Topic 8: Current of Electricity

There ore o number oJ definitions to recallfor this chapter. Checkthot you know the Jollowjng.

an electrical property oI particles, such as electrons and protons, which

them to attract or repel each other
the quantity of electric charge that passes through a given section when a
steady current of one ampere flows for one second
Potential potential difference between two points in a circuit is the amount of electrical
difference energy converted to other forms of energy when unit charge pasies from one
point tothe other
the potential difference between two points in a circuit if one joule of electrical
energy is converted to other forms of energy when one coulomb of charge
from one point to the other
Resistance the ratio of the potential difference across the conductor to the current flow
throush it
the resjstance ol a conductor if a current of one ampere flows in it when a
potential difference of one volt is applied across it
the energy converted into electrical energy when a unit charge js delivered by
an e.m,f source

Electric Current

Electric current is the rate offlow of electric charges.

tt
where Q = total charge, In terms of units: 1A=1Cs1
n = number of charge carriers,
q = charge on each charge carrier

For an electron, the elementary charge is e = 1.6 x lole C.

Charge carriers can be:

(a) Free electrons (in conductors and semiconductors)
(b) lons (in fluids)
(c) Holes (in semiconductors)

Direction of convention current:

. opposite to the direction of the electron/negative ion flow;
. in the same direction as the flow of positive ions_
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Related formulae

where W = work done in drivingthe ln terms of units: 1V=1lC-l

a
charge between the 2 points

V=lR Ohm's Law

where P= power used to drive the current between the 2 points

E : 12 Rt

Note 1: When calculating power or energy lq$ through joule heating (heating of circuit
components when current flows through. This is due to non-zero reslstance in them), we
usually use P = I2 R and E : 12 Rt, where 1is the current flowing in the component and R is the
resistance of the component.

Note 2: At times you are required to compare brightness of bulbs when switches are togg,ed on
and off. Remember that brightness of a bulb o< power delivered to it (so use the equations
involving P to Iind lhe answer).

Example: Three identical light bulbs are connected as shown in the circuit below,

Readings on...
@ @ @
(A) lf bulb A blows, 24r) o 0
(B) lf bulb B blows, 120 720 720

(C) lf bulb C blows, a20 t20 120

(D) lf wire X breaks, o 0 o

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Resistance and Resistiviw

n=4 whereP = resistivity'

/ = length (distance that current flows across);

I = cross-sectional area {note: this must be the area through which current
flows)

For example,

When connected this way When connected thisway A:xxy

I=z

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I - V Characteristic Graphs that you must be famiiiar with {including the explanations)

Material Explanation

{a} Pure metals at constant I cc V- Hence the resistance V/l is constant.

temperature An electrical conductor which obeys Ohm's taw is
termed an ohmic condudor.
Resistance of metal is due to collisions between the free
electrons and the metal ions in the lattice.
lf the temperature of the conductor is kept constant,
the lattice ion vibrations will remain the same,
frequency of collision will be constant and the
resistance will remain the same.

When temDerature increases

Straight line through the origin
vibration of the atoms become larger
number of free electrons remains more or less the
same but the free electrons coljide more frequently
with the atoms
results in more collision and hence resistance increases

(bl Filament lamp At very low p.d, the characteristic is a straight line, but
as the p.d, across a filament lamp increases. current
i4creases. This implies more electrons are flowing per
unit time, and colliding more frequently with the lattice
ions-
Energi transferred from the electrons results in the
lattice ions vibrate with !4gg! amplitude, causing the
filament to lgqllp to over 1OO0"C, and the lamp gets
brighter.
At the same time, as electrons collide more with the
vibrating ions, the resistance of the filament wire
Curve concave downwards increases.

4lPdc.
(c) Thermistor is o semi-conductor derire *hosi norne o
the contrdction of "thermolly sensitive resistot".
As larcer p.d is opplied, the current through the
thelmistor rises ond couses the semi-concluctor to hedt
ap.

decreasing
Whe n t em pef dtu re i ncr e ose s

. vibrotion of the otoms become lotger ctnd resistonce

Curve concave upwards incredses due to more callisions.
. At the same time, the otoms rcleose morc mobile
electrons which fom port of the current. When the
current increoses, the rotio Vl decrease- resulting in o
decreose in its resistonce.
. The effect on rcsistonce due to the lorge incteose in the
number of mobile electrons (charge cctrriers) is much
more sionificont thon thot of the increose in otomic
vibrotion.
. Hence the overoll resistance decreoses.

(dl Diode A p-n iunction diode is a semiconductor which allows

current to pass easily in one direction, but not in the

fp opposite direction. 5o, its resistance changes with the

current direction. This special property makes it usefLrl
as a rectifier for changing a.c. to d.c.
lf the: p.d. is applied in the direction where current
flows, it is said to be fuMlllhbfCd. A silicon diode
requires a p.d. around LZ_y to conduct.
Once the applaed p.d, is above 0,7 V, the current rises
very quickly with the p.d., and the diode has very !!!a!!
resistance.
voltage lf the p.d. is applied in the oppodte direction as
forward-biased direction flows, it is said to be IgyglgqbiggClL almost
{=200V) voltage
lglq current flowt and the diode has very higb
resistance.
lf reverse-biased p.d. is too high {= 200 V), the diode
may h&a-k_-dpw! and the current becomes infinite,
resulting in a short circuit.

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lnternal Resistance

ln practice, some of the electrical energy in emf sources is dissipated within the source due to
internal resistance ofthe source itself.

Unless specifically stated, internal resistance is considered to be neSligible when solving

quantitative questions.

Terminal p.d. is defined as (emf - p.d. across internalresistance)

Note: lnternal resistance is "activated" whenever a current flows through the emf source-
i.e. when no current flows through the emf source, there is no potential difference across
the internal resistance.

When the swltch is open, no current flows in the

circuit. Hence there is no p,d. across the internal
resistance,

ln this situat ion, reading on the voltmeter is not zero!

Instead,
trl
Question: Across which two points in the above circuit will the voltmeter reading be zero?
(Refer to examples on next page)

Maximum PowerTheorem (no need to derive -iust have to recall and applythis theorem)

The theorem states that the maximum power is delivered to the load when the resistance of
the load (R) is equal to the internal resistance of the source (r).

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More circuiis

Since no current flows in the circuit, there is !q

potential difference across the 2.5 O resistor.

Voltmeterreading=0V

Voltmeterreading=6V

Since no current flows in the circuit, there is !q

potential difference across the internal resistance-

Voltmeterreading=6V

Question: What are the respectiv€ voltmeter readings when the switch is closed instead?

(Answer:5V0V,5V)