 'b'011
$DEFINE s3 'b'010
$DEFINE s4 'b'110
$DEFINE s5 'b'111
$DEFINE s6 'b'101
$DEFINE s7 'b'100
b 100
James Grimbleby

sequence stepper {
present s0
if ( dir ) next s1;
if (!dir ) next s7;
out A,B;
present s1
if ( dir)
) next s2;
;
if (!dir) next s0;
out A;
present s2
if ( dir ) next s3;
.......................
present s7
if ( dir) next s0;
if (!dir) next s6;
out B;
}
James Grimbleby
Sequencer state machine simulation

James Grimbleby

______________
|
Stepping
|
clock x---|1
20|---x
di x---|2
dir
|
19|---x
|
x---|3
18|---x
x---|4
x
|4
17|---x
17|
x
x---|5
16|---x
x---|6
15|---x
x---|7
|
14|---x
|
x---|8
13|---x
x---|9
x
|9
12|---x
12|
x
GND x---|10
11|---x
|______________|
Vcc
B1
B
A1
A
y0
y1
y2
GAL16V8: connection details

James Grimbleby
Microprocessor Coordinator
Step class (base class) definition:
class step {
public:
step() {}
// step class constructor
~step() {}
// step class destructor
void up();
// move one step clockwise
void dn();
// move one step anti
anti-clockwise
clockwise
};
James Grimbleby
Step class (base class) implementation:
#include "step.h"
#define p ((volatile unsigned char *) ...
#d fi
#define
di bi 0x01
dir_bit
0 01
#define step_bit 0x02
void step::up() {
*p = dir_bit;
*p = dir_bit
dir bit | step_bit;
step bit;
*p = dir_bit;
}
void step::dn() {
*p
p = 0;
;
*p = step_bit;
*p = 0;
}
James Grimbleby
Move class (derived class) definition:
#include "step.h"
p
class move: private step {
private:
i t
long int pos;
p
public:
move() { pos = 0; }
// move class constructor
~move()
() {}
// move class constructor
void g
go(long
(
g int x,
, long
g int s);
);
// move to position x at speed s
};
James Grimbleby
Move class (derived class) implementation:
#include "move.h"
void move::go(long int x, long int s)
{
const long int q = 1000000 / s;
l
long
int
i
k
k;
while (pos != x) {
for (k = q; k > 0; --k);
k);
if (pos < x) {
up(); pos++;
}
else {
dn(); pos
pos--;
;
}
}
}
James Grimbleby
Delayy loop:
p
; D7 <- k
; D5 <
<- q
; for (k = q; k > 0; --k);
000078 2E05
MOVE.L D5,D7
00007 6002
00007A
BRA _44
44
00007C 5387
_43
SUBQ.L #--1,D7
00007E 4A87
_44
44
TST.L D7
000080 6EFA
BGT _43
There are 3 instructions in main delay loop: at 250ns per

instruction this gives t=750ns
20,000 steps/s 50 s per step
50 750 s per step 19704 steps/s
50.750
James Grimbleby
Improved move class (derived class) implementation:
#include "move.h"
void move::go(long int x, long int s)
{
unsigned long int k = 0;
while (pos != x) {
k += s;
if (k > 1000000) {
k -= 1000000;
if (x > pos) {
up(); pos++;
}
else {
dn(); pos--;
}
}
}
}
James Grimbleby
k:
James Grimbleby
22
27156
6
68
83945
5
14
40734
4
59
97523
3
05
54312
2
51
11101
96
67890
0
42
24697
7
88
81468
8
33
38257
7
79
95046
6
25
51835
5
89382
24
01728
80
14073
36
26419
93
38764
48
51110
04
63456
60
75801
16
88147
72
00492
28
12838
84
25184
40
31
13578
8
85
56789
9
77
70367
7
s=123456:
123456
77036
68
64691
12
52345
56
40
00000
0
k:
40000
4
00
s 456789:
s=456789:
k += s;
;
if (k > 1000000)
k -= 1000000;
Each iteration of the while loop involves around 24 machine
instructions taking t=6s.
t=6s
The proportion of iterations generating a step is s/1,000,000
s/1 000 000
and varies from 0 to 1 (as s varies from 0 to 1,000,000)
The maximum step frequency is therefore 160,000 steps/s
and the frequency increment is 160
160,000/1,000,000
000/1 000 000 = 0.16
0 16
steps/s
There will be a jitter in the step pulses of t=6s
James Grimbleby
Main loop:
#include "move.h"
int main()
{
move s;
for (;;) {
delay(100000);
s.go(800, 800);
d l (100000)
delay(100000);
s.go(0, 1200);
}
return 0;
}
James Grimbleby
Hardware Implementation
32-bit
MicroLatch
processor
32
32
D-bus
D Q
(s)
ce
l
le
32-bit
32-bit
Adder
Register
oflo
A
3
32
sum
D Q
clk
B
32
Clock
At each clock edge: oflo = (k + s ) > 232

k = (k + s) mod 232
James Grimbleby
step
t
(k)
Commercial microprocessor-based coordinator

(Mclennan Servo Supplies Ltd)
James Grimbleby
Static Torque Characteristic

Torque
T0
-4
4
-3
3
-2
2
-1
1
Steps
1
2
=2/4n
3
2 /
=2/n
T = T0 sin n
where n is the number of rotor teeth and is the rotor angle
James Grimbleby

The motor torque is given by:
T = T0 sin n
If a load torque TL is applied to the motor then the rotor will

be displaced
p
to an angle
g e where:
TL = T0 sin n
sin1( TL / T0 )
e =
n
This formula is true for |TL| <T0

If |TL| exceeds T0 then synchronisation is lost
James Grimbleby

i = 2i 0
-4
i = i0
-3 -2
Torque
q
-1
Steps
i = i0 / 2
Stator is nearly saturated at nominal current i0, so doubling

current does not double torque
James Grimbleby

Stator B
Stator A
A+B
-4
-3 -2
Torque
2T0
T0
-1
Steps
By exciting 2 stator windings, the torque is increased from

T0 to 2T0
James Grimbleby
Torque/Speed Characteristic
Pull-out
Torque
T0/2
Stepping Speed
Pull-out
Pull
out torque is the torque that the motor can generate at a
given stepping rate: if the load torque exceeds this then the
motor loses synchronisation
James Grimbleby

Torque
B+
A+
AT0/2
-4
-3
-2
-1
=2/8n
2
T0
Tmin = T0 cos n.
= T0 cos =
8n
8n
4
2
James Grimbleby
T0
3

Torque
B+
A+
-4
4
-3
3
Tavg =
James Grimbleby
-2
2
2n
-1
1
= -/4n
/ 4n
T0 cos n d =
/ 4n
A-
T0
1
=/4n
2T0
/4
2 2T0
cos d =
/ 4
Single Step: Dynamic Response

2
Rotor
position
iti
(steps)
1
0
0.0
Time (seconds)
0.1
0.2
This shows the rotor position following a change of excitation

from A+ to B+ (1 step, wave sequence)
James Grimbleby

In the absence of load torque:
d2
d
Jr
+ Dr
= T0 sin n
dt
dt 2
Where Jr is the rotor inertia, and Dr is the viscous damping
coefficient
For small displacements
p
from equilibrium:
q
d2
d
Jr
+ Dr
T0 n
dt
dt 2
This is the equation for damped simple harmonic motion
with resonance frequency:
1
f0 =
nT0 / Jr
2
James Grimbleby

For the ID31 Motor:
Number of rotor poles:
Rotor inertia:
Peak torque:
Nr = 50
Jr = 1.1610-5 kg m2
T0 = 0.242 N m
f0 = 1/ 2
nT0 / Jr
= 162 Hz
Any attempt to step the motor at the resonance rate will lead
to loss of synchronisation
The transient response from one step will reinforce the
response from a previous step, and eventually the amplitude
will exceed two steps.
James Grimbleby
Multiple Step: Dynamic Response
4
Rotor
position
( p )
(steps)
1
0
0.0
Time (seconds)
This shows 4 steps at a stepping rate of 40 steps/s

James Grimbleby
0.2
4
Rotor
position
(steps)
1
0
0.0
Time (seconds)
0.1
This shows loss of synchronisation as a result of 4 steps at a

pp g speed
p
of 132 steps/s
p
((the resonance speed)
p
)
stepping
James Grimbleby
4
Rotor
position
(steps)
1
0
0.0
Time (seconds)
0.1
This shows loss of synchronisation as a result of 4 steps at a

pp g speed
p
of 66 steps/s
p
((half the resonance speed)
p
)
stepping
James Grimbleby
4
Rotor
position
(steps)
1
0
0.0
Time (seconds)
This shows 4 steps at a stepping speed of 200 steps/s (well

above the resonance speed)
James Grimbleby
0.1
The Problem of Resonance

Smaller step
p size of half-step
p sequence
q
reduces amplitude
p
of
oscillation
R
Resonance
can b
be eliminated
li i t d b
by micro-stepping
i
t
i
Resonance can be reduced by applying extra damping
Simple viscous or Coulomb damping reduces the
perfomance (maximum stepping speed)
1. Apply electrical damping to non-excited stator winding
2 Appl
2.
Apply mechanical damping such
s ch as Viscously-Coupled
Visco sl Co pled
Inertial Damping (VCID)
James Grimbleby
Electrical Damping of Resonance

When one stator
Wh
t t winding
i di is
i excited
it d th
the rotor
t move tto a
position where the torque, and the rate-of-change of
magnetic flux,
flux are zero
At this point the rate
rate-of-change
of change of magnetic flux in the
orthogonal winding is a maximum
Any change in rotor position induces a voltage in the
orthogonal winding
A resistor connected across the orthogonal winding will
extract energy and damp the oscillation
James Grimbleby
Mechanical Damping of Resonance

Viscously Coupled Inertial Damper (VCID), aka Lanchester
Viscously-Coupled
damper:
D
Damper
h
housing
i
Damper rotor
Viscous fluid
There is no power loss during constant rotation

James Grimbleby
Micro Stepping
Micro-Stepping
Micro-stepping involves interpolating between full or halfstep positions
This is achieved by linear control of the stator winding drive
currents
t
Micro-stepping
Micro
stepping provides greater precision and smoother
operation at low speeds, and eliminates resonance
Micro-stepping requires complex linear drives together with
DACs to set the winding currents
James Grimbleby
Micro-Stepping
Micro
Stepping
In sine-cosine micro-stepping
pp g the currents in the A and B
stator windings are given by:
i a = i 0 sin
i b = i 0 cos
where varying from 0 to /2 moves the rotor position by

one full step
In principle there is no limit to the number to the number of
micro-step precision
In practice there is little point in using more than 256 microsteps
p between full steps
p
James Grimbleby
Micro-Stepping
Micro
Stepping
=0
Torque
A
B
A
B
Steps
Equilibrium
position
=/3
/3
A+B
Torque
A+B
Steps
A
B
Equilibrium
position
James Grimbleby
=/6
Torque
A+B
Steps
Equilibrium
position
=/2
/2
A
Torque
A+B
Steps
Equilibrium
position
Micro-Stepping
Micro
Stepping
The apparent
pp
superior
p
p
precision of micro-stepping
pp g is only
y
realised in practice in the absence of significant coulomb
friction and load torque
The actual shape of the static torque curve is not exactly
sinusoidal; this results in the micro steps being non-uniformly
spaced
DAC quantisation will also result in non-uniformly spaced
micro
i
steps
t
Very high step rates are necessar
Ver
necessary to achie
achieve
e normal rotation
speeds
James Grimbleby
Start/Stop Operation
The pull-out
Th
ll t torque-speed
t
d characteristic
h
t i ti may extend
t d tto
10,000 or 20,000 steps/s
However, a motor cannot be started or stopped at these
speeds
To move a large number of steps quickly a motor must be
started at low speed and then accelerated to high speed
The range of load torques and speeds for which the motor
will start and stop without loss of synchronisation is known
as the pull-in characteristic
James Grimbleby
C
Consider
id a motor
t iinitially
iti ll att restt
The first step of a sequence will cause the motor to
accelerate and it must move far enough, and attain sufficient
speed for synchronisation to be maintained
speed,
If the motor moves 1/2 step during the period of the first step
then a high torque will continue to be available during the
next step
The maximum pull-in
pull in torque occurs at zero speed, and is the
same as the zero-speed pull-torque
James Grimbleby
The maximum pull-in speed occurs when the load torque is
zero and all the motor torque is available for acceleration:
Jr
Integrating:
d2
dt 2
= Tavg =
2T0 2
1 2T0 2 2 1 2
t .
=
2 Jr
2 4n
t
2J r
4nT
T0 2
Maximum pull-in speed:

2 nT0 2
fmax =
Jr
James Grimbleby
For the ID31 Motor:
Number of rotor poles:
Rotor inertia:
P k torque:
Peak
t
Nr = 50
Jr = 1.1610-5 kg m2
T0 = 0.242
0 242 N m
Maximum pull-in
pull in speed:
2 nT0 2
fmax =
Jr
= 773 step/s
In general fmax is related to the resonant rate f0:

2 nT0 2
= 44 2f0 = 4.8f0
fmax =
Jr
James Grimbleby
Torque
Pull-in
Torque
Pull-out
Torque
Start at low
p
speed
Stop at low
speed
James Grimbleby
Stepping Speed
Accelerate to
high speed
Run at high
p
speed
Decelerate to
low speed
Slew
Speed
Speed
Run at slew
speed
Base
Speed
Time
Start at base
Decelerate to
speed
base speed
Accelerate to
slew speed
James Grimbleby
Stop at low
speed
Slew
Speed
Speed
Base
Speed
Time
Guard steps
Count steps in acceleration phase: assume that the same
number of steps will be required for deceleration
James Grimbleby
Slew
Speed
v
Speed
Slope =
deceleration (d)
Area = remaining
steps (n)
Base
Speed
vb
Time
1
n = t (v + v b )
2
t
v vb = d t
v = v b2 + 2nd
James Grimbleby
Stepping Motor Model

Stator winding A:
ia
va
ea
va is the voltage applied to the winding

g current
ia is the winding
ea is the flux-induced voltage in the winding
and for stator winding
g B:
di a
v a = Ri a + L
+ ea
dt
di b
v b = Ri b + L
+ eb
dt
James Grimbleby

a and b are the magnetic flux in stator windings A and B,
where:
a = m cos n
b = m sin n
and m is the maximum stator flux

The voltages ea and eb that are induced in the stator
windings are given by:
da
d
ea = m
= mn m sin n .
= K c sin n
dt
dt
d b
d
eb = m
= mn
m cos n .
= K c cos n
dt
dt
where m is the number of turns on the stator winding
James Grimbleby

Conservation of energy: mechanical power out = electrical
power in:
Ta = i aea and : Tb = i b eb
so:
Ta = i a K c sin n and : Tb = i b K c cos n
Complete model:
d2
d
Jr
+ Dr
= T + Ta + Tb
2
dt
dt
= T i aK c sin n + i b K c cos n
di a
v a = Ri a + L
K c sin n
dt
di b
v b = Ri b + L
+ K c cos n
dt
James Grimbleby

State variable form:
d
=
dt
Kc
Kc
Dr
d T
=
ia
sin n + i b
cos n
dt Jr Jr
Jr
Jr
di a 1
Kc
R
= va ia +
sin n
dt L
L
L
di b 1
Kc
R
= vb ib
cos n
dt L
L
L
These equations can be solved numerically using, for

example, the Runge-Kutta method
James Grimbleby
High Speed Operation

To determine the performance of a stepping motor with
chopper drive it is necessary to resort to computer simulation
However, if some simplifying assumptions are made an
p
describing
g the torque-speed
q
p
characteristic can be
expression
derived
If resistor-ballast drive is used then the drive voltage
waveforms are simple square waves
Because of the low-pass filtering action of the winding
inductance the current waveforms are likely to be close to
sinusoidal
James Grimbleby

To estimate the high-speed motor characteristic the winding
currents are assumed to be sinusoidal
One winding on:
+Vs
-Vs
Fundamental sinusoidal component:
1 2
a1 = f ( ) cos d
2Vs / 4
4Vs
2 2Vs
=
sin =
= 0.9Vs
cos d =
/ 4
4
James Grimbleby

Two windings on:
+Vs
-V
Vs
2Vs / 2
4Vs
4Vs
a1 =
sin =
= 1.3Vs
cos d =
/ 2
Half
H
lf step:
t
+Vs
-Vs
2Vs 3 / 8
4Vs
3
a1 =
sin
= 1.2Vs
cos d =
8
3 / 8
James Grimbleby

Torque from stator winding A:
Ta = i aK c sin n = i aK c sin nt
C
Current
t iin stator
t t winding
i di A
A:
i a = i 0 sin(nt + )
So stator torque is given by:

Ta = i 0 sin(nt + ).K c sin nt
= i 0K c .{sin
{sin nt . cos + cos nt . sin }.
} sin nt
= i 0K c .{sin2 nt . cos + sin nt . cos nt . sin }
i 0K c
i 0K c
=
.{1 cos 2nt }. cos
sin 2nt . sin
2
2
James Grimbleby

Average stator torque:
i 0K c
Ta =
cos
T = Ta + Tb = i 0K c cos
2
Voltage applied to stator winding A:
di a
v a = v 0 sin(
i (nt + ) = Ri a + L
+ ea
dt
= Ri 0 sin(nt + ) + Lni 0 cos(nt + ) K c sin nt
Expanding trigonometrical functions:

v 0 sin nt . cos + v 0 cos nt . sin
= Ri 0 sin
i nt . cos + Ri 0 cos nt . sin
i
+ Lni 0 cos nt . cos Lni 0 sin nt . sin K c sin nt
James Grimbleby

Comparing
p
g coefficients of sinnt and cosnt :
v 0 cos = Ri 0 cos Lni 0 sin K c
v 0 sin
i = Ri 0 sin
i + Ln
L i 0 cos
Substitute for i0sin :

R 2i 0 cos Ln{v 0 sin Lni 0 cos } = RK c + Rv 0 cos
or:
{R 2 + L2n 2 2 }.i0 cos = v0 {Ln sin + R cos } + RKc

= v 0 R 2 + L2n 2 2 sin( + ) + RK c
James Grimbleby

So:
v 0 sin( + )
i 0 cos =
2 2 2
R +L n
RK c
R 2 + L2n 2 2
Total motor torque:

T =
K c v 0 sin( + )
2
2 2 2
R +L n
RK c2
R 2 + L2n 2 2
M i
Maximum
motor
t torque:
t
T =
James Grimbleby
Kcv0
2
2 2 2
R +L n
RK c2
R 2 + L2n 2 2

Maximum motor torque:
T =
Kcv0
2
2 2 2
R +L n
RK c2
R 2 + L2n 2 2
Firstly the drive voltage is chosen

chosen, using the appropriate
sinusoidal component of the actual voltage drive waveform
The resistance R comprises the motor winding resistance
plus the ballast resistance (chosen to give the correct
winding current)
Surprisingly a significant torque is available at speeds above
Kc=vv0
James Grimbleby

0.3
Torque-Speed
Characteristic
To
orque (Nm)
2V
0.0
5V
10V
James Grimbleby
20V
10000
Rotor speed (steps/s)
20000
Steps
s
Stepping Motor Simulation
Time
0.0s
James Grimbleby
Simulation: 10 steps at 25 steps/s

0.5s
Steps
s
Time
0.0s
James Grimbleby
0.2s
Steps
s
Time
0.0s
James Grimbleby
0.1s
Steps
s
Time
0.0s
James Grimbleby
0.5s
Velocity-Error
Velocity
Error Plane
It is convenient to display
p y the p
performance of a stepping
pp g
motor on the velocity-error plane
This plane
Thi
l
has
h positional
iti
l error as the
th horizontal
h i
t l axis,
i and
d
velocity as the vertical axis
A velocity-error plane trajectory always finishes at the zeroerror zero-velocity point if the motor remains synchronised
error,
It is therefore obvious from a simulation whether or not
synchronisation has been lost
The velocity-error plane is sometimes called the phase
plane
James Grimbleby
-400
00
0 steps/ss
4
4000
Velocity-Error
Velocity
Error Plane Trajectories
-4 steps
0 steps
+4 steps
Low damping coefficient: Dr=0.0006
=0 0006
James Grimbleby
-400
00
0 steps/ss
4
4000
Velocity-Error
Velocity
-4 steps
0 steps
+4 steps
Hi h damping
High
d
i coefficient:
ffi i t Dr=0.006
0 006
James Grimbleby
0 steps/ss
2
2500
Velocity-Error
Velocity
-250
00
Initial change in
command position
James Grimbleby
-2 steps
0 steps
10 steps at 25 steps/s
-250
00
0 steps/ss
2
2500
Velocity-Error
Velocity
James Grimbleby
IInitial
iti l change
h
iin
command position
-2 steps
0 steps
-250
00
0 steps/ss
2
2500
Velocity-Error
Velocity
James Grimbleby
Initial change in
command position
-2 steps
0 steps
-250
00
0 steps/ss
2
2500
Velocity-Error
Velocity
James Grimbleby
Initial change in
command position
-2 steps
0 steps
0 steps/ss
2
2500
Velocity-Error
Velocity
-250
00
Initial
a cchange
a ge in
command position
James Grimbleby
-2 steps
0 steps
10 steps
t
att 500 steps/s
t
/
0 steps/ss
2
2500
Velocity-Error
Velocity
-250
00
Initial
a cchange
a ge in
command position
James Grimbleby
-2 steps
0 steps
10 steps
t
att 800 steps/s
t
/
0 steps/ss
2
2500
Velocity-Error
Velocity
-250
00
Initial
a cchange
a ge in
command position
James Grimbleby
-2 steps
0 steps
10 steps
t
att 900 steps/s
t
/
0 s
steps/s
4000
0
Velocity-Error
Velocity
-2 steps
0 steps
B
Base=400,
400 slew=4000,
l
4000 accel=32000,
l 32000 d
decel=48000
l 48000
James Grimbleby
0 s
steps/s
4000
0
Velocity-Error
Velocity
-2 steps
0 steps
B
Base=400,
400 slew=6000,
l
6000 accel=32000,
l 32000 d
decel=48000
l 48000
James Grimbleby
Closed-Loop
Closed
Loop Control
Stepping
pp g motor systems
y
are simple,
p robust and very
y reliable
Open-loop stepping motors lose synchronisation as a result
of:
excessive load torque
operation at the resonant step rate
too rapid acceleration or deceleration
In open-loop
open loop systems loss of synchronisation can be neither
detected nor corrected
This problem can be overcome by the use of positional
feedback
James Grimbleby
Closed-Loop
Closed
Loop Control
In closed-loop
p stepping
pp g motor systems
y
an incremental shaft
encoder is used to sense rotor position
Alternatively
Alt
ti l the
th currentt waveforms
f
iin th
the stator
t t windings
i di
can
be used to sense position
The information gained can be used to detect and correct
loss of synchronisation
The excess torque
q capability
p
y that must be built into open-loop
p
p
systems is no longer required
Closed-loop stepping motor systems share the reliability and
robustness of open-loop systems
James Grimbleby
Open-Loop
Open
Loop Control
Coordinator
step
di
dir
step
dir
step
dir
Sequencer
step
di
dir
A
B
Motor
A
B
Other
axes
The coordinator generates step and dir signals for several

axes
The sequencer generates the drive sequences for the stator
windings
James Grimbleby
Closed-Loop
Closed
Loop Control
Coordinator
Sequencer
step
p
dir
step
dir
step
dir
step
p
dir
step
dir
cpos
James Grimbleby
Motor/encoder
A
B
A
B
step
dir
mpos
Closed-loop
controller
xpos
Open-Loop
Open
Loop Control
T
Torque
Position
( steps)
-5
-4 -3 -2 -1
4 5
Static torque characteristic: 2 windings on

James Grimbleby
Closed-Loop
Closed
Loop Control
T
Torque
Position
( steps)
-5 -4
-3 -2 -1
Ideal closed-loop static torque characteristic to maintain a

position of 0
p
James Grimbleby
Closed-Loop
Closed
Loop Control Algorithm
Closed-loop
Closed
loop control algorithm to maintain a position of 0:
if (mpos < -2)
2)
xpos = mpos + 2;
else if (mpos > 2)
xpos = mpos - 2;
else
xpos = 0;
Provided that the motor position remains within 2 steps the

excitation remains constant
If motor position exceeds 2 steps the excitation changes to
provide maximum restoring torque
James Grimbleby
Closed-Loop
Closed
Loop Control
T
Torque
Position
( steps)
-5 -4
-3 -2 -1
Closed-loop static torque characteristic - phase excitations

change to maintain torque
James Grimbleby
Closed-Loop
Closed
Closed-loop control algorithm to maintain a position of
cpos:
if (mpos - cpos < -2)
xpos = mpos + 2;
else if (mpos - cpos > 2)
xpos = mpos - 2;
else
xpos = cpos;
Provided that the error does not exceed 2 steps
p the
behaviour is identical to open-loop
If error exceeds 2 steps the excitation changes to provide
maximum correcting torque
James Grimbleby
Closed-Loop
Closed
Open loop:
Closed loop:
-4000
Error:
-2
-6
6 -4
4
-2
2
-4000
Error:
James Grimbleby
-6 -4
4000
Spee
ed
Operation at the
resonantt step
t rate
t
(20steps at
153steps/s)
Sp
peed
4000
Closed-Loop
Closed
4000
Sp
peed
Open loop:
Start-stop
operation
(100steps at
4000 t
4000steps/s)
/ )
-4000
Error:
-4 -2
-6
6
-4
4
Spee
ed
4000
Closed loop:
-4000
Error:
James Grimbleby
-6
-2
2
Closed-Loop
Closed
4000
Sp
peed
Open loop:
Disturbance
response (0.5Nm
for 10ms)
-4000
Error:
-6
-4 -2
-6
6
-4
4
Closed loop:
Spee
ed
4000
0
-4000
Error:
James Grimbleby
-2
2
Stepping Motors
J. B. Grimbleby October 08
James Grimbleby

Stepping Motors

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Stepping Motors

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Stepping Motors

Unit: 4/EE/A0 Mechatronics

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Variable Reluctance Stepping

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Variable Reluctance Stepping

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Variable Reluctance Stepping

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Variable Reluctance Stepping

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Variable Reluctance Stepping

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Permanent Magnet Stepping

Permanent Magnet Stepping

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Permanent Magnet Stepping

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Permanent Magnet Stepping

Implantable pressure release valve

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Hybrid Stepping Motor

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Hybrid Stepping Motor

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Hybrid Stepping Motor

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Hybrid Stepping Motor

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Hybrid Stepping Motor

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Hybrid Stepping Motor

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

Comparison of Motor Types

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

H Bridge: Voltage Drive, Positive

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School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

H Bridge: Voltage Drive,

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School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

High stepping rate:

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School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

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School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

H Bridge: Chopper Drive, Initial

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T0 is the time for the current to reach the nominal stator

When stator current reaches nominal current the chopper

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Final current = 50/0

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H Bridge: Chopper Drive,

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School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering

H Bridge: Chopper Drive,

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering